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Diaspo a S udies
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Diaspo as and con lic s – unde s anding he nexus
Élise Fé on & B uno Le o
To ci e his a icle: Élise Fé on & B uno Le o (2019) Diaspo as and con lic s – unde s anding he
nexus, Diaspo a S udies, 12:1, 34-51, DOI: 10.1080/09739572.2018.1538687
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09739572.2018.1538687
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
Published online: 25 Oc 2018.
Submi you a icle o his jou nal
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Diaspo as and conflic s –unde s anding he nexus
Élise Fé on and B uno Le o
Facul y o Social Sciences, Tampe e Peace Resea ch Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland
ABSTRACT
A lo o li e a u e has been published du ing he pas wo decades
highligh ing he ole played by some diaspo as in he conflic s
aging in hei home coun ies, and on he links be ween
diaspo as and ‘in e na ional e o ism’. Diaspo as, especially hose
o igina ing om conflic a eas, a e o en depic ed in policy ci cles
as po en ial secu i y h ea s, aising indisc imina e suspicion
owa ds diaspo as in gene al. Con empo a y li e a u e simila ly
ea s he links be ween diaspo as and conflic s in a a he
simplis ic way. Li le ime is o ins ance dedica ed o
unde s anding how diaspo as migh eme ge and coalesce a ound
conflic s long a e he mig a ion has occu ed. The a icle, based
on a c i ical examina ion o how diaspo as o igina ing om
conflic a eas ha e been desc ibed and defined in he academic
li e a u e, p oposes an al e na i e unde s anding o he nexus
be ween diaspo as and conflic s. I no ably highligh s he
limi a ions and pi alls o an app oach based on single-issue
labels, which en ails he essen ializa ion o conce ned g oups, and
which pe pe ua es me hodological na ionalism. The a icle ins ead
p oposes o unde s and he mechanisms by which diaspo as
become in ol ed in conflic s by looking a a se ies o
configu a ions, which can happen a specific empo ali ies (c i ical
junc u es, c ises, e c.), in specific spaces, by specific ac o s, and
h ough specific discu si e a icula ions (how iden i ies a e
assigned, which discou ses on diaspo a a e p oduced, e c.). A he
p ac ical le el, his en ails he s udy, o ins ance, o con en ious
spaces whe e diaspo as a e c ea ed, o which diaspo as c ea e,
bu also o con en ious e en s o ime junc u es a which he
a icula ion be ween conflic s and diaspo a g oups is effec ed.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 18 Ap il 2018
Accep ed 1 Oc obe 2018
KEYWORDS
Diaspo as; conflic s;
secu i iza ion;
me hodological na ionalism
In oduc ion
A lo o li e a u e has been published du ing he pas wo decades highligh ing he ole
played by some diaspo as in he conflic s aging in hei home coun ies, and on he
links be ween diaspo as and ‘in e na ional e o ism’. The s udy o he ela ions
be ween diaspo as and conflic s o en ollows a secu i iza ion ope which no ably pu s
he s ess on majo financial flows ha ansi , some imes illegally, om coun ies o
se lemen o conflic a eas, and ha und ebel mo emen s, comba an s, ammuni ions,
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way.
CONTACT Élise Fé on Elise.Fe on@u a.fiFacul y o Social Sciences, Tampe e Peace Resea ch Ins i u e, Uni e si y o
Tampe e, Tampe e 33014, Finland
DIASPORA STUDIES
2019, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 34–51
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09739572.2018.1538687
and so on (among many o he s, Collie and Hoeffle 2000; Ho s 2008; Lyons 2007; Shain
and Ba h 2003). Diaspo a g oups o igina ing om conflic a eas a e also suspec ed o
‘impo ing’ hese conflic s in hei coun ies o esidence, and o o ganizing des abilizing
ac i i ies h ough ansna ional unde g ound ne wo ks. In hese discou ses, diaspo as
coming om conflic zones a e depic ed as po en ial secu i y h ea s, aising indisc imi-
na e suspicion owa ds en i e communi ies (Sheffe 1994). F om he dange s o e o ism
o he isks o indigenous cul u al cohesion and adi ions, along wi h images o impo ed
conflic s, diaspo as ha e been secu i ized poli ically and cul u ally. This secu i iza ion
ope is no ably ed by, and eeds in o, xenophobic discou ses abou mig an s, in
Eu ope and elsewhe e (Lucassen 2005).
