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Explo ing he use o sel -assessmen in Chinese p ima y school EFL eaching : eache s’
pe spec i es and p ac ices in Shanghai, Shenzhen and Jiangsu
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
Published e sion
Hu, Yali; Kan elinen, Ri a; Kau onen, Ma ia
Hu, Y., Kan elinen, R., & Kau onen, M. (2024). Explo ing he use o sel -assessmen in Chinese
p ima y school EFL eaching : eache s’ pe spec i es and p ac ices in Shanghai, Shenzhen and
Jiangsu. Cogen Educa ion, 11(1), A icle 2425903.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/2331186x.2024.2425903
2024
Cogen Educa ion
ISSN: (P in ) (Online) Jou nal homepage: www. and online.com/jou nals/oaed20
Explo ing he use o sel -assessmen in
Chinese p ima y school EFL eaching: eache s’
pe spec i es and p ac ices in Shanghai, Shenzhen
and Jiangsu
Yali Hu, Ri a Kan elinen & Ma ia Kau onen
To ci e his a icle: Yali Hu, Ri a Kan elinen & Ma ia Kau onen (2024) Explo ing he use
o sel -assessmen in Chinese p ima y school EFL eaching: eache s’ pe spec i es and
p ac ices in Shanghai, Shenzhen and Jiangsu, Cogen Educa ion, 11:1, 2425903, DOI:
10.1080/2331186X.2024.2425903
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© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
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EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Explo ing he use o sel -assessmen in Chinese p ima y school EFL
eaching: eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ices in Shanghai, Shenzhen
and Jiangsu
Yali Hu
a
, Ri a Kan elinen
a
and Ma ia Kau onen
b
a
Philosophical Facul y, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Finland;
b
Facul y o Humani ies and Social Sciences, Uni e si y o
Jy €
askyl€
a, Finland
ABSTRACT
This s udy explo es sel -assessmen (SA) p ac ices and pe cep ions among p ima y
school English as a o eign language (EFL) eache s in China. Da a we e collec ed
h ough a quali a i e web-based ques ionnai e om 97 EFL eache s in p ima y public
schools ac oss Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu. The esul s indica ed a gene al con-
sensus among eache s on he alue o SA o imp o ing s uden lea ning and each-
ing p ac ice. Howe e , cu en implemen a ion p ac ices appea ed less p omising, wi h
many eache s employing i in equen ly and p ima ily using i as a measu emen
ool. Fac o s in luencing hei SA implemen a ion we e also iden i ied, including
s uden s’age and lea ning abili y, e ec i e assessmen c i e ia, la ge class sizes, exam-
o ien ed cul u e, su icien p o essional knowledge and skills, and pa en al suppo .
This s udy sugges s ha despi e mos eache s ha ing a posi i e pe cep ion o SA,
he e is oom o imp o emen in hei p ac ices, wi h a need o p omo e mo e egu-
la and o ma i e use o SA. Also, his s udy unde sco es he impo ance o add essing
ac o s a ec ing he implemen a ion o SA in o eaching p ac ices in he Chinese edu-
ca ional con ex .
IMPACT STATEMENT
Sel -assessmen is essen ial in o eign language educa ion by helping lea ne s ake an
ac i e ole in e alua ing hei p og ess and iden i ying a eas o imp o emen .
P e ious s udies show ha sel -assessmen imp o es academic pe o mance, s uden
au onomy, sel - egula ion, and mo i a ion. These s udies also emphasize he signi i-
can ole o eache s in p o iding he guidance and suppo necessa y o make sel -
assessmen e ec i e. Building on his, ou s udy explo es Chinese p ima y school EFL
eache s’pe spec i es on and p ac ices o sel -assessmen , shedding ligh on how i is
implemen ed in eal class ooms. The indings o e insigh s o o eign language
eache s, policymake s, adminis a o s, and eache educa o s aiming o imp o e lan-
guage eaching and eache aining in simila con ex s.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 1 Sep embe 2024
Re ised 27 Oc obe 2024
Accep ed 31 Oc obe 2024
KEYWORDS
Sel -assessmen ; eache
pe cep ions; assessmen
p ac ices; p ima y school
educa ion; English as a
o eign language eaching
SUBJECTS
Teache s & Teache
Educa ion; Class oom
P ac ice; Con inuing
P o essional De elopmen ;
Ea ly Yea s; P ima y/
Elemen a y Educa ion;
Language Teaching &
Lea ning
In oduc ion
The ad en o lea ne -cen e ed pedagogies has spo ligh ed he signi icance o sel -assessmen (SA) in
he domain o language educa ion. SA, de ined by B own and Ha is (2013, p. 368) as ‘a desc ip i e and
e alua i e ac ca ied ou by he s uden conce ning his o he own wo k and academic abili ies,’is pi -
o al in os e ing lea ne au onomy (Li le, 2011;M
€
akip€
a€
a e al., 2023). Empi ical esea ch indica es ha
SA posi i ely in luences s uden s by enhancing hei academic pe o mance, sel - egula ion, sense o
sel -e icacy, and mo i a ion (Al-Rashidi e al., 2022; Kuma e al., 2023; Panade o e al., 2017; Yan e al.,
2020). Acknowledged o i s posi i e bene i s and cen al signi icance, SA has been in eg a ed as an
essen ial elemen o o eign language eaching (FLT), inding i s place in he cu icula and ex books o
nume ous coun ies (Bu le , 2016,2024). Al hough he e is a g owing in e es in SA as a ool o enhance
CONTACT Yali Hu [email p o ec ed] Philosophical Facul y, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Finland
ß2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
COGENT EDUCATION
2024, VOL. 11, NO. 1, 2425903
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2425903
language lea ning and o e all s uden de elopmen , he e is s ill a no able lack o insigh in o how SA is
applied a he p ima y school le el (Bu le & Lee, 2010; Hung e al., 2016).
