Jou nal o Educa ion and Lea ning; Vol. 7, No. 3; 2018
ISSN 1927-5250 E-ISSN 1927-5269
Published by Canadian Cen e o Science and Educa ion
87
Socially Embedded Academic Emo ions in School
Hen ika An ila1, Ki si Pyhäl ö1,2, Janne Pie a inen3 & Tiina Soini3,4
1 Facul y o Educa ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
2 Facul y o Educa ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Oulu, Oulu, Finland
3 School o Applied Educa ional Science and Teache Educa ion, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Joensuu, Finland
4 School o Educa ion, Uni e s iy o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland
Co espondence: Hen ika An ila, Facul y o Educa ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
Recei ed: Janua y 22, 2018 Accep ed: Feb ua y 20, 2018 Online Published: Ma ch 8, 2018
doi:10.5539/jel. 7n3p87 URL: h ps://doi.o g/10.5539/jel. 7n3p87
Abs ac
School is a cen al a ena o a wide amoun o emo ions. P e ious esea ch on academic emo ions has, howe e ,
mainly ocused on achie emen , engagemen and eaching, si ua ed in class oom. The social embeddedness, as
well as di e en lea ning en i onmen s o school, con inue o be neglec ed in he esea ch li e a u e. Ou s udy
ocuses on examining socially embedded academic emo ions in school, including emo ions desc ibed in pee
in e ac ions and in eache -pupil in e ac ions. Fu he mo e, he aim o he s udy was o in es iga e socially
embedded academic emo ions si ua ed in bo h in o mal and o mal lea ning en i onmen s. In he s udy, we
combine bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods by using pic u e asks and ques ionnai es. In o al, 146 six h
and eigh h g ade s pa icipa ed in he s udy. The esul s o ou s udy showed ha he in e ac ion be ween
eache s and pee s is a cen al a ena o pupils’ desc ibed socially embedded academic emo ions in school.
Fu he mo e, ou s udy emphasizes he ole o an in o mal lea ning en i onmen as an impo an se ing o
socially embedded academic emo ions. P ac ical and heo e ical implica ions o hese indings a e discussed.
Keywo ds: emo ion, pee in e ac ion, eache -pupil in e ac ion, o mal lea ning en i onmen , in o mal lea ning
en i onmen
1. In oduc ion
Child en spend a signi ican amoun o hei adolescence in school a ending classes, comple ing p ojec s, aking
exams and building social ela ionships bo h du ing and be ween lessons. Thus, school is a cen al a ena o
expe iencing emo ions ha u he e ec pupils’ daily li es bo h in- and ou side o school. P e ious s udies ha e
shown ha emo ions play an impo an ole in lea ning, social ela ionships, and school a endance (e.g., Lewis,
Huebne , Malone, & Valois, 2011; Lyubomi sky, King, & Diene 2005; Pek un & Linnenb ink, 2014). Fo
ins ance, pupils’ posi i e emo ions ha e been shown o a ec posi i ely hei academic pe o mance, s udy
engagemen and mo i a ion (e.g., Lewis e al., 2011; Linnenb ink-Ga cia, Roga , & Koskey, 2011; Pek un,
Goe z, Ti z, & Pe y, 2002). Mo eo e , he social in e ac ions wi hin he school communi y, pa icula ly
eache -pupil and pee in e ac ions p o ide an a ena o a ious emo ions, con ibu ing no only o pupils’
academic achie emen (e.g., Beilock, Gunde son, Rami ez, & Leine, 2010; Fu e & Skinne , 2003; Ulmanen,
Soini, Pie a inen, & Pyhäl ö, 2016; Vé onneau & Vi a o, 2007; Wen zel & Caldwell, 1997; Wi kow & Fuligni,
2010), bu also o hei o e all school expe ience (e.g., A i ze aa, Ballue kaa, Go os iagaa, Alonso-A biola,
Ha anbu ua, & Ga zia, 2015). Fu he mo e, posi i e emo ions in pee in e ac ion, a e c ucial o pupils’ posi i e
de elopmen and wellbeing (Bace e, Pe in, Schneide , & Blancha d, 2014; Rubin, Bukowski, & Lau sen, 2009).
P e ious s udies on socially embedded emo ions in school ha e mainly ocused on emo ional ansmission,
school clima e and pee bullying (e.g., A i ze aa e al., 2015; Ba high , Hubba d, & Hyde, 2013; Becke , Goe z,
Mo ge , & Ranelucci, 2014; F enzel, Goe z, Lüd ke, Pek un, & Su on, 2009).
Thus, unde s anding o he simila i ies and di e ences in he socially embedded emo ions wi hin he school
en i onmen , including eache -pupil in e ac ion, and in pee in e ac ion is s ill de eloping. Fu he mo e, as a
as we know, he e a e no p e ious s udies abou emo ions expe ienced in less- o mal school se ings, such as
be ween classes, in ecess se ings, and how he emo ions embedded in such in e ac ions a e associa ed wi h
pupils’ school h i ing o hei cynicism a school. In o de o gain a be e unde s anding o pupils’ emo ions
embedded in he wo mos cen al social ela ionships in school, eache -pupil and pee in e ac ion in bo h
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class oom and du ing ecess a e explo ed. The p esen s udy ocuses on explo ing he ollowing ques ions: 1)
Wha kind o socially embedded emo ions do pupils epo in o mal and in o mal lea ning en i onmen s o
school? 2) Wha kind o a ia ion can be de ec ed in epo ed emo ions in eache -pupil, and in pee in e ac ions
wi hin he o mal and in o mal school en i onmen ? 3) How a e he epo ed emo ions associa ed wi h g ade
poin a e age (GPA), school g ade, h i ing in school and cynicism owa ds school?