Diaspo as’secu i iza ion is also pa ly due o a na ow unde s anding o who hese dia-
spo a communi ies a e, and o how hey mobilize. A en ion is ocused on diaspo as om
de eloping coun ies, while diaspo as om de eloped Wes e n coun ies a e a ely
ega ded as being p oblema ic o des abilizing, o as ca ying he same le el o h ea as
hose o igina ing om non-Wes e n socie ies, e en hough hey also engage in home-
land-o ien ed poli ical ac ion. Fu he , hese na a i es o en ocus upon ela i ely small
elemen s wi hin diaspo a communi ies, which a e some imes aken o epi omize a sub-
s an ially b oade spec um o opinion. Na a i es on he mos isible, o ganized and
mobilized sec ions o diaspo a g oups hus end o obscu e mo e disc e e diaspo a
g oups and o e shadow di e se ypes o mobiliza ion.
In pa allel, o he s udies ha e shown ha a significan numbe o diaspo a ac o s pa -
icipa e in peace building and in conflic esolu ion ac i i ies in hei coun ies o o igin as
well (Smi h and S a es 2007; Øs e gaa d-Nielsen 2006). Diaspo as o igina ing om
conflic a eas ha e also been shown o pa icipa e in pos -conflic s abiliza ion and de el-
opmen plans, and mul iple policy schemes ha e been se up o ha ness hei good will
(Fé on 2014; Ho s e al. 2010). In ce ain cases such as he one o he I ish Ame icans,
diaspo as’backing ‘ o peace’has been much mo e significan han hei con ibu ions
o conflic ac i i ies ‘back home’, bu has a ac ed much less media, policy and academic
a en ion (Coch ane, Base , and Swain 2009).
All in all, whe he i is o highligh hei cons uc i e o des uc i e impac on conflic s in
hei coun ies o o igin, o hei in ol emen in ‘in e na ional e o ism’, diaspo as o ig-
ina ing om conflic a eas a e ypically depic ed as po en ial peacemake s and/o peace
w ecke s. These wo complemen a y app oaches, which sha e a ocus on he di ec ways
diaspo a g oups impac he dynamics o peace and wa in hei homelands, ha e been
dominan in he li e a u e a he expense o mo e nuanced explo a ions o he complex
links exis ing be ween diaspo ic communi ies and conflic s. Li le ime is o ins ance dedi-
ca ed o comp ehend how conflic s migh affec diaspo as, and e en shape hem, o why
diaspo as can become in ol ed in conflic s happening in coun ies om which hey do
no o igina e. This limi ed unde s anding o he diaspo a-conflic nexus, his a icle
a gues, no ably de i es om he endency o assign homogeneous and s able iden i ies
o diaspo a g oups, which a e mos ly defined by hei (assumed o eal) o igins.
In his pe spec i e, he a icle c i ically examines exis ing defini ions o he concep o
diaspo a, and p o ides an o e iew o how diaspo as o igina ing om conflic a eas ha e
been desc ibed and defined in he academic li e a u e. In doing so, i in ends o con ibu e
o a e ised, mo e complex unde s anding o he diaspo a-conflic nexus, eed om he
sho comings o he peace-make s/peace-w ecke s al e na i e, and hus o p o ide
DIASPORA STUDIES 35
a enues o esea ch and policy making owa ds de-secu i ized, fluidified isions o dia-
spo as. The a icle lays down his cen al con ibu ion in he ollowing manne . Fi s , i
shows how exis ing concep s and app oaches ul ima ely ail o desc ibe and cap u e he
complexi y o ela ions and in e ac ions s emming om he diaspo a-conflic nexus. I
hen discusses he me hodological and epis emological limi s o hese app oaches, and
a gues ha hey ul ima ely lead o an analy ical impasse. I no ably highligh s he pi alls
o an app oach based on single-issue labels, which en ails he essen ializa ion o conce ned
g oups, and which pe pe ua es me hodological na ionalism. Ins ead, he a icle p oposes
o unde s and he diaspo as-conflic nexus as a se ies o configu a ions, in which ac o s
such as diaspo as hemsel es, ins i u ions o indi iduals in coun ies o o igin o in
coun ies o se lemen , as well as ansna ional ac o s, can all play a decisi e ole. A
he p ac ical le el, his en ails he s udy, o ins ance, o con en ious spaces whe e dia-
spo as a e c ea ed, o which diaspo as c ea e, bu also o con en ious e en s o ime junc-
u es a which he a icula ion be ween conflic s and diaspo a g oups is effec ed.