China is no di e en in his ega d. The coun y has seen signi ican e o ms in English as a o eign
language (EFL) eaching in he las wen y yea s, pa icula ly a e English became compulso y in p ima y
schools in 2001. These e o ms, d i en by globaliza ion, ha e shi ed he cu iculum owa d a communi-
ca i e, compe ency-based app oach, mo ing away om adi ional o e lea ning and eache -cen e ed
me hods (Cla k, 2013; Coombs e al., 2022; Hu & McKay, 2012). The English Cu iculum S anda d o
Compulso y Educa ion (Minis y o Educa ion o he People’s Republic o China, 2011,2022) ad oca es
o s uden -cen e ed assessmen , highligh ing he signi icance o os e ing lea ne au onomy by engag-
ing s uden s in hei lea ning p ocess and aking esponsibili y o hei lea ning. Addi ionally, i empha-
sizes he impo ance o EFL eache s in mo i a ing s uden s o adop he oles o designe s, pa icipan s,
and collabo a o s in di e en assessmen ac i i ies. Teache s a e encou aged o acili a e s uden s’
in ol emen in SA and pee assessmen p ocesses and o p omo e ac i e e lec ion and e alua ion o
hei lea ning. The suppo o SA is also echoed in ex books. Fo ins ance, English (G ade Th ee as
S a ing Poin ) (2013) includes a ‘Ticking Time’session a he end o each uni , allowing s uden s o a e
hei mas e y o he uni ’s knowledge and skills wi h s a s. Despi e i s simple design, he in en ion is o
in eg a e SA in o mains eam assessmen p ac ices. Gi en he au onomy o local educa ion au ho i ies in
selec ing ex book e sions, di e en a eas ac oss China use di e ing ex books, and no all o hese
con ain a sec ion dedica ed o SA.
Despi e SA being ad oca ed in he cu iculum and inco po a ed in o some ex books, i is no as
p e alen in p ima y school EFL eaching. Mos esea ch on SA in China has p ima ily ocused on
he uni e si y and seconda y educa ion le els, wi h compa a i ely less a en ion gi en o i s imple-
men a ion a he p ima y school le el (Liu & B an meie , 2019; Wu e al., 2021; Zhang e al., 2022).
The limi ed s udies ha ha e been conduc ed a he p ima y school le el ha e no been able o
p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew o SA p ac ices in Chinese p ima y school EFL eaching, as hey
ha e ei he ocused on heo e ical dimensions (Li, 2022) o included small sample sizes (Yan e al.,
2021). This gap signi ies a need o empi ical esea ch on Chinese p ima y school EFL eache s’a i-
udes, expe iences, and p ac ices ega ding SA. Mo eo e , he ac o s in luencing he implemen a ion
o SA in his con ex ha e ye o be ully explo ed. This s udy seeks o ill he iden i ied esea ch
gap by examining Chinese p ima y school EFL eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ices o implemen ing
SA, con ibu ing o a mo e in-dep h and comp ehensi e unde s anding o i s ole and e icacy in
EFL eaching.
Li e a u e e iew
In his li e a u e e iew, we i s p o ide an o e iew o SA in O e iew o sel -assessmen , discussing i s
heo e ical amewo k, bene i s, and conce ns. Then, in Ea lie s udies on sel -assessmen in o eign lan-
guage eaching, we e iew p e ious s udies on SA in FLT, ocusing on p ima y school se ings and
explo ing eache s’a i udes and p ac ices.
O e iew o sel -assessmen
SA, an essen ial componen o FLT, is de ined by Ha is (1997) as a me hod ha empowe s s uden s o
app aise hei lea ning p ocess o emain ocused on hei lea ning. Ha is elabo a es ha SA suppo s
s uden s o become mo e awa e o pe sonal p og ess, concen a ing on language pe o mance ins ead
o me e knowledge acquisi ion, and encou ages hem o e lec on hei pe o mance (1997, p. 15).
Following Boud (1995), SA in ol es s uden s speci ying c i e ia o s anda ds o which hei wo k should
be held and judging he deg ee o which hese ha e been ul illed. Dolosic (2018) desc ibes SA as he
lea ne ’s app aisal o hei own abili ies o pe o mances. These de ini ions unde sco e s uden s’ac i e
pa icipa ion in he assessmen p ocess, al hough se ing dis inc pu poses. Bu le (2023) co obo a es
his iew by no ing he mul i ace ed na u e o SA, emphasizing i s dual unc ions: as a ool o measu e-
men and as a ool o lea ning (p. 192).
2 Y. HU ET AL.
Theo e ical amewo k o sel -assessmen
While schola s may ha e di e en in e p e a ions o he pu pose o SA, Bu le (2023) con ends ha SA’s
ue ad an age lies in i s use as a ool o lea ning. Bu le explains ha in assessmen o lea ning, lea n-
e s ansi ion om being passi e subjec s o measu emen o ac i e pa icipan s who in e p e hei
lea ning and ake ac ions aimed a o ma i e imp o emen (2016, p. 301). This ac i e in ol emen is
emphasized by bo h cons uc i is lea ning heo y and sel - egula ed lea ning (SRL) heo y.
