Re lec ions on my jou ney
owa ds cul u e-bound and
in e cul u al educa ion
Pauli Kaikkonen
In oduc ion
This chap e deals wi h my de elopmen as a o eign language eache
and esea che , on he one hand, and my unde s anding o in e cul u al
( o eign language) educa ion, on he o he . I begin by desc ibing my
s a ing posi ion as a o eign language eache . Du ing my i s s eps
as a eache and esea che , I unde s ood he insepa able connec ion
be ween language and i s backg ound cul u e. In connec ion wi h my
doc o al hesis and he i s ollow-up s udy, I ealized ha o eign
language lea ning in ol ed he pe cep ion o o eign and amilia
bo h as a dialogical p ocess wi h o he s and, a same ime, as a e y
indi idual p ocess.
Ee o Ropo & Rii a Jaa inen (eds),
Subjec Teache Educa ion in T ansi ion: Educa ing Teache s o he Fu u e
Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess, 111–136.
h p://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-952-359-016-8
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Pauli Kaikkonen
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My u he esea ch p ojec s led me o use he no ion o language
educa ion o o eign language eaching. In he inc easingly global
wo ld, in e cul u al encoun e s be ween people a e egula and
equi e he use o di e en languages. I ha e chosen o desc ibe he
new si ua ion using he wo d ‘in e cul u al’. I alk abou in e cul u al
educa ion and in e cul u al o eign language lea ning o eaching in
he same con ex . This is because I unde s and ha he same p inciples
can be seen bo h in in e cul u al o eign language lea ning and in
in e cul u al o mul icul u al educa ion. As pa o my ch onological
pa h, I also discuss au hen ici y and iden i y and plu ilingualism
as signi ican concep ions o mode n o eign language educa ion.
Finally, I discuss he main poin s o my cu en unde s anding and
p opose some cen al pe spec i es o o eign language educa ion.
The i s s eps owa ds he cul u e-
bound and in e cul u al app oach
F om he beginning o my eaching ca ee , I ha e been a o eign
language eache . The 1970s was domina ed by s uc u alism in
linguis ics and beha iou ism in he educa ional sciences. I wo ked
h ee yea s as a Ge man eache in an uppe seconda y school
be o e my appoin men as he lec u e o Ge man didac ics a he
Uni e si y o Tampe e (in 1977). Th ee yea s ea lie , eache educa ion
had become pa o Finnish uni e si ies a he newly es ablished
depa men o eache educa ion. The si ua ion ga e me bo h he
obliga ion and he possibili y, as a a he young eache , o e lec on
my own eaching and o conside wha kind o a wo ld iew, language
concep ion and language eaching compe ences new eache s would
need in hei wo k.
My conside a ions o eache educa ion and iews o o eign
language lea ning led me o de elop lea ning ma e ials o he Finnish
comp ehensi e and uppe seconda y schools in 1979 wi h a g oup o
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113Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
ou eache s o Ge man. One o ou cen al ideas was ha he lea ning
ma e ial in school should be as au hen ic as possible. Au hen ici y was
hus one o he leading concep ions pa ing he way o my beginning
esea ch wo k. Howe e , my in e p e a ion o au hen ici y a he end
o he 1970s was na ow compa ed o my la e unde s anding o i .
A ha ime, au hen ici y was mos ly unde s ood as co ec language
use and cul u al in o ma ion o he a ge coun ies. The second
impo an concep ion was communica i e compe ence, pa icula ly
he o al compe ence in he use o o eign languages. A ha ime,
howe e , he eaching o compe ences o communica ion was a he
minu e because o he s ong in luence o s uc u alism in linguis ics.
To de elop new lea ning ma e ials, I se up a collabo a i e i e-
yea eaching p ojec a he Depa men o Teache Educa ion in he
Uni e si y o Tampe e wi h h ee o he eache colleagues in Ge man,
ocusing i s on he 8 h and 9 h g ades in comp ehensi e educa ion.
The p ojec was la e expanded o a u he h ee yea s a he uppe
seconda y school le el. The comp ehensi e school lea ning ma e ial
called Komm mi 8–13 was published by he WSOY p in ing house
(1980–1985).
F om he beginning o he p ojec , we assumed an aspi a ion
o connec wi h he li ing wo lds o he 14- o 15-yea -old pupils.
