Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a
h p://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode= ady20
In e na ional Jou nal o Adolescence and You h
ISSN: 0267-3843 (P in ) 2164-4527 (Online) Jou nal homepage: h p://www. and online.com/loi/ ady20
A compa ison o pe sonali y ma u i y among
Japanese you h and Finnish young adul s uden s:
a c oss-sec ional s udy using E ikson psychosocial
s age in en o y and sense o cohe ence scale
Hi oe Niiyama, I ene Kon kanen, Eija Paa ilainen & Kiyoko Kamibeppu
To ci e his a icle: Hi oe Niiyama, I ene Kon kanen, Eija Paa ilainen & Kiyoko Kamibeppu
(2018) A compa ison o pe sonali y ma u i y among Japanese you h and Finnish young adul
s uden s: a c oss-sec ional s udy using E ikson psychosocial s age in en o y and sense
o cohe ence scale, In e na ional Jou nal o Adolescence and You h, 23:4, 482-495, DOI:
10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup.
Published online: 07 Feb 2018.
Submi you a icle o his jou nal
A icle iews: 690
View C ossma k da a
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/02673843.2018.1435418
A compa ison o pe sonali y ma u i y among Japanese you h
and Finnish young adul s uden s: a c oss-sec ional s udy using
E ikson psychosocial s age in en o y and sense o cohe ence
scale
Hi oeNiiyamaa, I eneKon kanenb, EijaPaa ilainenc and KiyokoKamibeppua
aschool o In eg a ed heal h sciences, okyo uni e si y, okyo, Japan; b acul y o nu sing, lau ea uni e si y o
applied sciences, espoo, inland; cschool o heal h sciences, uni e si y o ampe e, ampe e, inland
ABSTRACT
Objec i e: This s udy aimed o cla i y he child- ea ing imp o emen
app oach in Japan by e alua ing he ‘Pe sonali y Ma u i y’ o Japanese
you h and Finnish young adul s uden s. Me hods: The c oss-sec ional su ey
was ca ied ou on he In e ne wi h you h aged 18–25 using he E ikson
Psychosocial S age In en o y (EPSI) and Sense o Cohe ence (SOC) scales. In
o al, 865 Japanese you h we e ec ui ed om GMO-Resea ch Moni o s and
898 Finnish young adul s uden s we e ec ui ed om Tampe e Uni e si y;
762 Japanese you h and 896 Finnish young adul s uden s esponded o
all 13 SOC and 42 EPSI ques ions. Resul s: Mean o al and subscale sco es
o Japanese you h we e lowe han hose o Finnish young adul s uden s
o bo h EPSI and SOC. We ound a s ong, nega i e co ela ion ( =−.685)
in Japan and a s ong, posi i e co ela ion in Finland ( =.831) be ween
o al EPSI and SOC sco es. Conclusions: Japanese you h showed s onge
de elopmen o ei he EPSI o SOC.
In oduc ion
The social esponse o he declining Japanese bi h a e and apidly aging popula ion is o in e na ional
conce n. In he beginning o he wen y- i s cen u y, low mo ale o Japanese you h was iewed as a
p oblem (Miyaha a e al., 2001), and he Japan Child and Family Resea ch Ins i u e (JCFRI) conduc ed
esea ch in 2001 wi h a hypo hesis ha a delay in he ma u i y o Japanese you h may ha e had some
signi icance as a backg ound o he alling bi h a e (Miyaha a e al., 2002, 2005; Miyaha a, Sai o, Takei,
Uchiyama, & Hoshiyama, 2003; Miyaha a e al., 2004; Sai o & Miyaha a, 2004). In 2006, he issue was
discussed as a se ious p oblem a he Cen al Council o Educa ion o Japan, bu no clea solu ion has
been sugges ed o da e (Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e, Spo s, Science & Technology, 1998).
Japanese you h a e a a high s anda d in e ms o lea ning achie emen as measu ed by he P og am
o In e na ional S uden Assessmen (PISA), which has been long used in e na ionally as an indica o
o you h abili y (PISA, 2015). Thus, o in es iga e causes o he declining mo ale (Miyaha a e al., 2001;
Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e, Spo s, Science & Technology, 1998) in Japanese you h, new scales o
ARTICLE HISTORY
ecei ed 14 no embe 2017
accep ed29 Janua y 2018
KEYWORDS
Young adul ; pe sonali y
ma u i y; ePsI; soc; Japan;
inland
© 2018 he au ho (s). Published by In o ma uK limi ed, ading as aylo & ancis G oup.