Acknowledging he complexi y o he diaspo a-conflic nexus
O iginally e e ing o he dispe sion o Jewish people, he wo d ‘diaspo a’has gained con-
side able cu ency o he poin ha ‘[i]n e e yday language, he e m is now applied o all
o ms o mig a ion and dispe sion o a people’(B uneau 2010, 35). Simila ly, since he end
o he 1980s, he no ion has gene a ed mul iple defini ions and endless deba es wi hin he
academic wo ld. While some ha e insis ed on a defini ion o diaspo a g ounded on he
exis ence o a olun a y o in olun a y dispe sion om a my hicized homeland, nou ish-
ing a oubled ela ionship wi h he coun y o se lemen (see e.g. Sa an 1991,83–84),
o he ha e unde sco ed he impo ance o p ocesses o collec i e iden ifica ion and mobil-
iza ion, ‘ h ough a de eloped in e nal o ganiza ional amewo k and ansna ional links’
(Adamson and Deme iou 2007, 497). Acco ding o Pnina We bne (2002, 121) ‘Dia-
spo as need o be g asped as de e i o ialised imagined communi ies which concei e o
hemsel es, despi e hei dispe sal, as sha ing a collec i e pas and common des iny,
and hence also a simul anei y in ime’. Diaspo as, she adds, a e ‘chao dic’(123),
wi hou a common guiding s uc u e, ye i emains impo an o ecognize ha hey
a e s ill somehow a ached o hei coun ies o o igin and/o o specific my hs and mem-
o ies abou ha place. Diaspo a is also o be unde s ood as a pe o ma i e concep :
naming a g oup diaspo a e ases he no ion o dispe sion a he hea o he diaspo ic
o m and makes i appea as a single objec (Ma Mung 2007, 413). In an a emp o
p o ide an o e all defini ion, S e en Ve o ec (1997) a gues ha he concep o diaspo a
e e s a he same ime o a social o m c ea ed by he sca e ing, displacemen o a popu-
la ion, a o m o social iden ifica ion, and a mode o cul u al exp ession. The mul ipli-
ca ion o hese discussions abou he na u e o diaspo as has led o a conside able
deg ee o concep s e ching, and o g ea con usion as o wha diaspo as a e (B ubake
2005). Ye , ul ima ely, he s eng h o he no ion is less o desc ibe one eali y han i s
abili y o ques ion he polymo phism o con empo a y socie ies (Ma Mung 2007, 412–
413). P ecisely because o i s abili y o ques ion he complexi y o human socie ies, he
no ion o diaspo a emains use ul. The mul iple uses o he no ion do no impede i s
efficiency, on he con a y, hey enable o always enew ou explo a ion o social o ms
(415).
36 É. FÉRON AND B. LEFORT
Ul ima ely, complexi y lies a he hea o he no ion o diaspo a. This complexi y e e s
a he same ime o he dis inc ion be ween a ious o ms o spa ial dispe sions and ans-
na ional communi ies, bu also o he plu alism p e ailing in each o hem, i.e. hei
in e nal complexi y. Be o e in oducing he di e si y o o ms ha diaspo ic communi ies
may ake, i is impo an o no e he dis inc ion be ween diaspo a and ansna ionalism,
wo concep s ha a e a he cen e o con empo a y academic and public discussions
(Baubök and Fais 2010, 12). While hey o igina e in spa ial mobili y ac oss e i o ies, dia-
spo as only cons i u e one ype o ansna ional communi ies among o he s, which
includes a ious mig a ion, ansbo de o nomadic mo emen s. Indeed, i ‘ ansna ional
communi ies encompass diaspo as (…) no all ansna ional communi ies a e diaspo as’
(21). Beyond his necessa y dis inc ion wi h ansna ional popula ions, diaspo ic commu-
ni ies also p esen a mul iplici y o o ms. Spa ially, i is possible o diffe en ia e be ween
con iguous and dis an diaspo as. The o me a e cons i u ed by popula ions sp ead
be ween neighbo ing coun ies whe eas he la e , as hei name indica e, esul om
mo e dis an se lemen . Ob iously, he diaspo ic expe iences o hese communi ies
ela e o dis inc i e eali ies. Mo eo e , some diaspo as a e dispe sed in a mul i ude o
coun ies while o he s a e concen a ed in one o ew places o se lemen . Diaspo as
also diffe in hei his o ies and o ganiza ional s uc u es. D awing on hese a ia ions,
Michel B uneau (2010,39–40) ske ches ou ideal ypes o diaspo ic communi ies,
depending on hei cons uc ion a ound an en ep eneu pole (wi h he examples o he
Indians, Chinese o Lebanese diaspo as), a eligious pole (e.g. Jewish, G eek o A menian
diaspo as), a poli ical pole (e.g. he Pales inian diaspo a) o a acial-cul u al pole (e.g. he
Black diaspo a).