In ea ly language educa ion, Bu le (2016) asse s ha SA, when employed as a lea ning ool, should
be designed o help lea ne s comp ehend ask objec i es, e lec on hei lea ning ela i e o hese
goals, moni o hei lea ning p ocesses, and de e mine wha is necessa y o achie e he desi ed ou -
comes (p. 305). This pe spec i e is well-suppo ed by SRL heo y, which emphasizes sel - egula ion as
lea ne s engage in se ing goals and planning s a egies, implemen ing hese s a egies while sel -
moni o ing and e alua ing hei pe o mance and he e ec i eness o hei s a egies o u u e lea ning
(Zimme man, 2002, pp. 67–68). Fu he mo e, me acogni ion plays a c i ical ole in his p ocess, as lea n-
e s need o be awa e o hei lea ning—wha hey know o ha e lea ned—and possess s a egies o
con ol, di ec , adjus , and s ee hei lea ning (McMillan & Hea n, 2008; Wenden, 1998).
The concep s o ac i e in ol emen ,sel - egula ion, and me acogni ion p o ide aluable heo e ical
lenses o unde s anding SA as a lea ning ool in ea ly language educa ion. Building on his ounda ion,
ou esea ch explo es eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ices ega ding SA, aiming o gain insigh s ha can
in o m and guide i s implemen a ion in p ima y o eign language class ooms.
Bene i s o sel -assessmen o language eache s and s uden s
A e iew o he cu en li e a u e on SA e eals widesp ead ag eemen on i s posi i e impac , highligh -
ing nume ous bene i s o s uden s and eache s. E idence shows ha SA can posi i ely a ec s uden s’
academic pe o mance (Hung, 2019; Phuong e al., 2023). Beyond academic pe o mance, SA is ins u-
men al in de eloping sel - egula ed lea ning skills (Kuma e al., 2023; Vasu e al., 2022), os e ing lea ne
au onomy (Li le, 2011; Qasem, 2020), and inc easing me acogni i e awa eness (Bi jandi & Hadidi Tamjid,
2012; Eb ahimi e al., 2021). Finally, SA plays a cen al ole in boos ing mo i a ion, engagemen , and
sel -e icacy (B own & Ha is, 2013, p. 368). Ga dne (2000) and Riswan o e al. (2022) no e ha high le -
els o SA can boos lea ne mo i a ion and engagemen . Taka ouch ’s(2022) s udy u he highligh s
SA’s e ec i eness in inc easing s uden s’sel -e icacy in w i ing. While he li e a u e on SA’s bene i s is
well-documen ed om seconda y o uni e si y le els, ewe s udies ocus on he p ima y le el.
As well as being a bene icial ool o s uden s, SA o e s a ange o bene i s o eache s. By in eg a -
ing SA in o eaching p ac ice, eache s can expe ience a dec ease in wo kload as s uden s become mo e
esponsible o hei lea ning, assessing hei p og ess, and iden i ying a eas o imp o emen (Phuong
e al., 2023). In addi ion o elie ing eache s o he bu den, his shi ees up ime o mo e indi idual-
ized ins uc ion and be e suppo (Ga dne , 2000). Implemen ing SA also os e s a s onge eache -
s uden ela ionship and in e ac ion (Bu le & Lee, 2010). When s uden s a e in ol ed in SA, hey
become mo e open o seeking eedback and guidance, os e ing a collabo a i e lea ning en i onmen .
Conce ns abou sel -assessmen implemen a ion in second/ o eign language educa ion con ex
Despi e he many bene i s o SA o language eaching and lea ning, he e a e conce ns ega ding i s
implemen a ion, pa icula ly abou he accu acy o SA. These conce ns a ise om se e al ac o s. Fi s ly,
i em- ela ed ac o s play a c ucial ole. How SA i ems a e designed and adminis e ed can g ea ly a ec
s uden s’abili y o sel -assess accu a ely (Bu le , 2023). Fo ins ance, Bu le (2018) no es ha ague
desc ip o s like ‘ ollow’and ‘unde s and’may lead o a ied in e p e a ions, po en ially dis o ing assess-
men esul s (pp. 249-250). Secondly, s uden - ela ed ac o s such as language p o iciency, academic abil-
i y, p e ious SA expe ience, pe sonali y, and mo i a ion in luence SA accu acy (B an meie e al., 2012;
Keane & G i in, 2018; Ma & Winke, 2019). In addi ion, pe sonali y ac o s like o e con idence o sel -
doub can skew SA owa ds o e es ima ion o unde es ima ion, espec i ely (Cues a-Melo e al., 2022).
Howe e , Black and Wiliam (1998) a gue ha he issue wi h SA is no s uden s’ eliabili y bu hei lack
o clea unde s anding o lea ning objec i es. Thi dly, eache - ela ed ac o s, including a i udes owa d
SA, implemen ing expe iences, and assessmen li e acy, a e equally in luen ial (Wu e al., 2021; Zhang
COGENT EDUCATION 3

e al., 2022). Las ly, socie al and ins i u ional ac o s such as eache s’and pa en s’expec a ions, exis ing
e alua ion sys ems, and he ex en o suppo o eache p o essional de elopmen wi hin ins i u ions
a e also conside ed c ucial (Bu le , 2023; Lee & Coniam, 2013; Liu & Xu, 2017).