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he c ea i e commons a ibu ion license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/),
which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
CONTACT hi oe niiyama [email p o ec ed]
his a icle was o iginally published wi h e o s. his e sion has been co ec ed. Please see co igendum (h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/
02673843.2018.1458468).
OPEN ACCESS
In e na Ional Jou nal o adolescence and You h
2018, Vol. 23, No. 4, 482–495
e alua ing capaci ies o he han lea ning achie emen ha e become necessa y. In his s udy, psycho-
logical and social de elopmen al changes in adul hood, which a e achie ed h ough he p ocess o
g owing up we e de ined as ‘Pe sonali y Ma u i y’ (PM), and his new concep was measu ed h ough
a new scale o e alua e young adul ’s capaci ies. PM is simila o non-cogni i e skills (mo i a ion, soci-
oemo ional ac o s, egula ion, ime p e e ence, pe sonali y ac o s, and he abili y o wo k wi h o he s;
Heckman, 2008) in e ms o being an impo an ac o in you h de elopmen e alua ion o he han
lea ning achie emen (Ba ne , 2011; Heckman, 2013). In his esea ch, PM is unde s ood o be a high-
e -o de concep  ha is p esen o he i s ime when desi able in ellec ual and physical de elopmen
o young people is achie ed.
Declining mo ale among Japanese you h is hough o ela e o unsuccess ul es ablishmen o
sel -iden i y, also known as E ikson’s iden i y di usion (Minis y o Heal h Labou Wel a e, 2016).
The e o e, he E ikson Psychosocial S age In en o y (EPSI) was adop ed o measu e his ac o (E ikson,
1956, 1982; Nobuo & Te suhiko, 2008; Rosen hal, Gu ney, & Moo e, 1981).
Sense o cohe ence (SOC) among adolescen s may a ec s ess and coping in much he same way
as is seen in adul s (E iksson & Linds öm, 2005; Vibeke Koushede & Hols ein, 2009). Rega ding SOC,
acco ding o ‘ he Su ey on he ac ual in es iga ion o Young People’s Employabili y’ by he Minis y o
Heal h, Labou and Wel a e in 2004, he a e o ea ly u no e o Japanese you h (de ined as lea ing a
job wi hin h ee yea s) is 50.3% o high school g adua es and 23.6 pe cen o hose aged 30yea s o
younge , which has isen ecen ly (Cabine O ice, 2004). I is specula ed ha one o he easons o his
is ha Japanese you h oday lack he abili y (Cabine O ice, 2004; To sheim & Aa oe, 2001) o deal wi h
complex (ad e se) si ua ions success ully; hus, he SOC ins umen was used as an index o measu e
his ac o (An ono sky, 1987; E iksson & Linds öm, 2005; Sai o, 2014).
The EPSI and SOC scale we e used simul aneously as indices o PM o enable complex and com-
p ehensi e e alua ion; he JCFRI has al eady used he EPSI and SOC scale simul aneously (Miyaha a
e al., 2004, 2005, 2006; Sai o e al., 2007, 2008). I is said ha because o a i icial in elligence and he
In e ne o Things (machine- o-machine communica ion), young people looking o employmen will
inc easingly encoun e inexpe ienced and complica ed si ua ions which hei pa en s o g andpa en s
did no expe ience. To manage hese si ua ions, hey will need o be equipped wi h en ep eneu ship
skills o hink and ac o hemsel es. I is specula ed ha , in young people, he highe he EPSI and
SOC sco es, he highe hei chances o mas e ing en ep eneu ship skills (Sai o, 2014).
The JCFRI conduc ed one s udy using he EPSI alone (Miyaha a e al., 2003) and h ee s udies com-
bining he EPSI and SOC scale (Sai o & Miyaha a, 2004; Sai o e al., 2007, 2008); hus, only ou ele an
s udies ha e used hese measu es in Japan. In e na ionally, only wo epo s ha e used he EPSI alone:
Galambos, Magill-E ans, and Da ah (2008); Rosen hal e al. (1981), in which iden i y achie emen in
you h igh ing ch onic diseases such as ce eb al palsy was in es iga ed.