Th ough ou eache con ac s in Ge man schools, we asked Ge man
pupils o he same age o w i e abou hei li es, opinions and in e es s
in he hemes ha we conside ed he lea ning ma e ial should include.
In his way, we ob ained ich, au hen ic ma e ial as he basis o he
ex s and exe cises ha we de eloped oge he . The lea ning ma e ial
p ojec was comple ed in 1985. While i did no p oduce esea ch
pape s, i c ea ed a solid base o my heo e ical hinking and la e
s udies.
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Rela ionship be ween language and cul u e
The connec ion be ween language and cul u e is collec i e by na u e.
The ac ha people belong o a ious g oups na u ally implies ha
he language used, o he languages used, a e cul u e-bound. Fo
human beings, language is a basic way o exis ing in he wo ld. I
is by means o language ha we exp ess ou sel es and connec wi h
ellow indi iduals. By means o language and by using language, we
examine and e alua e he wo ld, ask ques ions ha a e impo an o
us, ell o he s abou ou sel es, se up ela ionships wi h o he s and
lis en o hem and hei no ions o he wo ld and hemsel es.
Language is also a means o exp essing membe ship in a a ie y
o collec i e g oups, pa icipa ion in ou ways o li ing, and seeing
he wo ld and human beings as pa o i . Bu simul aneously, we also
dissocia e ou sel es om ce ain g oups, i.e. om people who hink
and ac in a di e en way. By means o language we also exp ess ou
non-commi men o a ce ain se o alues and o people who hink
and ac in a ce ain way. By exp essing ou commi men and non-
commi men , we, in ac , e eal who we a e and wha we a e like
(Kaikkonen 2012a).
Language depends deeply on cul u e, being a p oduc o a
pa icula cul u e. Languages di e om each o he in se e al
espec s. Each language has i s own sen ence s uc u e, sounds and
ocabula y. The p e ailing cul u e has de eloped o de ined he way
in which a pa icula language is w i en. The wo ds o a language
p o ide a g ea deal o in o ma ion abou hei cul u al pas , bu i
is s ill no a ma e o cou se ha we a e able o comp ehend his
in o ma ion. In mos cases we do no pay any a en ion o he cul u al
o igin, o na a i e, o he wo ds in ou mo he ongue.
A language is u he connec ed wi h ex a-linguis ic ac o s in a
a ie y o ways, such as ges u es, acial exp essions, body language, he
i uals, symbols and o he signs ha ha e been es ablished in p ac ice,
as well as he non-linguis ic signals ha we bo h send and ecei e.
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115Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
Mo eo e , ou language is in luenced, o ins ance, by ou no ions
o ime, space and gende . A language is used o communica ion
and in e p e ed as pa o he pe son’s o e all beha iou by he
pa icipan s. Communica ion in a iably includes meanings o he
han linguis ic ones. As human languages a e cul u e-bound, hey
a e linked o he o he ac o s ha a e p esen in hei espec i e
cul u es. (Kaikkonen 1994; 2001; 2004; 2012a.)
The ac ha language and cul u e a e so deeply in e wined is e y
signi ican o o eign language eaching and lea ning. This was he
poin o iew ha I had al eady conside ed as a young language eache
when wonde ing abou he con en s o exis ing lea ning ma e ials,
class oom eaching me hods, and he p inciples o eache educa ion
ha esul ed in my own class oom beha iou . Unde s anding he
language as being deeply oo ed in i s backg ound cul u e led me o
each he o eign language in a cul u e-o ien ed way, by sensi ising
pupils o o eign language cul u e and o eignness, ac i ely making
pe cep ions o o eign linguis ic beha iou and becoming, a he
same ime, awa e o hei au oma ized linguis ic and cul u e-bound
beha iou s (e.g. Kaikkonen 1997b).