2. School as a Cen al A ena o Emo ions
2.1 Socially Embedded Academic Emo ions
Academic emo ions e e o a se o emo ions ha a e expe ienced in pedagogical se ings, while engaging in
pedagogical ac i i ies, such as eaching, s udying and lea ning. They a e ac i e and sho -li ed s a es ha ise in
esponse o ex e nal s imuli, en ailing bo h a bodily eac ion and an e alua i e esponse (Baumeis e & Bushman,
2007; Do & Schalle , 2004). Low-in ensi y emo ions, o en e e ed o as moods (Pek un, 2006), ha e been
sugges ed o be less-speci ic, longe las ing e e ence objec s (i.e., Schu z, Hong, C oss, & Osbon, 2006). The
basic unc ion o emo ions is o p epa e us o ac and enable us o a oid ha m and o ien a e owa ds sa e y, i.e.,
o keep us ali e. The basic cha ac e is ic o an emo ion is he alence ha e e s o he deg ee o pleasan ness o
he emo ion, dis inguishing posi i e emo ions (such as enjoymen and elie ) om nega i e ones (such as anxie y
and bo edom). Nega i e emo ions help us o a oid dange , whe eas posi i e emo ions guide ou ac ions and
beha io owa ds pleasan ness and wellbeing. In his s udy, ocus is on explo ing pupils’ socially embedded
academic emo ions in school in e ms o he alence, since i di ec s ou beha io and hus may ha e a g ea
impac ega ding pupils’ ac ions.
Emo ions a e con ex dependen (e.g., Ainley & Hidi 2002; Jä enoja & Jä elä, 2009; Schu z & Pek un, 2007;
Vole & Jä elä, 2001) and mos o en igge ed by social e en s (e.g., A e ill, 1982; Kempe , 1978; Oa ley &
Johnson-Lai d, 1987). P e ious s udies sugges ha social p ocesses shape and a e shaped by emo ions (e.g.,
Lea y, 2000; Oa ley, 2000; Pa kinson, Fische , & Mans ead, 2005). Mo eo e , emo ions make i possible o pu
onesel in o ano he ’s shoes (Ioannidou & Kons an ikak, 2008) p omo ing p o-social in e ac ion be ween, o
example, eache and pupils. School p o ides a complex social en i onmen , whe e pupils expe ience a a ie y
o academic emo ions and ha e he oppo uni y o p ac ice hei emo ional skills (e.g., Baudoin & Galand, 2017;
Denham, Basse , & Zinsse , 2012). Rela ionships wi h eache s and pee s a e a pa icula ly impo an pa o
his en i onmen .
Emo ions a e equen ly communica ed o o he people and a e a cen al pa o e e yday ela ionships (e.g.,
F idlund, 1991; Rimé, Finkenaue , Lumine , Zech, & Philippo , 1998; Rimé, Mesqui a, Philippo , & Boca, 1991).
Th ough communica ing emo ions, we p o ide in o ma ion abou ou emo ional s a e, ou pe cep ions o he
wo ld and he na u e o ela ionships wi h o he s (Hess & Ki ouac, 2004).
Mo eo e , emo ions a e con agious h ough non- e bal clues, such as acial and ges u al exp essions as well as
he pi ch, loudness and imb e o a oice (Pek un, Muis, F enzel, & Goe z, 2017). These signals gi e clues o
o he s o he expe ienced emo ions and may be mimicked o he poin o emo ional ansmission and con agion
(Nakahashi & Oh suki, 2015; Singe & Lamm, 2009). Communica ion and ansmission o emo ions can, a bes ,
smoo hen social in e ac ions and c ea e emo ional closeness, i.e., hey help synch onize and coo dina e he
in e ac ion (Ba sade, 2002; Ha ield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994). Fo ins ance, pupils’ awa eness o each
o he ’s emo ions is likely o p omo e high-quali y unc ional in e ac ion. This may u he enhance lea ning,
mo i a ion, and he expe ienced closeness in bo h eache -pupil and pee in e ac ions. Howe e , only a ew
s udies ha e in es iga ed emo ional con agion in educa ional se ings (Becke e al., 2014). F enzel, Goe z,
Lüd ke, Pek un, & Su on (2009) ound ha eache s’ own expe ienced enjoymen con ibu ed o pupils’
expe ienced enjoymen in class o he ex en ha eache enjoymen ansla es in o en husiasm du ing eaching.
This implies ha emo ional con agion can occu simila ly also in pee in e ac ion, ha ing po en ial o s eng hen
he social bonds be ween pupils. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha e en hough social in e ac ions wi hin a
school communi y igge emo ions, hey a e always subjec i e, and each pupil has hei unique emo ional
expe ience.