Aside om hese o mal and his o ical a ia ions, all diaspo as also p esen a high
deg ee o in e nal complexi y. Beyond he diffe ences be ween diaspo as, he plu ali y
exis ing among each o hem has also o be acknowledged. Indeed, i is ob ious ha no
diaspo a is homogeneous, o he poin ha i appea s o en misleading o designa e
hem as ‘a’g oup. The cases o agmen ed communi ies along sec a ian o e hnic lines
p o ide a s ong illus a ion o his complexi y (e.g. Rwandan diaspo a di ided be ween
Hu us and Tu sis, e c.). The mul iple gene a ional laye s ha g adually composed diaspo a
g oups ha e also o be aken in o accoun , all he mo e since hese successi e wa es migh
ha e been gene a ed by diffe en causes. Mo eo e , he spa ial and empo al con ex s play
a key pa in he cons uc ion o diaspo ic communi ies. The momen o he immig a ion
as well as he configu a ions o he hos socie ies bo h induce some diffe ences in he
expe iences o diaspo ic g oups e en i hey o igina e om he same homeland (e.g. Hum-
ph ey (1998, 136) sugges s ha sec a ian bounda ies among he Lebanese diaspo a o he
1980s appea mo e salien in Aus alia han in Sou h Ame ica). Also, he main eason
gi en o mig a ion migh ‘hide’o he ac o s, o ins ance ‘conflic ’ eiling eligious o
e hnic ac o s, which may be as, o e en mo e impo an , o hese g oups. Finally, dia-
spo as a e no c ea ed au oma ically, hei cons i u ion is dependen upon specific
e en s o p ocesses. The case o he O oman diaspo a g oups ‘becoming’Pales inians,
Lebanese o Sy ians ollowing he disman lemen o he O oman Empi e and he
conflic s ha ollowed p o ides a clea illus a ion o his complex in e dependency
be ween diaspo a and poli ical p ocesses.
Because o he complex na u e o diaspo as, hei defini ion yields se ious difficul ies.
These complica ions u he inc ease when one wan s o s udy he links be ween diaspo as
DIASPORA STUDIES 37

and conflic s. As diaspo ic g oups a e mul iple and in e nally he e ogeneous, conflic s a e
likewise in ica e p ocesses ha can be dis inguished acco ding o hei ypes, s ages o
dimensions. The in e ela ions be ween conflic configu a ions and he o ma ion o
mobiliza ion o diaspo as a e he e o e mul i ace ed. The commonplace idea o conflic
as he cause o diaspo a o ma ion and a sha ed he i age (a leas in e ms o ansmi ed
memo y) among a specific diaspo ic g oup does ce ainly no cap u e he plu al eali ies o
diaspo a expe iences. Among he concep s c a ed o unde s and he links be ween dia-
spo ic g oups and conflic , he classic idea o ‘ ic im diaspo a’eme ges in he fi s
effo s o popula ize diaspo a s udies. This no ion does no make jus ice o he mul iplici y
o linkages be ween mig a ion and iolence. I excludes o ins ance he possibili y ha
hose who ha e fled hei coun y and es ablished ab oad migh no be only ‘ ic ims’
bu also coun among hem pe pe a o s o iolence as he example o Hu us wa c iminals
lea ing Rwanda a e he genocide illus a es. Besides, he idea o ‘ ic im diaspo a’ heo -
e ically also includes ic ims o non conflic - ela ed e en s such as na u al disas e s.