Ea lie s udies on sel -assessmen in o eign language eaching
Sel -assessmen in p ima y school o eign language eaching
Al hough he e is inc easing in e es in using SA in FLT, i has no had such a s ong p esence in p ima y
school FLT (Bu le , 2016). Mos p e ious esea ch on SA in FLT has been in highe and seconda y educa-
ion (Ben aghda e al., 2022;M
€
akip€
a€
a, 2021; Taka ouch , 2022). Conside ing he conce ns men ioned
abo e, especially ega ding he age and capabili ies o younge lea ne s, esea ch on SA wi hin he p i-
ma y school se ing emains scan (Bu le & Lee, 2006; Rixon, 2023; Yan, 2018).
The ew s udies conduc ed in he FLT a he p ima y school le el ha e looked a di e en aspec s o
SA, including i s easibili y wi h young lea ne s, i s impac on lea ne con idence and language p o i-
ciency, he ole o con ex in assessmen s, and he in luence o ac o s like mo i a ion, sel -e icacy, and
eedback on SA accu acy. Hung e al. (2016) explo ed he use o SA in p ima y English class ooms, spe-
ci ically e alua ing six h g ade s’o al p esen a ions. Thei indings sugges ha e en young lea ne s can
e ec i ely engage in SA wi h p ope suppo . Bu le and Lee’s(2006) s udy wi h 151 Ko ean p ima y s u-
den s inds ha s uden s’sel -assessmen s o hei o al pe o mance a e mo e accu a e du ing on- ask
assessmen s (speci ic English asks) han o - ask assessmen s (b oade , con ex - ee e alua ions), unde -
lining he i al ole o con ex in conduc ing SA wi h young lea ne s. Bu le and Lee (2010) in es iga ed
he impac o SA on young EFL lea ne s and ound signi ican gains in con idence and language p o i-
ciency. Thei esea ch also sugges s ha consis en SA p ac ice can lead o mo e accu a e SA by s u-
den s. Ano he s udy by Bu le (2018) on Japanese p ima y s uden s e ealed ha bo h pe sonal ac o s
(mo i a ion, sel -e icacy, age) and social-en i onmen al ac o s ( eedback) a ec how s uden s espond
o SA, e ealing he complex in e ac ions in ol ed.
Teache s’a i udes and p ac ices o sel -assessmen in o eign language eaching
The abo e s udies emphasize ha success ul SA elies on ca e ul execu ion, which includes clea eache
guidance, hough ully c ea ed ques ions, and su icien suppo . Teache s play a signi ican ole in acili-
a ing his p ocess. In he con ex o language educa ion, Bo g (2018) highligh s ha eache s’belie s
a ec hei ins uc ional p ac ices. Wi hin he assessmen con ex , Bu le and Lee (2010) emphasize ha
eache s’pe cep ions o assessmen in luence hei p ac ices, which, in u n, in luence s uden s’SA. This
iew is suppo ed by o he s udies, including ha o Ha is and B own (2013) and Black and Wiliam
(1998). Fo his eason, we e iewed he li e a u e on eache s’a i udes and p ac ices o SA in FLT
ac oss di e en educa ional le els o explo e hese dynamics and in o m how SA p ac ices migh be
adap ed and e ec i ely applied in he p ima y educa ion con ex .
M€
akip€
a€
a’s(2021) esea ch on Finnish uppe seconda y o eign language eache s e eals ha all in e -
iewed eache s used SA, hough wi h a ia ions in implemen a ion—some used i summa i ely, o he s
o ma i ely. Howe e , mos did no each s uden s how o de elop SA skills. The s udy also indica es
he di e se use o SA, including open-ended ques ions, eedback ques ionnai es, wo d es s, and
ex book ac i i ies. Bullock’s(2011) esea ch shows ha while eache s acknowledged SA’s ad an ages—
including enhancing s uden s’sel -awa eness and mo i a ion— hey had ese a ions abou i s p ac-
icali y, ques ioning s uden s’capaci y o SA, he ime equi ed, and he challenges in mo i a ing and
di ec ing s uden s o se goals. In Bu le and Lee’s(2010) s udy on Ko ean p ima y school s uden s, bo h
eache s acknowledged SA’s e ec i eness, bu one exp essed ese a ions abou in eg a ing SA wi h
summa i e assessmen . They emphasized he impo ance o clea ini ial guidance, sugges ing ewe ,
mo e ocused i ems o equen SA p ac ices. They also discussed challenges in p o iding e ec i e
eedback.