No s udies e alua ed PM using he EPSI and SOC scale oge he . In an in e na ional compa ison o
Japanese you h, only one EPSI epo was ecognized and he e was no combina ion o SOC and EPSI
oge he (Saka a & Nakanishi, 1986).
In he su ey conduc ed by he JCFRI, he analysis had been mainly ocused on gene a i i y among
he eigh EPSI subscales; howe e , he e we e no s udies ha ocused on achie ing iden i y, especially
o he whole EPSI and all eigh subscales.
In a epo by he JCFRI in 2004 (Sai o & Miyaha a, 2004), 355 men and women aged 15–25yea s
we e in es iga ed. The Spea man co ela ion coe icien be ween EPSI and SOC scale was as high as
.729, and bo h sco es we e highe wi h age; hus, e alua ion o PM in you h combining he ESPI and
SOC scale seemed o be e ec i e. In an in e na ional compa ison, lowe sco es in you h in Japan we e
p edic ed compa ed o ha o Aus alia and Sou h Ko ea (Te suhiko & Nobuo, 1986).
In his s udy, o cla i y he new di ec ion o child- ea ing in Japan, i was necessa y i s o e alua e
he PM o he Japanese you h, who we e he ounda ion o he esea ch. The e o e, we decided o do
compa isons di e sely wi h in e na ionally epu ed coun ies ega ding child- ea ing.
To ensu e he e alua ion o Japanese you h in e ms o bo h lea ning achie emen and PM, I hough
i necessa y o selec coun ies acknowledged in e na ionally o hei pa en ing. Gi en ha hei you h
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 483
as well as educa ion sys em a e in e na ionally ecognized in e ms o academics, we selec ed Finland
as a compa ison coun y. In addi ion, Finland has a epu a ion o women’s social ad ancemen , which
has been la e o come o Japan; he e o e, in e es ing esul s can be expec ed (Khazan, 2009; The
Economis , 2015; Wo ld Economic Fo um, 2015).
To e alua e PM o Japanese you h mul ila e ally, EPSI and SOC scale we e used oge he . The aim
o his s udy was o e alua e PM o Japanese you h (18–25yea s old) measu ed by he EPSI and SOC
scale in compa ison o Finnish young adul s uden s o he same age.
Me hods
This su ey was conduc ed as a join p ojec be ween he Japanese eam (au ho and JCFRI) and he
Finnish eam (Tampe e Uni e si y).
Design and s udy popula ion
The subjec s (aged 18–25yea s old) we e ec ui ed om you h in Japan and om uni e si y s uden s
in Finland. The aim was o ec ui be ween 800 and 1000 pa icipan s.
Da a collec ion
The main c oss-sec ional su ey was ca ied ou o e he In e ne in Feb ua y 2014 in Japan and Finland.
The pa icipan s we e ec ui ed as ollows. In Japan, a pilo s udy was ca ied ou by e-mail wi h 2,100,000
GMO Resea ch moni o s who we e egis an s o a GMO in e ne esea ch company wi h a simple ques-
ionnai e abou amily membe s, hei age, cohabi ing amily membe s, and disabled amily membe s.
A o al o 5,000 applica ions om pa en s o pa icipa e in he su ey we e ecei ed. These pa en s we e
asked o adminis e he you h ques ionnai e wi h hei child en. In o al, 865 esponses, o a esponse
a e o 17.3%, om you h in o de o a i al we e ecei ed in he main su ey, o which da a o 762
Japanese you h we e analysed.
In Finland, he ques ionnai e was sen o 3,701 young adul s uden s o Tampe e Uni e si y. Tampe e
Uni e si y is one o 10 na ional uni e si ies in Finland and s uden s a Tampe e Uni e si y a e he eli e
among Finnish you h. Using he uni e si y’s in e ne acili y, da a we e analysed om 896 indi iduals
( esponse a e 24.2%), who answe ed all EPSI and SOC ques ions.
Measu emen s
The E ikson Psychosocial S age In en o y (EPSI) and Sense o Cohe ence (SOC) scale we e used as scales.