Becoming a esea che o cul u e-bound
o eign language lea ning and eaching
In 1986, I ecei ed he oppo uni y o conduc ull- ime esea ch o
hal a yea ’s ime wi h unding by he Finnish Minis y o Educa ion
and he Academy o Aus ia. The ime a he Teache T aining
Uni e si y in G az was c ucial o my hinking abou lea ning and
eaching o eign languages. I was now able o acquain mysel wi h
quali a i e esea ch and i s possibili ies in ieldwo k. I also deepened
my unde s anding o expe ien ial lea ning and eaching in o eign
languages (c . Puch a & Sch a z 1984), and o he plu ali y o he
concep ion o cul u e. As a esul , I was able o ou line an ac ion

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Pauli Kaikkonen
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esea ch expe imen o s udy he lea ne s’ and eache s’ pe cep ions
and expe iences o o eign language and cul u e lea ning. The
expe imen al p ojec was conduc ed in 1989–1990. Ten Ge man
language s uden s pa icipa ed in i , Bu kha Bendel (lec u e ) and
mysel , om he Uni e si y o Tampe e. As a esul o his p ojec , I
inished my doc o al hesis E leb e Landeskunde (Kaikkonen 1991).
I deepened my unde s anding o au hen ici y owa ds he language
use ’s au hen ic ac ion, p oducing a change o pe spec i e as a new
no ion ha included a compa ison o and e lec ion on wo di e en
language cul u es, in oducing he concep ion o an au hen ic
encoun e .
I summa ised he conclusions o he hesis b ie ly as ollows: A
cen al unc ion o he s ay in Ge many, besides gi ing oppo uni ies
o obse a ion, con ac and in o ma ion-ga he ing, was o allow he
pa icipa ing s uden s o es hei p e ious assump ions enabling
hem o e i y o alsi y hem. An impo an esul was ha he
eaching expe imen and i s p ocedu es we e able o change he
pa icipan s’ cul u al awa eness (Kaikkonen 1991, 175). A ha ime,
in e cul u al o eign language eaching was in sea ch o i s o ms a
leas in Cen al Eu ope, and hus my doc o al hesis a oused a g ea
amoun o in e es among o eign language educa ion esea che s.
As he esul o his, I had he oppo uni y o pa icipa e in se e al
in e na ional semina s and con e ences.
The ac ion esea ch app oach p o ided an excellen way o connec
heo y wi h p ac ice. I led o conduc ing u he esea ch wi h
s uden s a he uppe seconda y school le el. Thus an ac ion esea ch
s udy on cul u e-o ien ed o eign language eaching was launched
in collabo a ion wi h Tuula Pan za and Ja i Aa nio, he lec u e s in
Ge man and F ench a he Teache T aining School a ilia ed wi h he
Uni e si y o Tampe e (Kaikkonen 1993; 1995). The p ojec comp ised
a wo-yea eaching expe imen wi h 16- o 17-yea -old s uden s
aimed a p oducing a cu iculum ha would ake in o accoun he
deep connec ion be ween language and cul u e, and hus help he
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117Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
lea ne s g ow ou o he shell o hei mo he ongue and hei own
cul u e. The esea ch p ojec was also aimed a de eloping an ac i e
lea ne ole h ough simula ions and men al image aining. The
p ojec hus included a numbe o ac i i ies wi h he s uden s o
F ench and Ge man in ol ing si e isi s o online wo k. Mo eo e ,
he e we e se e al class oom encoun e s wi h adul na i e speake s o
F ench and Ge man including a g ea deal o e lec i e, collabo a i e
and dialogical ac ion (Kaikkonen 1998b).
The esul s o he s udy can be summa ised as ollows: he ac ion
esea ch Cul u e and Fo eign Language Lea ning indica ed ha
a o eign language has o be s udied wi h i s cul u al backg ound.
Mo eo e , i became clea ha o eign language lea ning as a
adi ional school subjec could help pupils g ow owa ds in e cul u al
unde s anding and in e cul u al lea ning o some ex en only. I is
ob ious ha pupils ha e been guided o conside o he people, be
plu alis ic, and hink globally in all school subjec s. Acco ding o his
app oach, howe e , o achie e in e cul u al lea ning, he cu iculum
should be de eloped in such a way ha i also includes all he basic
undamen als o in e cul u al lea ning: an indi idual’s own cul u e,
his o he own cul u al beha iou , and his o he own language on
he one hand, and o eign cul u es, s ange beha iou , and o eign
languages on he o he . So, amilia i y and o eignness a e he
expe iences he pupils should be exposed o in school con inuously.