P e ious s udies ha e shown ha pupils’ wellbeing is highly socially embedded and emo ionally in e wined
(Pie a inen, Pyhäl ö, & Soini, 2014; Pyhäl ö, Soini, & Pie a inen, 2010). I socially embedded nega i e emo ions,
such as exhaus ion and inadequacy, a e equen ly expe ienced and piled up, i may educe h i ing in school,
p edispose o bu nou and cause cynicism owa ds schoolwo k (e.g., Pie a inen e al., 2014; Salmela-A o, Kiu u,
Leskinen, & Nu mi, 2009). In his ega d, academic emo ions expe ienced in pee and eache -pupil in e ac ions
may ha e di e en impac s.
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2.2 Emo ions in Teache -Pupil In e ac ion
Teache -pupil in e ac ion p o ides a cen al a ena o expe iencing socially embedded academic emo ions a
school. Such in e ac ions ha e been shown o aise emo ions bo h in pupils and eache s (e.g., F enzel e al.,
2009; Gläse -Zikuda & Fuβ, 2008; Ha g ea es, 2000; Ma ia, Dos San os, & Mo ime , 2003; Su on & Whea ley,
2003). Teache s’ emo ions ha e an impac on pupils’ emo ions, and ice e sa. The e is, o ins ance, e idence
ha eache s’ posi i e emo ions a e likely o p omp also pupils’ posi i e emo ions, and u he o be connec ed
o pupils’ achie emen , s udy engagemen and mo i a ion (Becke e al., 2014; Beilock e al., 2010; Cubukcu,
2012; Deme iou, Wilson, & Win e bo om, 2009; F enzel e al., 2009). In addi ion, pupils’ expe ienced joy o
lea ning has been shown o ha e a posi i e associa ion also wi h eache s’ enjoymen (Becke e al., 2014;
Hagenaue & Vole , 2014). Mo eo e , posi i e emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ion a e ound o be ela ed o
bo h pupils’ and eache s’ wellbeing in school (e.g., Pek un e al., 2017). Fo example, posi i e emo ions in
eache -pupil in e ac ion a e seen as a bu e o eache s’ s ess in e e yday li e (G ams & Ju owe zki, 2015),
whe eas nega i e emo ions ha e a p e ailing impac on hei occupa ional wellbeing (Chang, 2013). Simila ly,
posi i e eache -pupil in e ac ion is shown o p o ide con inui y and suppo o pupils su e ing om nega i e
school- ela ed emo ions (Madil, Ges , & Rodkin, 2014). Acco dingly, posi i e eache -pupil in e ac ion may also
compensa e o pupils’ nega i e emo ional expe iences wi h pee s.
The e is e idence ha especially pupils’ class oom beha io has an impac on eache s’ emo ions (F enzel, Gö z,
Pek un, & Jacob, 2009). Pupils’ misbeha io in class has been shown o cause nega i e emo ions in eache s
(Chang, 2013). Fu he mo e, high-achie ing and highly mo i a ed pupils, closeness wi h pupils and wi nessing
pupils’ ad ancemen in lea ning a e common sou ces o eache s’ posi i e emo ional expe iences (e.g., F enzel
e al., 2009; Hagenaue , Hasche , & Vole , 2015; Ha g ea es, 2000). P e ious li e a u e has also shown ha
pupils’ enjoymen , ange and anxie y a e ela ed o eache s’ ins uc ional beha io (Becke e al., 2014,
Gläse -Zikuda & Fuβ, 2008; Sa ason, 1984). Fo example, lack o eedback om eache s, uns uc u ed lea ning
ma e ial, unclea ins uc ions and excessi e ex e nal eache con ol ha e been shown o cause nega i e emo ions
such as anxie y and ange (An ila, Pyhäl ö, Soini, & Pie a inen, 2016; Becke e al., 2014; Ran ala & Mää ä,
2012; Sa ason, 1984). Mo eo e , he e is some en a i e e idence ha eache s who expe ience high job
sa is ac ion a e less s essed and exhaus ed and a e pe cei ed by pupils as gi ing be e -quali y ins uc ion
(Klussmann, Kun e , T au wein, Lüd ke, & Baume , 2008; Kun e , Klusmann, Baume , Rich e , Voss, &
Hach eld, 2013). Thus, i seems ha he social in e ac ion be ween eache and pupils has an ex ensi e impac on
bo h eache s’ and pupils’ emo ions.
The e a e some indica ions ha emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ions migh di e in p ima y and seconda y
schools. Fo ins ance, Hagenaue e al. (2015) ound ha class eache s expe ience mo e posi i e emo ions
compa ed o subjec eache s. This may be due o he ac ha class eache s spend mo e ime wi h hei pupils
and hus ha e mo e oppo uni ies o c ea e posi i e eache -pupil ela ionships (Hagenaue e al., 2015).
Fu he mo e, he ela ionships be ween eache and pupils seem o decline a e he age-g aded school ansi ion,
whe eas pee ela ionships seems o become emo ionally be e and mo e signi ican (Symonds & Gal on, 2014;
Pie a inen e al., 2014).
2.3 Emo ions in Pee In e ac ion
Social emo ions embedded in pee in e ac ions a e signi ican de e minan s o pupils’ school expe iences.