In he Chinese con ex , Zhang e al. (2022) in es iga ed Chinese EFL eache s’a i udes and sel -
e icacy belie s in using SA in uni e si y w i ing classes. While eache s show posi i e a i udes owa d
SA, i s use in p ac ice was limi ed due o gaps in knowledge, expe ience, and app ecia ion o s uden -
cen e ed assessmen s. The s udy highligh s he need o p o essional de elopmen o aise eache s’
4 Y. HU ET AL.
assessmen li e acy. Wu e al. (2021) ind ha Chinese uni e si y EFL eache s seldom used SA due o
ime cons ain s and limi ed unde s anding. Al hough one eache epo ed equen SA use, obse a-
ions showed minimal s uden engagemen wi h SA. The s udy ecommends eache educa ion p o-
g ams o enhance assessmen knowledge and skills. Yan e al. (2021) suppo simila indings, no ing
ha a Chinese p ima y school EFL eache used SA spo adically and ano he did so wi hou clea success
c i e ia, causing s uden con usion. Challenges such as limi ed eache knowledge, p e e ence o no m-
e e enced assessmen s, s uden s’di icul y wi h c i e ia, la ge class sizes, and an exam-cen ic cul u e
we e iden i ied. The s udy ecommends imp o ing eache educa ion wi h subjec con en knowledge
and ac ionable assessmen guidelines.
The li e a u e shows ha while eache s gene ally exp ess posi i e a i udes owa d SA, i s p ac ical
applica ion emains limi ed. E en in s udies whe e eache s epo equen SA use, a gap exis s be ween
hei s a ed p ac ices and ac ual class oom beha io s. Phipps and Bo g (2009) con i m his misma ch,
showing ha language eache s’belie s do no always co espond wi h hei p ac ices (p. 386). This
emphasizes he need o unde s and eache s’belie s o suppo e ec i e SA implemen a ion.
Resea ch ques ions
As indica ed by he li e a u e e iew, he e is a limi ed unde s anding o Chinese p ima y school EFL
eache s’ iews and p ac ices o SA. To his end, his s udy in es iga es he iews and expe iences o
eache s in public schools in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu on in eg a ing SA in o EFL eaching. I
aims o add ess he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1. How do Chinese p ima y school EFL eache s pe cei e sel -assessmen in p ima y school EFL
eaching?
2. How is sel -assessmen implemen ed in EFL eaching in Chinese p ima y schools?
3. Wha ac o s in luence Chinese p ima y school EFL eache s’sel -assessmen implemen a ion?
Me hodology
This s udy adop ed a quali a i e app oach, ideal o explo ing Chinese p ima y school EFL eache s’
iews on SA h ough hei pe sonal expe iences (see Cohen e al., 2011). Selec ing a quali a i e app oach
was app op ia e, gi en he sca ce esea ch on SA a he p ima y le el in China. I s explo a o y na u e
acili a es an in-dep h explo a ion o his unde s udied opic (see Johnson & Ch is ensen, 2014).
Pa icipan s
To p o ide su icien dep h and b ead h o da a, we a ge ed a sample o 100 EFL eache s om
Chinese public p ima y schools in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu. These egions we e chosen o hei
epu able educa ion s anda ds and ac i e ole in spea heading educa ional e o ms in China (OECD,
2016). O he 100 esponses ecei ed, wo eache s we e om p i a e schools, and one did no gi e con-
sen , esul ing in hei exclusion. This le 97 pa icipa ing eache s, wi h 25 om Shanghai, 24 om
Shenzhen, and 48 om Jiangsu. Mos eache s (n ¼79) ha e bachelo ’s deg ees, while a ew (n ¼16)
ha e achie ed highe le els o educa ion, such as mas e ’s o doc o ’s deg ees. Only wo eache s ha e
quali ica ions ha all sho o a bachelo ’s deg ee. The eaching expe ience among he eache s a ies
widely, spanning om less han wo yea s o mo e han wen y-one yea s. In his s udy, he pa icipan s
we e anonymized and assigned codes anging om Teache 1 o Teache 97 o main ain con iden iali y
and anonymi y.
Da a collec ion
In his s udy, da a we e collec ed h ough a quali a i e web-based ques ionnai e. This allowed he pa ic-
ipa ing eache s o sha e hei hough s and expe iences abou SA and elabo a e on and explain hei
answe s (see B aun e al., 2021; Cohen e al., 2011). D awing om he li e a u e e iew (B own & Ha is,
COGENT EDUCATION 5
2013; Bu le , 2023;M
€
akip€
a€
a, 2021; Yan e al., 2021; Zhang e al., 2022), a ques ionnai e comp ising 21
i ems was de eloped. This included ques ions o ga he demog aphic de ails such as educa ion le el,
yea s o expe ience eaching EFL a he p ima y le el, g ades augh , he numbe o class g oups
ins uc ed, and he ype o school. The ques ionnai e also included open-ended ques ions o gain
eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ices ela ed o SA in p ima y school EFL eaching. De ails o he speci ic
open-ended ques ions can be ound in Table 1. Ini ially, he ques ionnai e was de eloped in English and
subsequen ly ansla ed by he i s au ho in o Chinese o make i easie o he eache s o unde s and.
Mul iple eadings we e pe o med o ensu e he ansla ion was clea and ai h ul o he o iginal ques-
ionnai e’s in ended meaning.
The ques ionnai e was c ea ed using Web opol o ensu e a wide each and con enience o pa ici-
pan s. To pilo he ques ionnai e, i was sen o 15 Chinese EFL eache s om p ima y schools ia
WeCha , a widely used messaging and calling applica ion in China, o ensu e all ques ions we e clea
and unde s andable in he Chinese con ex . Following he pilo phase, adjus men s we e made o he
ques ions o imp o e hei cla i y. The pa icipan s we e ec ui ed h ough con enience sampling, a ge -
ing hose willing o eadily a ailable o pa icipa e (see Johnson & Ch is ensen, 2014). The i s au ho
con ac ed p ima y school p incipals and senio EFL eache s in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu, who
we e acquain ances. They we e hen asked o dis ibu e he ques ionnai e link o willing eache s wi hin
hei espec i e schools h ough WeCha .