(Kaikkonen 1997a, b.) The esea ch p ojec helped me unde s and
ha o eign language lea ning has o deal wi h in e cul u al lea ning.
To be e icien , in e cul u al lea ning should no be limi ed o o eign
language educa ion only; i should be pa o he en i e school
cu iculum. These demands ha e been unde s ood well in he la es
school cu icula in Finland.
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Pauli Kaikkonen
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Towa ds coope a i e and ne wo ked
language and cul u e educa ion
In 1994, oge he wi h P o esso Viljo Kohonen, we s a ed a
collabo a i e long- e m esea ch and de elopmen p ojec oge he ,
he OK p ojec . I was an in ensi e h ee-yea p ojec designed and
led by he wo o us in collegial collabo a ion. I was ca ied ou in six
schools in Tampe e and Nokia wi h 40 pa icipa ing eache s and hei
pupils (see Kohonen in his olume). The p ojec included classes om
comp ehensi e o uppe seconda y schools. In addi ion o ou sha ed
esponsibili y, I was in cha ge o esea ch on in e cul u al lea ning.
The p ojec indings we e published in h ee edi ed collec ions
o pape s w i en by bo h he pa icipa ing school eache s and
esea che s o he Depa men o Teache Educa ion. The p ojec also
esul ed in se e al s udies ha we e published bo h na ionally and
in e na ionally (e. g. Kohonen & Kaikkonen 1996; Kaikkonen 1998a;
Kohonen & Kaikkonen 2001). Mo eo e , membe s o he p ojec
g oup pa icipa ed in se e al Eu opean semina s, coo dina ed by he
Council o Eu ope, and in di e en in e na ional esea ch semina s
and con e ences. In his way, a la ge in e na ional ne wo k was buil
up o dissemina ing he indings.
The expe iences o he pa icipa ing eache s and pupils yielded
a g ea deal o new unde s anding o dialogical and e lec i e ac ion
and he challenges o encoun e ing o eignness. In addi ion, he
p ojec e ealed he impo ance o a whole-school app oach in
suppo ing he lea ne s’ in e cul u al educa ion and unde s anding
o o he ness, simila i y and di e ence. Lea ne s clea ly p og essed
owa ds he global wo ld and in e cul u al challenges (Kaikkonen
1999). The p ojec also unc ioned as excellen in-se ice educa ion
o he pa icipa ing eache s, acili a ing hem o commi hemsel es
o e lec ing on and epo ing hei class oom expe iences o a
su icien ly long pe iod o ime (Kohonen 1999).
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119Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
In 1998, I was appoin ed as he p o esso o o eign language
pedagogy a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, ac ing in his posi ion o he
ollowing 11 yea s. My collabo a ion wi h he Depa men o Teache
Educa ion a he Uni e si y o Tampe e, pa icula ly wi h P o esso
Viljo Kohonen con inued seamlessly. In 1999, we es ablished a
na ion-wide se ies o he so-called VikiPeda con e ences in o eign
language educa ion, aimed a suppo ing he pedagogical esea ch
a he depa men s o eache educa ion in Finnish uni e si ies,
and dissemina ing he indings o language eache s na ionally.
These con e ences ook place biannually a each uni e si y and we e
coo dina ed by us and o ganised by he local uni e si y esea che s.
Th ough he unding by he Minis y o Educa ion, i was possible o
in i e in e na ionally dis inguished esea che s o o eign language
educa ion o all o hese con e ences1.
My esea ch o ien a ion as a p o esso a he Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä con inued in he di ec ion ha I had assumed a he
Depa men o Teache Educa ion in Tampe e. My basic heo e ical
assump ions ma u ed in he collegial wo k wi h ac i e esea che s in
Jy äskylä and in he ui ul collabo a ion wi h di e en uni e si ies
and esea ch cen es, especially wi h colleagues a he uni e si ies
in Tampe e, Tu ku and Oulu. While in Jy äskylä, and du ing my
isi ing esea che yea a he Pedagogical Uni e si y o Heidelbe g,
i became clea o me ha my concep ion o au hen ici y had o be
widened beyond language and cul u al au hen ici y. This led me o he
ealisa ion ha au hen ici y is deeply connec ed wi h expe ience and
he meaning gi en o i . Nex , I discuss my expanding unde s anding
o au hen ici y in some mo e de ail.