Posi i e emo ions in pee in e ac ion, eelings o accep ance and sense o belonging a e shown o be c ucial o
pupils’ posi i e de elopmen and physical and men al wellbeing (Bace e e al., 2014; Rubin e al., 2009). They,
o example, help pupils o de elop social skills and cope wi h li e challenges as well as, educe s ess and
anxie y (Ho e ich e , Rau elde , & Eid, 2015; Rubin e al., 2009; S einbe g & Mo is, 2001). Posi i e social
emo ions a e shown o be gene a ed in close iendships and pee ne wo ks. Howe e , school is also a place
whe e pupils may expe ience anxie y and loneliness esul ing om pee in e ac ions (e.g., G aham & Ju onen,
1998; Ju onen, Nishina, & G aham, 2000; Veens a, Lindenbe g, Hui sing, Sainio, & Salmi alli, 2014). Such
expe iences, i equen and dominan , may esul in nega i e emo ions owa ds bo h schoolwo k and pee s in
gene al, and u he cause social anxie y and e en dep ession among pupils (Pek un e al., 2017; G aham &
Ju onen, 1998; Ju onen e al., 2000).
Mo eo e , pupils’ emo ions owa d hei pee s a e shown o con ibu e o hei academic engagemen and
achie emen (Fu e & Skinne , 2003; Linnenb ink e al., 2011; Ulmanen e al., 2016; Vé onneau & Vi a o, 2007;
Wen zel & Caldwell, 1997; Wi kow & Fuligni, 2010). Posi i e emo ions may, o example, p omo e enjoymen
o lea ning ha u he inc eases e o and odds o academic success (e.g., Pek un e al., 2002; Pek un, Goe z,
Pe y, K ame , & Hochs ad , 2004). Howe e , ecen s udies ha e also shown ha posi i e emo ions be ween
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pee s do no necessa ily inc ease pupils’ commi men o schoolwo k, bu may also cause nega i e emo ional
expe iences and cynicism owa ds school (Ulmanen e al., 2016). Fu he mo e, inc eased anxie y caused by
compe i ion o good g ades may also esul om posi i e pee in e ac ions, whe e good academic pe o mance
is socially expec ed and alued (Pek un e al., 2017).
P io esea ch on emo ion in school has mainly ocused hea ily on he class oom. Howe e , pupils spend a g ea
amoun o ime ou side he o mal lea ning en i onmen , in ecess se ings. Du ing ecess, pupils and eache s,
bu pa icula ly pee s in e ac wi h each o he . Recess p o ides a mo e in o mal a ena o in e ac ion wi hin
school, ypically de ined as “non-cu iculum ime alloca ed by schools be ween lessons o child en o engage in
leisu e ac i i ies” (Ridge s, S a on, & Fai clough, 2006). The ecess se ings may play a highly signi ican ole
in pupils’ e e yday school li e, socially embedded emo ions included. Fo example, i has been shown ha
nega i e emo ional expe iences be ween pee s a e commonly expe ienced du ing ecess, ou o eache s’ sigh
(Veens a e al., 2014). P e ious s udies ha e also shown ha pa icula ly lowe -in ensi y emo ions can las o
longe pe iods o ime and may ans e om one con ex o ano he (An ila, Pyhäl ö, Soini, & Pie a inen, 2017;
Tennan , 1997). Acco dingly, emo ions a oused in ecess se ings migh ha e an e ec on lea ning in he
class oom esul ing in a si ua ion whe e pupils migh be unable o ocus on s udying o a long ime (Tennan ,
1997) o , a bes , o be pa icula ly wi ed o lea n. Becke e al. (2014) ound ha pupils’ moods be o e en e ing
he class oom we e ela ed o bo h eache s’ and pupils’ emo ions and ins uc ional beha io . This implies ha
emo ions expe ienced ou side o mal lea ning en i onmen s, o example du ing ecess, migh ha e a signi ican
impac on pupils’ lea ning in he nex lesson. Howe e , as a as we know he e a e no p e ious s udies on
pupils’ emo ions in ecess se ings.
3. The Aim o he S udy
The p esen s udy aims o enhance unde s anding o pupils’ socially embedded emo ions in o mal and in o mal
school en i onmen s. The socially embedded emo ions we e explo ed bo h in eache -pupil and in pee
in e ac ion. Mo eo e , he in e ela ion be ween he epo ed emo ions and academic pe o mance, h i ing in
school and cynicism we e analyzed. The ollowing esea ch ques ions a e add essed:
• Wha kind o socially embedded emo ions do pupils epo in o mal and in o mal lea ning en i onmen s o
school?
• Wha kind o a ia ion can be de ec ed in epo ed emo ions in eache -pupil, and in pee in e ac ions wi hin
he o mal and in o mal school en i onmen ?
• How a e he epo ed emo ions and GPA, school g ade, h i ing in school and cynicism owa ds school
associa ed?
This s udy is pa o a la ge na ional esea ch p ojec : “Lea ning, pedagogical wellbeing and agency in
comp ehensi e school” (see Soini, Pyhäl ö, & Pie a inen, 2010 o mo e de ails).