This s udy adhe ed o he guidelines o he Finnish Na ional Resea ch In eg i y in Human Sciences
(TENK, 2019,2023). E hical app o al was no equi ed as he esea ch did no in ol e de ia ions om
in o med consen o physical in e en ions (TENK, 2019, p. 17). All necessa y consen ag eemen s we e
ob ained, ensu ing no isk o pa icipan s’heal h and sa e y (TENK, 2023, p. 13). The i s page o he
ques ionnai e ou lined he esea ch de ails, including da a s o age, p ocessing, epo ing, and pa ici-
pan s’ igh s. Only pa icipan s who ga e hei consen we e di ec ed o he ques ionnai e con en ;
o he wise, he ques ionnai e was ended. All 97 pa icipa ing eache s ga e hei consen o his s udy.
To sa egua d pa icipan s’ olun a y engagemen in he esea ch, answe ing he ques ionnai e i ems was
no manda o y. As a esul , no all pa icipan s esponded o e e y ques ion, leading o di e en
esponse a es o he ques ionnai e i ems. Acknowledging his, ou analysis conside s he di e en
esponse a es when in e p e ing he da a and d awing conclusions. The esponse a es o each ques-
ionnai e i em pe inen o he s udy’s esea ch ques ions a e shown in Table 1. The da a collec ion
phase ook place om Decembe 2023 o Janua y 2024.
Da a analysis
The da a analysis o his s udy was ca ied ou using con en analysis, an app oach o dis ill and a icu-
la e he main ideas, hemes, and messages om he collec ed w i en da a (see Cohen e al., 2011). The
analysis was pe o med in Chinese by he i s au ho , a na i e speake , o ensu e p ecision and minimize
he isk o losing o dis o ing da a. The o he wo au ho s, no luen in Chinese, p o ided o e sigh on
he indings o ensu e igo and alidi y. The con en analysis in his s udy ollowed he p ocedu e ou -
lined by Elo and Kyng€
as (2008), E lingsson and B ysiewicz (2017), and Kucka z and R€
adike (2023), s a -
ing wi h amilia izing wi h he da a and di iding he ex in o meaning ul segmen s ela ed o he
esea ch ques ions. Subsequen s eps in ol ed coding he ex ual ma e ial and de eloping ca ego ies
using ATLAS. i so wa e. In he coding p ocess, se e al codes we e iden i ied. Examples o codes
included he e ec i eness o SA, bene i s o SA o eache s, bene i s o SA o s uden s, equency o SA
Table 1. Response a es o ques ionnai e i ems.
Ques ionnai e i em desc ip ion Numbe o esponses (N ¼97) Response a e (%)
E ec i eness o SA 93 95%
Bene i s o SA o eache s 83 85%
Bene i s o SA o s uden s 84 86%
F equency o SA use 76 78%
Timing o SA use 68 70%
SA me hods and s a egies 74 76%
Challenges encoun e ed 69 71%
Fac o s in luencing SA implemen a ion 70 72%
6 Y. HU ET AL.
use, iming o SA use, SA me hods and s a egies, and in luencing ac o s. F om hese codes, b oade
ca ego ies eme ged, such as eache pe cep ions o SA, he use o SA, and ac o s in luencing SA imple-
men a ion. Upon p ocessing hal o he da a, a ho ough e iew o codes and ca ego ies was unde aken
o assess hei eliabili y, wi h ongoing adjus men s made o ensu e consis en coding and ca ego iza-
ion h oughou he analysis. A inal e iew o all codes and ca ego iza ions was conduc ed o e i y eli-
abili y be o e summa izing and in e p e ing he esul s. The i s au ho ansla ed he essen ial quo es
om he ansc ip s in o English o epo he esul s. Quo a ions a e iden i ied using nume ic numbe -
ing (e.g. 1, 2, 3) o ease o e e ence and cla i y in he subsequen epo ing o esul s.
Resul s
Teache pe cep ions o sel -assessmen
E ec i eness o sel -assessmen
Va ious pe spec i es we e e lec ed in he a i udes o Chinese p ima y EFL eache s ega ding he e ec -
i eness o SA, wi h a clea majo i y exp essing posi i e iews. Among he 93 esponses ecei ed, 73
eache s exp essed a posi i e iew on in eg a ing SA in o p ima y school EFL eaching. They a ibu ed
his o he a ious bene i s o SA in p omo ing s uden lea ning. They emphasized ha SA p o ides s u-
den s wi h a deepe unde s anding o he lea ning p ocess, enabling hem o iden i y hei s eng hs
and a eas o imp o emen . This, in u n, acili a es e ision and ein o cemen o language knowledge.
Teache s app ecia ed how SA encou ages s uden s o moni o hei p og ession ac i ely and adjus
lea ning app oaches acco dingly. As eache s pu i , (1) ‘S uden sel -assessmen os e s an unde s and-
ing o hei own lea ning, he eby p omo ing he adjus men o lea ning s a egies and enhancing o e -
all lea ning e ec i eness’(Teache 44), and (2) ‘S uden s can ha e a clea unde s anding o hei le el o
mas e y in school and can check o gaps in ime’(Teache 64). They also no ed ha i signi ican ly
boos s s uden mo i a ion, p omo es mo e p o ound sel - e lec ion, and ul ima ely leads o be e lea n-
ing ou comes and inc eased sel -awa eness.