EPSI
The EPSI measu es how well esponden s ha e esol ed con lic s indica i e o E ikson’s s ages o psycho-
social de elopmen and is one o ew measu emen s ha e alua e he de elopmen o he pe sonali y
om young adul o adul . A ew s udies ha e used he EPSI, including o assess young adul s wi h
congeni al hea disease o a hea ansplan (Galambos e al., 2008; Mackie e al., 2016). In Japan, he
Nakanishi e sion o he EPSI wi h 56 ques ions and 8 subscales ( us , au onomy, ini ia i e, indus y,
iden i y, in imacy, gene a i i y, in eg i y) (Nobuo & Te suhiko, 2008) has been used, and in Finland, he
Rosen hal e sion o he EPSI wi h 72 ques ions and 6 subscales ( us , au onomy, ini ia i e, indus y,
iden i y, in imacy; dele ed gene a i i y, in eg i y om he Nakanishi Ve sion) and each subscale (s age)
(Rosen hal e al., 1981) has been used. I ems a e a ed on a 5-poin scale, anging om almos always
ue (5) o almos ne e ue (1). Fo example, (‘I am able o ake hings as hey come’ in au onomy,
and ‘I know wha kind o pe son I am’ in iden i y). Each subscale (s age) has i s own dis inc i e goal o
be a ained i ‘heal hy’ pe sonali y is o be achie ed and i a ises because a new dimension o social
484 H. NIIYAMA ET AL.
in e ac ion becomes possible wi h inc easing ma u i y. I he adolescen succeeds in o ming a s ong
iden i y oo ed in amily, ace, o ideology, hen genuine in imacy becomes possible along wi h s able
long- e m ela ionships (Rosen hal e al., 1981). The maximum possible sco e is 5 poin s because we used
he Pe sonal Mean Poin (PMP) o he EPSI ( he mean o each i em; ob ained by di iding he o al sco e
o 42 i ems by 42). These subscales ha e sa is ac o y cons uc alidi y and adequa e alpha eliabili y
coe icien s. The mean EPSI sco e in heal hy 20- o 30-yea -olds is 3.94±.44 (Galambos e al., 2008).
SOC scale
An ono sky’s heo y o sense o cohe ence included h ee co e componen s o comp ehensibili y, man-
ageabili y, and meaning ulness (An ono sky, 1987). A s ong pe son in SOC seeks a balance be ween
ules and s a egies, be ween s o ed and po en ial in o ma ion (An ono sky, 1987). A sho - o m o
he SOC scale wi h 13 i ems a ed on a 7-poin scale was used. I em 1 asks he ques ion, ‘Do you ha e
he eeling ha you don’ eally ca e abou wha goes on a ound you’? Response op ions anged om
e y seldom o ne e o e y o en (An ono sky, 1987; Miyaha a e al., 2006). These subscales ha e
sa is ac o y cons uc alidi y and adequa e alpha eliabili y coe icien s .84–.93 (An ono sky, 1987).
Language
Bo h he EPSI and SOC scale we e based on he English e sion. The Japanese eam used he Japanese
e sions o he EPSI and SOC scale (Miyaha a e al., 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006; Sai o e al., 2007, 2008,
2009; Sai o & Miyaha a, 2004) and he Finnish eam ansla ed he English e sions o he SOC scale
(E iksson & Linds öm, 2005) and EPSI (Rosen hal e al., 1981) in o Finnish.
S a is ical p ocedu es
In e ms o he EPSI’s, each o he 6 subscales is made up o 7 i ems which a e common o he Nakanishi
e sion (Nobuo & Te suhiko, 2008) and Rosen hal e sion (Rosen hal e al., 1981); hese we e used o
analysis. As o he SOC scale, 13 i ems we e used o analysis.
PMP we e calcula ed o he EPSI as a whole and o each o he 6 subscales. As o he SOC scale,
Pe sonal To al Sco e (PTS; he o al sco e o he ele an ques ion i em) means we e calcula ed o he
SOC scale as a whole and o each o he h ee subscales.
S a is ical analysis was conduc ed as ollows: (1) Desc ip i e s a is ics we e calcula ed o Japan (as
a whole and young adul s uden s only) and Finland, espec i ely. (2) Fo bo h he EPSI and SOC scale,
Mann–Whi ney U es was ca ied ou o he esul as a whole and o each o he subscales (deemed o
be s a is ically signi ican a less han 5 pe cen signi icance le el), and Spea man’s ank co ela ion coe -
icien , e ec size γ (compa ison o di e ence among means), and C onbach’s alpha we e calcula ed. (3)
The s a is ical di e ence was es ed by he compa ison o means, U es , and e ec size γ (Cohen, 1988).