4. Me hods
4.1 Finnish Comp ehensi e School Sys em
In Finland child en ypically s a hei school ca ee wi h p e-p ima y school a he age o six. A he age o
se en hey s a compulso y educa ion, which includes p ima y (g ades 1-6) and seconda y (7-9) school. Nea ly
all child en comple e he nine-yea compulso y basic educa ion. The p ima y g ades a e usually augh by class
eache s, who ha e hei own class o g oup and each he majo i y o subjec s in he cu iculum. In he
seconda y g ades pupils a e augh by specialized subjec eache s. In Finland, all eache s mus ha e a
mas e ’s-le el uni e si y deg ee (Niemi, 2012). The e a e no na ional es ing sys ems o abili y acking o
pupils (Kumpulainen & Lankinen, 2012). Ins ead, he eache s a e esponsible o he assessmen o he pupils on
he basis o he objec i es o he na ional cu iculum. Schools do no selec hei pupils and pupils ypically
a end a nea by school. Howe e , pa en s can, wi h some es ic ions, choose he school o hei p e e ence. In
he Finnish school sys em, he leng h o ecesses o lunch b eak is no egula ed by law. Teaching pe iods a e
di ided in o app op ia e leng hs and pupils enjoy se e al ecesses daily (Haapala, Hi ensalo, Laine, Laakso,
Hakonen, Lin unen, & Tammelin, 2014), ha ing app oxima ely 80min o ecess pe school day. Educa ion is
publicly unded (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2017), which includes ex books, daily school dinne s
and heal h se ices such as den al ca e.
4.2 Pa icipan s
The da a was collec ed om 6 h and 8 h g ade s om h ee comp ehensi e case schools a ound Finland,
including one p ima y school (g ades 1-6) and wo p ima y and seconda y schools (g ades 1-9). The schools
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selec ed o his s udy ep esen ed ypical Finnish subu ban schools wi h pupil popula ion anging om 345 o
650 pupils. Al oge he 146 6 h and 8 h g ade s pa icipa ed o he s udy (73 6 h g ade s, 73 8 h g ade s),
including 80 gi ls (54.8%), and 66 boys (42.5%). The eason o selec ing he 6 h (age 12-13) and 8 h (age:
15-16) g ade s was ha he la e ones had ecen ly unde gone, and he o me ones we e app oaching he
p ima y-lowe seconda y school ansi ion. In he lowe seconda y school (g ades 7-9 h) subjec eache s each a
g ea e numbe o subjec s compa ed o p ima y school (g ades 1-6 h) whe e class eache s each a majo i y o
he subjec s. In he uppe g ades, he complexi y o schools’ social and pedagogical en i onmen s and he pupils’
eedom o choice ega ding s udy subjec s inc ease (Sahlbe g, 2011). Resea che s ecei ed consen o s udy
pa icipa ion om he chie o ice s o he school dis ic , he case schools, and he pupils and hei pa en s.
Pa icipa ion in he s udy was olun a y and no ex a c edi s we e gi en o he pupils o pa icipa ion.
4.3 Pic u e Task Ins umen
A mixed me hods app oach was used in his s udy (e.g., C eswell & Plano Cla k, 2007; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie,
& Tu ne , 2007) by combining bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods in he da a collec ion and analysis.
The quali a i e da a we e collec ed by using pic u e asks du ing a no mal school day in he sp ing o 2011. The
pupils we e asked o w i e s o ies based on ou pic u es si ua ed in o mal and in o mal lea ning en i onmen s
o he school (see Figu e 1). The pic u e ask echnique was applied o access p esumably hidden con en and
emo ions using isual s imuli and image y (Po , Mayan, G a igna, Wall, & Viei a, 2011). Mo eo e , he
pic u es and ques ions may help o cap u e pupils’ un il e ed pe cep ions and hei school- ela ed emo ions
(B an hwai e, 2002; Ulmanen, 2016). The pic u es we e c ea ed, based on a se o pho og aphs, o ep esen
no mal school day si ua ions ha all pupils ace du ing a no mal school day. Fu he mo e, be o e da a collec ion
he ins umen was ecologically alida ed by pupils, i.e. hey ecognized he si ua ion ep esen ed in he
pho og aphs as ypical school e en s. Acco dingly, pupils had he oppo uni y o use hei own pas expe iences
and hei cu en mo i a ion o in e p e he pic u es (Po e al., 2011). Hence, he ins umen p o ided an
oppo uni y o examine in e ac ions bo h du ing school hou s and be ween class ooms.
A eache and a pupil on a b eak Pupils on a b eak
A eache and pupils in a lesson A eache and pupils in a lesson
Figu e 1. Pic u e ask-ins umen
The i s wo pic u es we e si ua ed in ecess se ings and he wo la e ones in he o mal class-en i onmen .
Each o hem we e complemen ed wi h he ollowing i e ques ions: 1) Wha is happening a he momen ?; 2)
Wha has led o he e en shown?; 3) Wha is he pupil/pupils hinking?; 4) Wha is he eache hinking?; 5)
Wha will happen nex ?
The quan i a i e su ey da a was collec ed om he same pupils in sp ing 2011. In his s udy, scales measu ing
cynicism and pe cei ed sa is ac ion in school we e u ilized. The cynicism scale consis ed o i e i ems ha
indica ed pupils’ school- ela ed cynicism. The posi i e wellbeing indica o , pe cei ed school sa is ac ion, was
measu ed wi h one h i ing in school i em, which pupils a ed on a 10-poin scale. The pupils a ed all o he
i ems on a 5-poin Like scale (1 s ongly disag ee; 5 s ongly ag ee).

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Table 1. The i ems and scales included in he ques ionnai e
Scales I ems
Cynicism “Going o school doesn’ in e es me a all”
“I o en eel like playing hooky om school”
“Going o school eels unnecessa y”
“O en I eel I eally don’ wan o come o school”
“We ha e o s udy some qui e useless s u ”
Th i ing in school Please gi e us you own es ima e, on a scale o 1 o 10: How much do you enjoy going o school?
(1= no all, 10= e y much)?