The esponses also e ealed mo e ese ed a i udes, wi h 20 eache s sha ing neu al iews on he
e ec i eness o SA. This g oup emained cau ious and p ima ily exp essed conce ns abou he accu acy
and eliabili y o s uden -led assessmen s. These eache s con ended ha s uden s, pa icula ly a
younge o lowe g ade le els, may no ha e he ma u i y and e alua i e skills necessa y o us wo hy
sel -assessmen s. They poin ed ou challenges such as s uden s’inabili y o assess hemsel es objec i ely
and comp ehensi ely and a endency o s uden s o ely hea ily on eache s’e alua ions ins ead. As
eache s de ailed, (3) ‘The e a e di e ences among s uden s he e. Those wi h a s ong abili y can con-
duc SA objec i ely and gain om i , s uden s wi h a weake abili y s uggle mo e wi h his ask’
(Teache 1), and (4) ‘S uden s ely mo e on eache e alua ions’(Teache 30).
Bene i s o sel -assessmen
To u he unde s and eache s’pe spec i es on SA, hey we e asked abou bo h he pe cei ed bene i s
o SA and he challenges encoun e ed du ing i s implemen a ion. In his sec ion, only he esul s o he
bene i s will be p esen ed, as he challenges iden i ied by he pa icipan s co espond closely o he ac-
o s in luencing hei SA implemen a ion. The challenges will be in eg a ed and explained in Fac o s
in luencing sel -assessmen implemen a ion o a mo e ho ough examina ion.
Bene i s o sel -assessmen o s uden s. The bene i s iden i ied o s uden s ell in o ou key a eas: 1)
pe sonal and emo ional g ow h, 2) de elopmen o cogni i e and me acogni i e skills, 3) enhancemen
o lea ning and academic skills, and 4) imp o emen o social and in e ac i e skills.
Fi s ly, he e was a consensus on he posi i e impac o SA on pe sonal and emo ional g ow h.
Teache s sha ed ha SA helps s uden s de elop esilience o ace se backs, inc eases hei in e es and
mo i a ion in lea ning, and aises sel -awa eness by enabling hem o ecognize hei a eas o s eng h
and g ow h. Teache s elabo a ed on hei answe s as (5) ‘(I allows s uden s o) unde s and hei
s eng hs and weaknesses’(Teache 25), and (6) ‘S imula ing s uden s’in e es in lea ning and imp o ing
COGENT EDUCATION 7
e o ms o dec ease class sizes and alle ia e he p essu e o high-s akes exams ul ima ely alls on admin-
is a o s and policymake s.
Tu ning o socio-cul u al ac o s, he need o pa en al suppo and o e coming s uden s’ eluc ance
o engage openly in SA due o ea o emba assmen ha e been iden i ied as pi o al. Bu le (2023)
emphasizes ha e ec i e SA implemen a ion in ol es pa en al in ol emen and a b oade social con ex
shaped by hei expec a ions. I can be concluded ha implemen ing SA success ully also equi es ais-
ing pa en al awa eness and c ea ing a us ing and suppo i e lea ning en i onmen (And ade & B own,
2016; Bu le , 2023; Cowie & Ha ison, 2016; Su on, 2010).
Responding o he hi d esea ch ques ion abou wha in luences eache s’implemen a ion o SA, we
ound se e al ac o s. Add essing hese ac o s is essen ial o implemen ing SA e ec i ely in o p ima y
EFL eaching in China. To o e come such challenges, ac ion is needed a h ee le els. Fi s ly, eache s
need o unde s and he ac o s a ec ing hei SA p ac ices and he suppo hey need o i s implemen-
a ion. Secondly, schools should p omo e he in eg a ion o SA in o egula assessmen s and p o ide ail-
o ed in-se ice aining o eache s. Such aining could ange om in oducing SA o newcome s,
ocusing on i s alue, me hods o adop ion, and class oom applica ion, o helping expe ienced eache s
explo e ad anced SA s a egies and imp o e s uden guidance and eedback. Las ly, i is ecommended
ha policymake s and cu iculum designe s inc ease ocus on SA wi hin assessmen p ac ices and
include a a ie y o SA ac i i ies in he cu iculum ma e ials and ex books (Allal, 2010; B own & Ha is,
2013).