In he las 30 yea s o so, wo main concep s s i ing o cap u e he links be ween dia-
spo a and conflic ha e eme ged. The fi s no ion, coined ‘e hno-na ional diaspo as’by
Sheffe , emains e y b oad. Acco ding o him, ‘mode n e hno-na ional diaspo as a e
social and poli ical en i ies ha a ise om mig a ion (which may be olun a y o
imposed and usually om an e hno-na ional s a e o homeland) o one o mo e hos
coun ies’. Based on his defini ion, Sheffe a gues ha all diaspo as ha e a po en ial o
conflic . ‘Diaspo as o en c ea e ans-s a e ne wo ks ha pe mi and encou age exchanges
o significan esou ces, such as money, manpowe , poli ical suppo and cul u al
influence, wi h hei homelands as well as wi h o he pa s o he same diaspo a. This
c ea es a po en ial o conflic wi h bo h homelands and hos coun ies, which, in u n,
is linked wi h highly complex pa e ns o di ided and dual au ho i y and loyal y wi hin
diaspo as’(Sheffe 1994, 61). Howe e , he agueness o he concep is such ha i
could include mos , i no all, diaspo a g oups. I misleads o conside ha diaspo as
a e inhe en ly conflic ual. The con usion is uelled by ideas o dual loyal y o long-dis ance
na ionalism, which emain unques ioned. No hing is said o ins ance abou he configu -
a ions in which dual loyal y may lead o conflic . In he ligh o hese limi a ions, he
concep o conflic -gene a ed diaspo as has eme ged as a mo e ecen al e na i e. I
ela es o ‘ne wo ks o hose o ced ac oss bo de s by conflic o ep ession’(Lyons
2007, 530). Al hough a guably mo e ocused han Sheffe ’s‘e hno-na ional diaspo a’,
he concep o conflic -gene a ed diaspo a is o en aken o g an ed and seldom
ho oughly defined in he exis ing li e a u e. The limi a ions o he concep led o he
adop ion o a mo e nuanced app oach by Ma ia Koino a e al. (2018) pu ing he s ess
on spa iali ies and empo ali ies o diaspo a engagemen , and demons a ing he co-con-
s uc ion pa e ns be ween diaspo as and he con ex in which hey mobilize. Howe e ,
his app oach does no explici ly ques ion he concep o conflic -gene a ed diaspo as
i sel , lea ing he ull implica ions o he no ion unde explo ed.
Loca ed a he nexus be ween mig a ion and peace and conflic s udies, he concep s o
e hno-na ional and conflic -gene a ed diaspo as y o accoun o bo h condi ions in
coun ies o o igin, and con ex in coun ies o se lemen . Howe e e y ew empi ical
s udies building on hese concep s p opose o accoun o bo h pe spec i es, and diaspo a
g oups a e o en s udied ei he om he pe spec i e o in eg a ion in he coun ies o
se lemen , o om he pe spec i e o he conflic s aging in hei coun ies o o igin
38 É. FÉRON AND B. LEFORT
(and hen conside hem as ei he peace w ecke s o peace make s). Meanwhile, diaspo as
ha e become he ocus o secu i y and secu i iza ion s udies, in he wake o Jihadi a acks
in Wes e n coun ies. Secu i y discou ses oiced by poli icians, media and commen a o s
alike ha e paid pa icula a en ion o he so-called ‘Muslim Diaspo a’, assumed o ca y a
high po en ial o in ol emen in iolen ac ions. Acco ding o hese discou ses, he
‘Umma’ eplaces he homeland as a igge o pa icipa ion in conflic s. One o he pa a-
doxes ha hese ecen s udies ha e highligh ed is ha diaspo a membe s in ol ed in
conflic s a e no always coming om wa - o n a eas, and ha he conflic s hey engage
in a e no necessa ily occu ing in hei own coun ies o o igin.
This calls o a en ion he ac ha all o he defini ions lis ed abo e assign s a ic –and
conflic - ela ed –iden i ies o diaspo a g oups, when he eali y o hei ela ions o
conflic is much mo e complex. The e is an u gen need o s ee away om hese
defini ions ha ocus on he g oup i sel and o look a he configu a ions in which
hey migh become in ol ed in conflic s, and o pay mo e a en ion a how conflic s
migh shape hem, ega dless o whe e hey come om.