Mo eo e , he pupils’ school achie emen was measu ed wi h hei school g ade poin a e age, on he scale o 4
o 10 (4 indica ing ailu e and 10 being excellen ). The da a was ga he ed om he school eco ds om he 2011
sp ing e m. Fu he mo e, backg ound in o ma ion was elici ed abou he pupils’ age, gende and school g ade.
Be o e he da a collec ion, he scales o he su ey we e alida ed. In addi ion, wo pilo s udies we e ca ied ou .
4.4 Analysis
A i s , he quali a i e pic u e ask da a we e con en analyzed (e.g., Chambe lain, 2006; Elo & Kyngäs, 2007).
To de elop a unc ional coding p ocedu e o he analysis, he ex segmen s o pupils’ desc ip ions o each
pic u e we e ead ca e ully se e al imes o ob ain an o e all unde s anding and o become amilia wi h he da a.
In he i s phase o he analysis, he di ec ion o he in e ac ion was analyzed (See Figu e 2). This esul ed in
wo ca ego ies: eache -pupil in e ac ion (en ailing in e play be ween eache and a pupil o a g oup o pupils)
and pee in e ac ion (en ailing desc ip ions o pupils in e ac ing wi h each o he ). Secondly, he emo ional one
o he in e ac ion was analyzed. This esul ed in wo ca ego ies: posi i e emo ions (en ailing exp essions o
posi i e emo ions such as en husiasm, joy, belonging and hope) and nega i e emo ions (en ailing exp essions o
nega i e emo ions such as loneliness, ange , sadness and ea ).
Figu e 2. Phase 1 o he quali a i e analysis
Based on he quali a i e analysis, an o e all emo ional one o eache -pupil in e ac ion and pee in e ac ion was
calcula ed o each pupil (Figu e 3). This esul ed in wo ca ego ies o bo h eache -pupil in e ac ion and pee
in e ac ion: posi i e emo ion index and nega i e emo ion index. Pupils who explica ed mos ly posi i e emo ions
in eache -pupil in e ac ion we e ca ego ized in he posi i e emo ion index ega ding eache -pupil in e ac ion
and pupils desc ibing mo e nega i e emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ion we e ca ego ized in he nega i e
emo ion index. Emo ion indexes in pee in e ac ion we e o med in he same way.
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Figu e 3. Phase 2 o he quali a i e analysis
The ca ego ies esul ing om he quali a i e con en analysis a he end o each analy ical phase we e alida ed
by he esea ch g oup (Miles & Hube man, 1994). In he ew cases on which he e was disag eemen , a
consensus on he inal ca ego iza ion was eached in discussion among he esea che s. In addi ion, 20 pe cen o
he da a was subjec ed o an independen pa allel analysis. The independen pa allel analysis was based on
classi ica ion c i e ia. The in e - a e ag eemen was 91.4 pe cen .
Desc ip i e s a is ics o o e all emo ional ones, GPA, school g ade, cynicism and h i ing in school we e
calcula ed. Independen samples T- es was ca ied ou o measu e he associa ion be ween o e all emo ional
ones, cynicism, GPA and h i ing in school (signi icance le el p<.05). In addi ion, a χ2- es was ca ied ou o
measu e he di e ence be ween six h and eigh h g ade s’ o e all emo ional ones (signi icance le el p<.05).
5. Resul s
Ou esul s showed ha pupils desc ibed a wide a ie y o emo ions in di e en school se ings wi h pee s and
eache -pupil in e ac ion. Sligh ly mo e emo ions embedded in social in e ac ion wi h eache s (53.2%) han in
pee in e ac ions (46.8%) we e desc ibed (See Table 2). Mo eo e , mos o he epo ed emo ions we e si ua ed
in an in o mal lea ning en i onmen ( =343), al hough a ai amoun o emo ions was also desc ibed in o mal
class oom si ua ions ( =253).
Mos o he socially embedded emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ions we e si ua ed in o mal class oom lea ning
en i onmen s o en ela ed o s udying and eaching-lea ning ac i i ies such as pupils doing exe cises o aking
exams and he eache eaching in on o he class o asking ques ions. The emo ions ha pupils desc ibed we e
mos ly posi i e ( =99). They o en explica ed posi i e emo ions such as g a i ude, sa is ac ion and happiness in
class oom si ua ions whe e eache was o e ing help. Pupils also acknowledged si ua ions whe e a eache
exp essed sa is ac ion owa ds pupils’ lea ning-o ien ed beha io and compe ence. These desc ip ions en ailed
posi i e emo ions o eache s and pupils’, such as joy, happiness, sa is ac ion and p ide.
1) Teache is helping pupils; 2) When he pupils did no know; 3) Fo una ely, he eache helps; 4) I’m so
happy o be help ull; 5) They ind ou wha he pupils did no know (Six h g ade , pic u e 4).
Socially embedded nega i e emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ion, bo h in o mal ( =86) and in o mal ( =85)
lea ning en i onmen s, we e commonly ela ed o si ua ions whe e a eache was disciplining pupils due o hei
misbeha io ei he du ing class o ecess. Nega i e emo ions, such as ange and us a ion, we e also desc ibed
in si ua ions whe e pupils did no ag ee wi h he eache ’s iew. Nega i e emo ions in eache -pupil in e ac ion
we e also equen ly ela ed o pupils being igno ed o no ecei ing help om he eache . In hese occasions
pupils explica ed emo ions such as us a ion, anxie y and con usion. Pupils also desc ibed si ua ions whe e a
eache akes no ice o a pupil s anding alone in he cou ya d and imp esses wo y o e bo h a pupil’s loneliness
and school success. These emo ional desc ip ions o wo y we e commonly si ua ed in ecess se ings.