E hical app o al
Jun endo Uni e si y Facul y o Heal h Ca e and Nu sing (Jun endo E hics Commi ee No. 25-28) ga e
e hical app o al o his esea ch, and he E hics Commi ee o Tampe e Region in Finland decided ha
his esea ch can be ca ied ou wi h his e hical app o al.
Resul s
In o al, da a om 762 Japanese you h (male 388, 50.9%; emale 374, 49.1%)we e analysed. In Finland,
da a om 896 esponden s (male 169, 18.9%; emale 727, 81.1%) wi h esponses o all EPSI and SOC
ques ions we e analysed.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 485

Sepa a ion o li ing oge he wi h pa en s (see Table 1)
O e all, among he Japanese you h, 12.1% we e cu en ly sepa a ed om hei pa en s and 87.9%
we e li ing wi h hei pa en s. The a e du ing he in an and oddle pe iod was he highes a 12.3%
sepa a ed and 87.7% oge he , and declined g adually un il he high school pe iod a 9.5% sepa a ed
and 90.5% oge he . In con as , ega ding 896 Finnish young adul s uden s, 52 s uden s (5.8%) we e
sepa a ed and 844 s uden s (4.2%) we e li ing oge he wi h pa en s du ing he childhood pe iod.
Main easons o sepa a ion om pa en (s) (see Table 2)
In Japan, 45 mo he s (5.91%) and 82 a he s (10.76%) we e sepa a ed om hei child en, while in
Finland, 745 mo he s (83.15%) and 765 a he s (85.38%) we e sepa a ed om hei child en. The mos
common eason why mo he s o a he s li ed away om Japanese you h o Finnish young adul s u-
den s we e ha hey had mo ed o hei own apa men : 35 mo he s (4.59%) and 50 a he s (6.56%)
in Japan, and 719 mo he s (80.25%) and 577 a he s (64.39%) in Finland. The e was a la ge di e ence
in he a io o subjec s who had mo ed o hei own apa men be ween coun ies.
In addi ion, ega ding he di o ce a e in his s udy, one mo he (.14%) and h ee a he s (.39%)
in Japan, and 10 mo he s (1.12%) and 150 a he s (16.74%) in Finland we e di o ced. These we e low
pe cen ages compa ed wi h he di o ce a es o each coun y (S a is ics Finland, 2017).
Cha ac e is ics o he esea ch subjec s
The b eakdown o cha ac e is ics o he Japanese you h was as ollows: uni e si y s uden s (27.0%),
high school s uden s (10.2%), s uden s o special oca ional high school s uden s (3.9%), pos g ad-
ua e s uden s (1.8%), and 2-yea college s uden s and special high school s uden s (.7%). Rega ding
employmen , he sample comp ised employed people (32.0%), housewi es /husbands (8.7%), and
hose employed pa - ime (4.7%). The Finnish sample was en i ely made up o young adul s uden s
(see Table 3). The e was a s a is ically signi ican di e ence be ween Japan and Finland o bo h he EPSI
(To al (EPSIW) and 6 subscales (EPSI6sub: us , au onomy, ini ia i e, indus y, iden i y, and in imacy)
and SOC scale (To al SOC (SOCW) and 3 SOC subscales (SOS3sub: comp ehensibili y, manageabili y,
and meaning ulness)). The e ec size γ was high a mo e han 1.0 o he EPSI as a whole and he 6 EPSI
subscales, which means ha he di e ence in means ela ed o he EPSI (bo h EPSIW and EPSI6sub)
was e y la ge (see Table 4). In addi ion, he EPSI and SOC scale esul s o he Japanese you h and
Japanese adul s uden s we e e y simila and show a subs an ial di e gence om he Finnish esul s
(see Table 5 and Figu es 1–4). In his pape , in e e ence o he co ela ion o he EPSI and SOC scale,
when he absolu e alue o he co ela ion coe icien was mo e han .6, i was deemed o ha e a ‘s ong
co ela ion’ and i i was a o mo e han .4 and less han .6, i was deemed o ha e ‘some co ela ion’.
Table 1. a e o Japanese you h li ing wi h pa en (s) cu en ly and du ing he in an and oddle , elemen a y, junio high, and high
school pe iods (n=762).