App oaching he diaspo a-conflic nexus beyond educ ionism
Because i s defini ions end o ocus p ima ily on g oup iden i ies, he concep s o
e hno-na ional diaspo as, o o conflic -gene a ed diaspo as aise e hical, me hodological
as well as analy ical ques ions. Fi s , like o all diaspo a g oups, he emphasis pu on
e hno-na ional iden i ies en ails e hical conce ns. The choice o insis ing on asc ip i e
iden i ies ends o o e look he in e nal di e si y and plu ali y among diaspo a
g oups and highligh s he e e ence o an ‘o iginal’o pu e iden i y o cul u e ha
people could no escape. Mo eo e , he concep s o e hno-na ional o conflic -gene a ed
diaspo as a e specifically p oblema ic as hey suppose o define popula ions on he basis
o he conflic hey ha e fled. This sugges s ha hey a e (po en ial) conflic ac o s, and
d aws addi ional suspicion on hem, o e looking he ac ha in many ins ances, hey
migh jus ha e fled a conflic ough by o he s as well as he ac ha he mig a ion
o all he membe s o a gi en diaspo a labelled as ‘conflic -gene a ed’migh no ha e
been igge ed by he conflic . Indeed, successi e mig a ion wa es can be gene a ed
by a g ea a ie y o causes, as show he examples o he Lebanese o A menian dia-
spo as. The dominance o secu i y discou ses ega ding diaspo as in gene al and
conflic -gene a ed mig a ion in pa icula ends o posi ha hei e y exis ence gene -
a es a h ea o he s abili y o hei hos lands. Conside ing diaspo a unde he ‘secu i y
h ea ’p ism c iminalizes en i e g oups, on he single basis ha hey belong o a gi en
communal/ eligious/na ional backg ound. These ends also echo he con empo a y
con o e sies on a supposed double allegiance o people o g oups o igina ing in
ano he coun y. This ision endo ses wha could be called a hie a chy o iden i ies,
whe eby people belonging o wha ha e been iden ified as isk g oups a e being
o de ed o ‘choose’and/o ‘ easse ’ hei loyal y o hei hos land (as illus a ed o
ins ance in he public deba es s igma izing Muslims in F ance). Beside hei xenophobic
o e ones, hese discussions igno e he ac ha no only e e ybody ca ies plu al iden-
i ies bu also ha hese mul iple ace s ope a e mo e as an e olu i e, in e connec ed
a angemen han in a p edefined hie a chical o de .
This insis ence on o igins is also e hically p oblema ic because,
DIASPORA STUDIES 39
i ancho s he wo k o he diaspo an schola in he obse a ion o g oups, a he han in he
dynamic social p ocesses o diaspo iza ion om which hese g oups a e c ea ed. The e is also
a isk o mo ing owa ds essen ializing “diaspo a”as an e hnic label a he han a amewo k
o analysis. (Bu le 2001, 193)
In ha pe spec i e, he asc ip ion and homogeniza ion o people behind e hno-na ional
labels o conflic -gene a ed diaspo a can be assimila ed o a o m o epis emological io-
lence (Shi a 1988) whe eby esea che s exe cise iolence o e hei objec as he ‘O he ’is
in e p e ed acco ding o educ ionis pe cep ions ha ep esen g oups as homogeneous.
Homogeniza ion is, as Spi ak eminds us, social and poli ical con ol exe cised by hege-
monic oices (Spi ak 1990, 61). The case o he I ish diaspo a in he US is an in e es ing
illus a ion o his endency, since i s p o es an componen , hough making up he
majo i y, is o ally o e looked in ep esen a ions assuming ha ‘I ish-Ame ica’is suppo -
ing he eunifica ion o I eland. O cou se, his is no o mean ha he no ion o diaspo a is
i sel a o m o epis emological iolence. Bu he defini ion o a g oup o people in e ms o
asc ip i e iden i ies as well as unde he single qualifica ion o conflic -gene a ed is. Taking
some dis ance is-à- is p ima y iden i y conflic s is all he mo e significan since diaspo as
no always d eam o e u n o a po en ial homeland. This insis ence on homeland o igins
and e u n is, acco ding o S ua Hall, a na ow-minded unde s anding o diaspo as,
sugges ing ha hey belong o a ‘genuine’cul u e o which hey ha e o go back (1995,
206). On he con a y, diaspo a ‘aims o accoun o hyb idi y o pe o ma i i y ha ou-
bles such no ions o cul u al dominance, loca ion and iden i y’(Is ael 2000, 3).