1) The eache alks o he pupil abou a dispu e ha ook place du ing ecess; 2) Fi s he e was a e bal
a gumen and hen he is s came ou ; 3) He is i i a ed and annoyed abou he eache ’s lec u e; 4) The
eache is annoyed ha he inciden happened bu he/she mus co ec he si ua ion; 5) The pupil/ pupils ge
de en ion (Eigh h g ade , pic u e 2).
Mos o he emo ions epo ed in pee in e ac ion we e si ua ed ou side he class oom, du ing ecess. The
emo ions si ua ed in ecess se ings be ween pee s we e ypically nega i e, such as loneliness, sadness and
Pupil
Teache -pupil
in e ac ion
Pee in e ac ion
Posi i e
emo ional index
Nega i e
emo ional index
Posi i e
emo ional index
Nega i e
emo ional index
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anxie y ( =139), o en esul ed om being le alone o being bullied. Fu he mo e, pupils desc ibed ange and
schaden eude ega ding si ua ions whe e some pupils we e o men ing o he s in school. Posi i e emo ions
desc ibed in ecess se ings we e equen ly ela ed o ha ing un wi h iends and expe iences o a s ong sense
o belonging among pee s. In hese si ua ions pupils cha ac e ized posi i e emo ions owa d hei pee s, such as
enjoymen , belonging and happiness.
1) The e a e wo g oups, some o he pupils a e le ou side; 2) No o any pa icula eason, ou side s
simply don’ “ all” in o g oups; 3) Membe s o he g oup don’ ca e. Some o hem may hink abou he
ou side s bu do no hing because none o he o he s is s epping in ei he . The ou side s eel lonely; 4)
No hing (Eigh h g ade , pic u e 1).
1) Pupils a e cha ing; 2) The ecess s a ed; 3) I is nice o alk be ween classes; 4) Recess ends (Six h
g ade , pic u e 1).
Socially embedded emo ions in pee in e ac ion we e seldom epo ed in he o mal lea ning se ings. Nega i e
emo ions in he o mal lea ning en i onmen in pee in e ac ions ( =36) we e ela ed o ei he o he pupils’
misbeha io in class o hei in e es in succeeding in schoolwo k. These si ua ions we e epo ed o cause
emo ions such as us a ion and ange . Mo eo e , posi i e emo ions in class ( =32) wi h pee s we e ela ed o
ha ing un when wo king oge he owa ds a common goal. Also, posi i e emo ions we e desc ibed in si ua ions
whe e pupils exp essed happiness o he success o hei pee s.
1) The pupils lis en o he pupil s anding in on o he class. They a e w i ing a he same ime; 2) The
eache o de ed he pupil in on o he class; 3) Pupils espec he pupil s anding in on o he class; 4)
Good ha he pupils a e lis ening o each o he ; 5) Nex , he pupil will ake a sea and he o he s will
applaud and admi e he pe o mance (Eigh h g ade , pic u e 3)
Table 2. Emo ions in social in e ac ions and in di e en lea ning en i onmen s
Lea ning en i onmen Teache -pupil in e ac ion Pee in e ac ion
Posi i e Nega i e Posi i e Nega i e To al
Fo mal =99 =86 =32 =36 =253
39.1% 34% 12.7% 14.2% 100%
In o mal =47 =85 =72 =139 =343
13.7% 24.8% 21% 40,5.% 100%
To al =146 =171 =104 =175 =596
24.5% 28.7% 17.4% 29.4% 100%
No e. = equency, %= pe cen
5.1 In e ela ion Be ween Socially Embedded Emo ions, GPA, Cynicism, Th i ing in School and School G ade
The esul s showed ha pupils’ o e all emo ional desc ip ions we e mos commonly nega i e bo h in pee ( =78)
and in eache -pupil in e ac ion ( =78). Posi i e o e all emo ional one in pee in e ac ion ( =60) and in
eache -pupil in e ac ion ( =57) we e, howe e , also equen ly de ec ed (See Table 3). The desc ip i e analyses
o i ems measu ing cynicism, h i ing in school and GPA wi h numbe o i ems, minimum/maximum/mean
alues, s anda d de ia ions and in e nal consis ency a e p esen ed in Table 3. The esul s showed ha pupils
expe ienced somewha low le els o cynicism and high le els o school h i ing. Fu he mo e, he able shows
ha he in e nal consis ency (C onbach’s Alpha) was good o he cynicism-scale.