Cu en
(n)
Cu en
(%)
In an and
Toddle (n)
In an and
Toddle (n)
(%)
Elemen-
a y school
(n)
Elemen a y
school (%)
Junio
high (n)
Junio
high
(%)
High
school
(n)
High
school
(%)
sepa a ed
om pa en
(s)
92 12.1 94 12.3 80 10.5 75 9.8 72 9.5
li ing wi h
pa en (s)
670 87.9 668 87.7 682 89.5 687 90.2 690 90.5
486 H. NIIYAMA ET AL.
Co ela ion o o al EPSI and o al SOC
The e was a s ong, nega i e co ela ion ( =−.685) in Japan and a s ong, posi i e co ela ion ( =.831)
in Finland. The e was ei he a s ong, nega i e co ela ion o some nega i e co ela ion in Japan, bu
in Finland, he e was ei he a s ong, posi i e co ela ion o some posi i e co ela ion. The co ela ions
be ween he o al EPSI and 3 SOC subscales (comp ehensibili y, manageabili y, and meaning ulness)
we e as ollows: in Japan, =−.479～−.695; in Finland, =.692～.796. The co ela ions be ween he
To al SOC and 6 EPSI subscales we e as ollows: in Japan: =−.498～−.632; in Finland, =.525～.767.
Finally, he co ela ions be ween he 6 EPSI subscales and he 3 SOC subscales we e as ollows: in Japan,
=−.338～−.662; in Finland, =.400～.772).
Table 2.compa ison be ween Japanese you h and innish young adul s uden s on easons o sepa a ion om pa en s.
Mo he Fa he
Japan Finland Japan Finland
n%n%n%n%
Mo ed o own apa men 35 4.59 719 80.25 50 6.56 577 64.39
Wo k 0 .00 6 .67 20 2.62 3 3.35
di o ce 1 .14 10 1.12 3 .39 150 16.74
dea h 2 .26 3 3.35 2 .27 26 2.90
o he eason 7 .92 7 .78 7 .92 9 1.00
sub o al 45 5.91 745 83.15 82 10.76 765 85.38
o e all o al 762 100.00 896 100.00 762 100.00 896 100.00
Table 3.Basic in o ma ion abou he esea ch subjec s in Japan and inland (18–25yea s old).
I ems Classi ied i ems
S uden s a us
classi ica ion
Japan Finland
No. o
people
Pe cen -
age o he
whole
Pe cen age o
he uni e si y
s uden s
No. o
people
Pe cen -
age o he
whole
he o al
numbe o
analysis
analysis subjec s 762 100.0 896 100.0
Gende Male 388 50.9 169 18.9
emale 374 49.1 727 81.1
Job
classi ica-
ion
s uden 333 43.7 100.0 896 100.0
uni e si y s uden 206 27.0 61.9 896 100.0
high school
s uden
78 10.2 23.4 0 .0
special oca ional
high school
s uden s
30 3.9 9.0 0 .0
Pos g adua e
s uden s
14 1.8 4.2 0 .0
2-yea college
and special high
school s uden s
5 .7 1.5 0 .0
employed ( ull ime) 244 32.0 0 .0
house wi es/
husbands
66 8.7 0 .0
employed (pa
ime)
36 4.7 0 .0
sel -employmen 35 4.6 0 .0
unemployed 15 2.0 0 .0
I egula 13 1.7 0 .0
Managing a
company
8 1.0 0 .0
side business 1 .1 0 .0
o he s 11 1.4 0 .0
o he han s uden s 429 56.3
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 487
Table 4.compa ison be ween Japan and inland on soc and ePsI o al and subscale sco es.