Second, hese epis emological conside a ions highligh me hodological sho comings.
The choice o emphasizing asc ip i e iden i ies, whe he na ional, e hnic o eligious,
may well poin owa d he pe sis ence, unde a new ou fi , o me hodological na ionalism.
The e m ‘me hodological na ionalism’has been mos ly discussed in he field o Mig a ion
S udies. I o iginally e e s o ‘an ideological o ien a ion ha app oaches he s udy o social
and his o ical p ocesses as i hey we e con ained wi hin he bo de s o indi idual na ion-
s a e’. This endency led o he assump ion ha ci izens o a same s a e would sha e a
mu ual his o y and a same cul u e (Glick Schille 2009, 4). While he ansna ional dimen-
sion o social p ocesses has been mo e and mo e se iously in eg a ed wi hin social heo y
(e.g. Beck 2000; Hanne z 1996; La ou 2004), i emains ha he analy ical ocus pu on
p ima y iden i ies by he concep o conflic -gene a ed diaspo as ends o ci cumsc ibe
he s udy o diaspo a g oups unde a na ionalis / e hnicis / sec a ianis amewo k and
makes explo a i e in es iga ions beyond his amewo k mo e difficul . As Nina Glick
Schille (2009, 5) pu s i , he endency o,
bound (…) uni o s udy along he lines o na ional o e hnic iden i ies (…) isola e[s] he
analysis o mig an local and ansbo de connec ions bo h om explo a ions o he new
flexible modes o capi al accumula ion and con empo a y neolibe al es uc u ing o
space, sel , and socie y (…). The end esul is ha he uni o analysis –o en desc ibed as
a“ ansna ional communi y”–becomes a mig a ing popula ion defined and delimi ed by
communal cul u al iden i ies.
This is all he mo e p oblema ic ha many membe s o diaspo a g oups o igina e om
a eas whe e na ional bo de s a e fluid, and whose exis ence is shaped by ansna ionalism
oo, such as in he G ea Lakes Region o A ica, o in he ibal a eas o A ghanis an and
Pakis an. Simila ly, he dominan app oach on diaspo a g oups is ma ked by essen ialism
40 É. FÉRON AND B. LEFORT
(Ragazzi 2009, 383). S udies o ‘conflic -gene a ed diaspo as’ha e p i ileged p ima y
iden i ies as uni s o analysis and ha e insis ed on ‘long-dis ance na ionalism’(Ande son
1993), e hnic o communal cohesions as a way o explain he in e en ion o diaspo a
g oups in homeland conflic s as well as he ansposi ion o hese conflic s o hei home-
land. This ‘neo-communau a is ’ end in ansna ional s udies elies on a ‘biological ima-
gina y’(Glick Schille 2005, 303), and ep oduces he iew o a wo ld di ided along
bloodlines in cohesi e na ional o cul u al en i ies (Wimme and Schille 2002, 324). I
also hampe s he abili y o analy ical and concep ual ools o ecognize he he e ogenei y
o diaspo ic g oups as well as he plu ali y o he o ces a wo k in local configu a ions wi h
enough p ecision. In o he wo ds, he e a e mul iple ways o belonging. Assuming com-
munal solida i y and bounda ies among diaspo a membe s as well as be ween hem and
hei homeland does no allow us o g asp he complexi y and e sa ili y o he in e play
be ween diaspo a g oups and dynamics o peace and conflic . Such an app oach also o e -
looks he nume ous cases whe e he e is no one bu mul iple e sions o na ionalism in
he coun y o o igin.