Table 3. Desc ip i e s a is ics: equency ( ), numbe o i ems (N), minimum alues (Min), maximum alues
(Max), mean alues (Mean), s anda d de ia ions (SD) and in e nal consis ency (Alpha)
Teache -pupil in e ac ion Pee in e ac ion
Posi i e emo ion index =57 =60
Nega i e emo ion index =78 =78
N Min Max Mean SD Alpha
Cynicism 5 1 5 2.28 .862 .83
Th i ing in school 1 1 10 7.70 1.66 -
GPA 1 5.59 9.64 7.90 .878 -
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Fu he , he in es iga ion showed ha emo ionally nega i ely loaded pe cep ion o eache -pupil in e ac ions
we e ela ed o inc eased cynicism owa ds schoolwo k ( =2.26; d =136; p=.025) and educed school h i ing (
= -2.20; d =129; p =.03). Howe e , no s a is ically signi ican in e ela ion be ween he o e all emo ional ones
o pee in e ac ion and h i ing in school ( = .72; d = 131; p= .47) o cynicism ( =-1.95; d = 134; p=.05) we e
de ec ed. The e we e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences in GPA be ween he o e all emo ional one ela ed o
pee ela ionships ( = .37; d = 133; p=.97) and eache -s uden in e ac ion ( = -1.55; d = 131; p=.12). Mo eo e ,
he e we e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween he six h and eigh h g ade s in o e all emo ional one,
ela ed o pee ela ionships (χ2=.243; d =1; p=.622) and eache -pupil in e ac ion (χ2=.999; d =1; p= .318).
6. Discussion
6.1 Me hodological Re lec ions
In his s udy, mixed me hods we e employed in o de o gain a mo e in-dep h unde s anding (e.g., C eswell &
Plano Cla k, 2007; Johnson e al., 2007) o socially embedded academic emo ions. Fu he mo e, he me hods
complemen ed each o he . Me hodological iangula ion was used o imp o e he alidi y and c edibili y o he
s udy (e.g., Pa on, 1990).
The Pic u e ask ins umen ga e us a unique oppo uni y o collec an ex ensi e da a se o pupils’ epo s o he
school en i onmen . The e lec i e esea ch design made i possible o he pupils o p ojec hei pe cep ions o
schools’ social lea ning en i onmen s. The esea ch design was based on he assump ion ha pupils will cas
hei pe cep ions, emo ions and desi es on o neu al pic u es (B an hwai e, 2002) ha ep esen no mal school
day si ua ions. Wi h his esea ch me hod, we gained new insigh conce ning his subjec ma e ha is o en
subconscious and oo di icul o a icula e. Howe e , i mus be no ed ha his me hod does no au oma ically
p oduce desc ip ions o ac ual e en s. Thus, he desc ip ions a e a he p ojec ions o pupils’ emo ions and
pe cep ions o social e en s o school. Howe e , i may be a gued ha he esul s o his s udy alida ed he
ins umen .
Fu he mo e, we u ilized a su ey o explo e he ela ionship be ween pupils’ emo ions and achie emen and
school- ela ed wellbeing. The alidi y and eliabili y o he su ey was sa is ac o y (Pie a inen e al., 2014). In
addi ion, he in e nal consis ency o he cynicism scale was good. Howe e , i should be no ed ha u he
cons uc alida ion o he scales is s ill needed. Fo example, he scales ha e no been alida ed in o he
coun ies, school sys ems, o en i onmen s (Pie a inen e al., 2014). Hence, gene alizing he esul s o o he
school sys ems and coun ies should be done wi h cau ion because o he dis inc i e ea u es o Finnish
comp ehensi e school and he limi ed sample size (N=146). Despi e hese limi a ions, ou s udy p o ides
impo an insigh s in o pupils’ emo ions in social in e ac ions in school se ings.
6.2 Theo e ical Re lec ions and Educa ional Implica ions
The main indings o ou s udy showed ha he in e ac ion be ween eache s and pee s, especially in in o mal
lea ning en i onmen s, is a cen al a ena o pupils’ socially embedded emo ions. Howe e , p e ious emo ion
li e a u e has neglec ed social embeddedness o emo ions, ocusing hea ily on explo ing academic emo ions in
o mal lea ning en i onmen s, especially concen a ing on achie emen , engagemen and eaching (e.g., Beilock
e al., 2010; F enzel e al., 2009; Hagenaue e al., 2015; Linnenb ink-Ga cia e al., 2011; Linnenb ink-Ga cia &
Pek un, 2011; Pek un e al., 2002). Ou esul s ex end he p e ious esea ch on academic emo ions by showing
ha emo ional expe iences do no only occu in class ooms and du ing o mal eaching and lea ning, bu also
widely in social in e ac ions be ween classes.
E en hough p e ious li e a u e on ecess se ing is, as a as we know, e y limi ed, he e is p io e idence ha
pupils’ moods when en e ing class in luence emo ions expe ienced du ing o mal lea ning (Becke e al., 2014).
Ou s udy ex ends his inding, implying ha ecess is an impo an pa o he pedagogically o ches a ed school
en i onmen ha migh ha e signi ican impac on lea ning also du ing class. Thus, eache s should ecognize
he signi icance o pupils’ emo ions o lea ning and be able o iden i y hei emo ional s a es. Fu he mo e,
eache s should know how o u ilize pupils’ posi i e emo ions o suppo lea ning as well as iden i y he
si ua ions whe e he igge s o pupils’ nega i e emo ional expe iences need o be p ocessed oge he . Fo
example, pupils’ nega i e emo ional expe iences du ing ecess migh make hem incapable o lea ning, and
si ua ions whe e he eache keeps pushing u he wi h eaching may lead o mu ual us a ion and a nega i e
cycle. Hence, i would be impo an o he eache o know when exis ing social p oblems need o be sol ed in
he beginning o he class, so ha he pupils would be mo e emo ionally wi ed o lea n. Mo e esea ch o his is,
howe e , needed.