Conclusion
This s udy sough o unde s and p ima y EFL eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ices o SA in he Chinese
educa ional con ex , pa icula ly in Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu. The esul s indica e ha mos
eache s hold a a o able iew ega ding he e ec i eness o SA and acknowledge i s bene i s o bo h
s uden s and hemsel es. Despi e he a o able pe spec i es, he esul s indica e ha nume ous eache s
do no ou inely in eg a e SA in o hei eaching p ac ice. The in equen use o SA is likely o be in lu-
enced by he ac o s iden i ied by eache s. The s udy also demons a es ha while eache s apply SA in
di e se ways and a dis inc poin s in hei eaching, hey p edominan ly ecommend i s unc ion as a
measu ing ool. This sugges s a need o aise eache s’awa eness o SA as a lea ning ool and o in o-
duce s a egies o using i , as s uden s bene i signi ican ly om engaging wi h SA in his way. The dis-
pa i y in eache s’pe spec i es and p ac ice indica es ha he e emains scope o de elopmen in he
SA implemen a ion wi hin he Chinese p ima y school EFL class oom. Howe e , his gap may s em om
a ious ac o s as epo ed, including hose ela ed o s uden s, assessmen c i e ia, eache s, educa ional
con ex , and socio-cul u al aspec s. The e o e, p omo ing e ec i e SA p ac ice equi es a h ee old e o :
i s , eache s should ha e a be e unde s anding o hei own pe cep ions, p ac ices, and needed sup-
po abou SA implemen a ion; second, school adminis a o s need o os e an en i onmen conduci e
o SA use and p o ide a ge ed in-se ice aining ailo ed o eache s’needs a di e en s ages o SA
applica ion; and hi d, policymake s and cu iculum de elope s could enhance he emphasis on SA
wi hin he cu iculum and in eg a e a ange o SA o ma s and ools in o cu iculum ma e ials and
ex books.
Se e al heo e ical and p ac ical con ibu ions o EFL eaching a he p ima y le el can be d awn om
he esul s o his s udy. In e ms o heo e ical implica ions, his s udy adds o he ela i ely spa se
esea ch on SA in p ima y school EFL eaching bo h in he Chinese and in e na ional con ex s. In add-
i ion, exis ing esea ch on SA in Chinese p ima y schools ends o be heo e ical o empi ical, wi h ela-
i ely limi ed sample sizes. The e o e, his s udy adds o he li e a u e by p o iding a b oade ange o
eache s’ iews and mo e subs an ial e idence o unde s anding eache s’pe spec i es on SA. Wi h
espec o p ac ical implica ions, his s udy i s unde sco es ha SA should be in eg a ed in o egula
assessmen p ac ices in EFL eaching a he p ima y school le el. The s udy also p oposes p ac ical s a -
egies o eache s o alle ia e he ac o s ha may hinde hei implemen a ion o SA. In addi ion, he
s udy sheds ligh on he cu en s a e o SA p ac ice in Chinese p ima y school EFL class ooms. This
o e s insigh s o policymake s and school adminis a o s o he con inuous imp o emen o eache
educa ion and in-se ice aining p og ams. In pa icula , he s udy in o ms cu iculum designe s abou
14 Y. HU ET AL.

he impo ance o in eg a ing inno a i e SA ools and me hods in o cu icula and ex books, ensu ing
ha hese ools a e eadily a ailable and e ec i ely applied in he class oom. Las ly, he cu en s udy is
pa o a b oade p ojec , and i s esul s will in o m ou nex s eps owa d p esen ing Chinese p ima y
school EFL eache s wi h a new pedagogical ool o SA o add ess he challenges encoun e ed in
using SA.
Despi e he con ibu ions, we ealize he limi a ions o he p esen s udy. Al hough ou sample size is
la ge enough o suppo he indings, i canno be gene alized ac oss all con ex s, as i in es iga es spe-
ci ically eache s’pe spec i es wi hin Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Jiangsu. O he egions and ci ies wi hin
China we e no included in he in es iga ion, limi ing he b oade applicabili y o he esul s. Fo his
eason, ou ad ice o u u e s udies is o ei he inc ease he sample size o examine eache s’ iews
om o he pa s o China. While his s udy ocuses exclusi ely on eache s’pe spec i es, p e ious
esea ch indica es ha s uden s’ iews may di e ge om hose o eache s (Golza e al., 2022;M
€
akip€
a€
a,
2021). The e o e, we sugges ha u u e esea ch could conside s uden s’pe spec i es and compa e
hem wi h he indings o his s udy. Mo eo e , his s udy only e eals eache s’p ac ice o SA in e ms
o equency, iming, and SA me hods. I does no e eal whe he eache s ins uc s uden s in SA skills
and how hey p o ide eedback, wo essen ial componen s o success ul SA implemen a ion. The e o e,
u u e esea ch is encou aged o del e in o hese c i ical a eas.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s hank all eache s who pa icipa ed in he ques ionnai e and he edi o s and e iewe s o hei alu-
able commen s and sugges ions.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Abou he au ho s
Yali Hu is a doc o al s uden a he Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland. He doc o al esea ch examines sel -assessmen
p ac ices in p ima y school o eign language educa ion. He esea ch in e es s include o eign language eaching,
language es ing, o ma i e assessmen , sel -assessmen , and implemen ing he Eu opean Language Po olio.
Ri a Kan elinen is a p o esso o educa ion specializing in language pedagogy a he School o Applied Educa ional
Science and Teache Educa ion, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland. He p o essional in e es s include esea ch, eaching,
and de elopmen , ocusing on educa ional expo , language educa ion, and he esea ch-d i en ad ancemen o
highe educa ion, pa icula ly in eache educa ion.
Ma ia Kau onen is a uni e si y eache in applied linguis ics a he Depa men o Language and Communica ion
S udies a he Uni e si y o Jy €
askyl€
a. He esea ch ocuses on second and o eign language lea ning, eaching and
assessmen , and language eache iden i ies.
ORCID
Yali Hu h p://o cid.o g/0009-0005-1557-6525
Ma ia Kau onen h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0688-7445
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
A p elimina y e sion o his esea ch was p esen ed a he Explo ing Language Educa ion Con e ence. The indings
ha e been expanded and e ined o his submission.
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