Comp ehensibili y Manageabili y Meaning ulness To al SOC T us Au onomy Ini ia i e Indus y Iden i y In imacy To al EPSI
Japan (J) Mean 20.088 15.878 17.398 53.364 2.868 2.644 2.349 2.598 2.581 2.672 2.619
sd 4.337 3.334 3.966 10.059 .526 .582 .512 .594 .587 .563 .482
Median 20.000 16.000 17.000 53.000 2.857 2.714 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.714 2.643
Minimum 5.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.143 .857 1.000 1.000 1.143 1.262
Maximum 35.000 27.000 28.000 89.000 5.000 4.857 4.143 5.000 4.571 4.857 4.500
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
30.000 23.000 24.000 72.000 3.571 3.714 3.286 4.000 3.571 3.714 3.238
inland ( ) Mean 21.967 19.458 19.308 60.732 3.567 3.782 3.351 3.794 3.114 3.708 3.553
sd 4.794 4.127 4.303 11.612 .651 .660 .599 .661 .707 .678 .548
Median 22.000 20.000 20.000 62.000 3.714 3.857 3.429 3.857 3.286 3.857 3.631
Minimum 8.000 5.000 6.000 23.000 1.143 1.286 1.286 1.429 .857 1.143 1.714
Maximum 34.000 28.000 28.000 85.000 5.000 5.000 4.714 5.000 4.286 5.000 4.690
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
26.000 23.000 22.000 62.000 3.857 3.714 3.429 3.571 3.429 3.857 2.976
s a is ical
di e ence
be ween
Japan and
inland
u es .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
e ec size γ .411 .954 .462 .678 1.182 1.827 1.798 1.903 .820 1.663 1.810
e alua ion o
e ec size γ
Mode a e s ong Mode a e s ong s ong s ong s ong s ong s ong s ong s ong
Mean −1.879 −3.580 −1.910 −7.369 −.700 −1.138 −1.002 −1.196 −.533 −1.036 −.934
di e ence in
desc ip i e
s a is ics
be ween
Japan and
inland (J– )
sd −.457 −.793 −.337 −1.554 −.126 −.078 −.086 −.067 −.120 −.116 −.066
Median −2.000 −4.000 −3.000 −9.000 −.857 −1.143 −1.000 −1.286 −.714 −1.143 −.988
Minimum −3.000 −1.000 −2.000 −6.000 .286 −.143 −.429 −.429 .143 .000 −.452
Maximum 1.000 −1.000 .000 4.000 .000 −.143 −.571 .000 .286 −.143 −.190
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
4.000 .000 2.000 10.000 −.286 .000 −.143 .429 .143 −.143 .262
488 H. NIIYAMA ET AL.
Table 5.compa ison o Japan and inland on soc and ePsI o al and subscale sco es.
Comp ehensibili y Manageabili y Meaning ulness To al SOC T us Au onomy Ini ia i e Indus y Iden i y In imacy To al EPSI
Japanese young
adul s uden s
(206)
Mean 20.364 16.607 17.908 54.879 2.785 2.589 2.326 2.551 2.515 2.604 2.562
sd 3.978 3.159 3.788 9.473 .510 .548 .480 .575 .528 .549 .450
Median 20.000 16.500 18.000 55.000 2.714 2.571 2.286 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.548
Minimum 6.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.286 1.000 1.143 1.143 1.143 1.310
Maximum 34.000 27.000 28.000 86.000 5.000 4.143 4.143 4.286 4.286 4.714 4.405
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
28.000 23.000 24.000 69.000 3.571 2.857 3.143 3.143 3.143 3.571 3.095
innish young
adul s uden s
(896)
Mean 21.967 19.458 19.308 60.732 3.567 3.782 3.351 3.794 3.114 3.708 3.553
sd 4.794 4.127 4.303 11.612 .651 .660 .599 .661 .707 .678 .548
Median 22.000 20.000 20.000 62.000 3.714 3.857 3.429 3.857 3.286 3.857 3.631
Minimum 8.000 5.000 6.000 23.000 1.143 1.286 1.286 1.429 .857 1.143 1.714
Maximum 34.000 28.000 28.000 85.000 5.000 5.000 4.714 5.000 4.286 5.000 4.690
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
28.000 23.000 22.000 62.000 3.857 3.714 3.429 3.571 3.429 3.857 2.976
compa ison
be ween
Japanese and
innish young
adul s uden s
u es .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
all Japanese
you h (762)
Mean 20.088 15.878 17.398 53.364 2.868 2.644 2.349 2.598 2.581 2.672 2.619
sd 4.337 3.334 3.966 10.059 .526 .582 .512 .594 .587 .563 .482
Median 20.000 16.000 17.000 53.000 2.857 2.714 2.429 2.571 2.571 2.714 2.643
Minimum 5.000 4.000 4.000 17.000 1.429 1.143 .857 1.000 1.000 1.143 1.262
Maximum 35.000 27.000 28.000 89.000 5.000 4.857 4.143 5.000 4.571 4.857 4.500
di e ence
be ween
maximum and
minimum
30.000 23.000 24.000 72.000 3.571 3.714 3.286 4.000 3.571 3.714 3.238
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 489