Me hodologically, he p oblem also s ems om he ac ha mos o en, he concep s o
e hno-na ional o conflic -gene a ed diaspo a suppose mo e han demons a e he exis -
ence o con en ious ela ions be ween diaspo a g oups, also called ‘impo ed’o ‘ ans-
po ed’conflic s. These conflic ing dynamics a e assumed o be based on he exis ence
(o pas exis ence) o conflic in homeland(s) wi hou sufficien a en ion pu on desc ibing
he empi ical eali y o hese ela ions: he po en ial peace making s. peace w ecking oles
o diaspo as ha e been much s udied, bu he e a e a less nume ous de ailed analyses o
he ac ual consequences o conflic in hos land local con ex s (Base 2015, 8). Agains he
idea o a mechanical impo a ion o conflic s, he no ion o au onomiza ion (Fé on 2013)
is o p ima y impo ance as i igh ully poin s owa d he complexi y o he links as well as
he pi o al ole o local configu a ions o unde s and he de elopmen o con en ious o
peace ul dynamics among diaspo a g oups (Base 2015). I he e is undoub edly
‘impo ed’elemen s in he ex ension o homeland conflic s in he hos lands, ‘ anspo ed
conflic be ween diaspo a g oups akes on diffe en ea u es and dimensions han i does in
he coun y o o igin’(Fé on 2013, 71): anspo a ion en ails deep changes in he s uc-
u es, dynamics and e en na a i es o he conflic . Displacemen o conflic supposes i s
einsc ip ion in o ‘ano he con ex wi h a diffe en se o oppo uni ies and limi a ions’.
(Base 2015, 256) The impac o displacemen as well as he well-es ablished idea ha
iden i ies and cul u al p ac ices a e cons uc ed in in e ac ions in local and ela ional se -
ings highligh he me hodological cul-de-sac o aking p ima y iden i ies as he analy ical
s a ing poin . Conflic s in he homeland a e c ucial o he exis ence o diaspo as (Bauböck
2008, 3), and as long as conflic will exis in he homeland, i will be el by (and impac he
o ma ion o ) communi ies ab oad (Base 2015, 268). Howe e , i should no mislead us
owa d essen ialis app oaches.
Pa ly as a eac ion agains his isk o essen ializa ion, he las decade has wi nessed he
eme gence o a mobiliza ion app oach in diaspo a s udies (see e.g. Adamson 2012; Lyons
2007; Øs e gaa d-Nielsen 2012). Defining diaspo as as he esul , no he cause o mobil-
iza ions (Adamson 2012, 26) his app oach enables o shi he ocus om p imo dial
iden i ies owa d social and poli ical dynamics. In ha pe spec i e, diaspo as a e he
p oduc o mobiliza ions inspi ed by poli ical en ep eneu s. This social mo emen ame-
wo k allows o pay a en ion o he p ocesses o poli ical mobiliza ion ha c ea e diaspo as
DIASPORA STUDIES 41
appeal o diaspo as. In e ne in pa icula has been iden ified as one o he main loca ions
whe e conflic s and diaspo as mee . The cybe space acili a es und aising, bu also p o-
paganda ac i i ies, and mobiliza ion beyond he s ic diaspo as’bounda ies. Some dia-
spo as’mobiliza ions exis mos ly a he digi al le el (B inke hoff2009), and In e ne
has been shown o no only change diaspo as’discou ses, bu also o help hem o e come
he issue o ep esen a ion and accoun abili y. In pa allel, i has also c ea ed clea ages
be ween diffe en sec ions o he diaspo as, be ween hose se led in he neighbo ing
coun ies and hose se led u he away, and be ween hose wi h diffe en educa ional
le els, wi h mo e o less easy access o new echnologies, as well as be ween gene a ions.
Paying a en ion o issues o scale, and o sphe es o engagemen , also means keeping in
mind he diffe ences ha migh a ise be ween he mobiliza ion and in ol emen o ‘con-
iguous’and ‘dis an ’diaspo as (Van Hea and Cohen 2017). Thus, pee ing mo e closely a
he con en ious spaces whe e diaspo as a e c ea ed, o which diaspo as c ea e, is a help ul
way o unde s and i , when and how e hno-na ional iden i ies a e pe o med in he ans-
na ional a ena.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial conflic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho s.
No es on con ibu o s
Élise Fé on is a senio esea che a he Tampe e Peace Resea ch Ins i u e (TAPRI), Tampe e Uni-
e si y. He esea ch in e es s include conflic -gene a ed diaspo a poli ics, and gende and conflic s.
B uno Le o is an Academy o Finland pos doc o al ellow a he Tampe e Peace Resea ch Ins i u e
(TAPRI), Tampe e Uni e si y. His esea ch in e es s include he poli ics o iden ifica ion and
memo y in he Middle Eas and among diaspo ic communi ies.
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DIASPORA STUDIES 51