Au hen ici y means some hing genuine ha o igina es om
he pe son himsel o he sel , as indica ed by i s G eek oo wo d
(au hen es = o igina o , make ). The pe son who ini ia es some hing
1 The con e ences we e held in Jy äskylä (1999 and 2013), Tampe e (2001),
Oulu 2003, Tu ku (2005), Helsinki (2007), Joensuu (2009) and Vaasa (2011). The
con e ence pape s we e published by he local uni e si y, om he second olume
onwa ds in English and/o Ge man (see also Kohonen in his olume).
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On he o he hand, he e is he p inciple o di e ence, in which he
no ions o au hen ici y a e ecognised. In acco ding o his p inciple,
di e en cha ac e is ics, needs and abili ies a y om indi idual o
indi idual and om one g oup o ano he . The p inciples o equali y
and di e ence a e ealised in ension wi h each o he : he p inciple o
equali y calls o equal ea men o all people, while he p inciple o
di e ence calls o he pe cep ion o di e ences be ween indi iduals
and g oups. In e cul u al educa ion and lea ning is ca ied ou in his
ension and exis s a he dema ca ion line be ween he wo con lic ing
p inciples.
Conclusion: discussion and heses
o o eign language educa ion
Teaching and lea ning o eign languages akes place as in e play
be ween own and o eign. Fo eign language lea ne s ha e hei na i e
language(s) and cul u e(s) in he backg ound. When lea ning a new
language, hey also encoun e a new (language) cul u e. The ask o
eaching is o guide lea ne s o g ow beyond he bo de s se by hei
own cul u e(s) and na i e languages(s). This equi es (1) sensi isa ion
o di e si y, (2) abili y o make conscious obse a ions abou he na i e
and o eign language, beha iou and en i onmen , and (3) eadiness
o seek and ga he in o ma ion on linguis ic and cul u al s anda ds
in bo h cul u es (Kaikkonen 2001). Fo eign language educa ion hus
a ge s an ac i e language lea ne wi h socially esponsible lea ne
au onomy (e. g. Kohonen 2012).
Mode n language educa ion also aims a p oducing plu ilingual
and plu icul u al language use s. This is a logical aim in he cu en
mul ilingual and mul icul u al wo ld. The p emises can be mani old:
one can be plu ilingual because o one’s amily o immig a ion, o
i one has li ed in a o eign language cul u e, o wan s o be able
o use di e en languages in di e en si ua ions in li e. Due o he

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127Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
e y essence o plu iligualism, language educa o s mus ake in o
conside a ion he lea ne ’s di e en languages: he na i e language as
he language o pe sonal emo ions and as he i s ool o in e p e ing
he su ounding wo ld, and any o he languages in ea ly childhood,
as well as he o eign languages chosen by he lea ne . A he same
ime, he lea ne ’s language iden i y needs o be conside ed and
de eloped.
An impo an p inciple in language educa ion is also seeing
he lea ne as a pe son and an ac i e language use om he e y
beginning, a he han seeing him o he as a ecipien o in o ma ion
who is expec ed o d aw ha in o ma ion om he easu y o
knowledge a e school in eal li e-si ua ions (c . Ruoho ie-Lyh y e
al. 2008). Wha is ex emely impo an ly is ha lea ne s mus be able
o expe ience om he beginning ha hey can use he new language
o do some hing ha is eal and meaning ul o hem, i espec i e o
he ac ha hei language usage can a i s be de icien and scan y.
(Kaikkonen 2012a.)
In language educa ion, one o he aims is in e cul u al lea ning,
which equi es gi ing he ele an g ounds o a desc ip ion o wha
exac ly in e cul u alism implies om he a ious poin s o iew.
In e cul u al knowledge is no only knowledge ha is known o be
ue. Due o i s na u e ha ela es o o he ness and o eignness, i
is always nego iable knowledge and he e o e equi es dialogical
and au hen ic lea ning p ocesses. Acco ding o i s basic meaning
in G eek, dialogue means ha hose engaged in i en e in o a kind
o in e media e space (dia= h ough, in be ween) in which hei
knowledge, unde s anding and concep s o he wo ld (logos) a e
aised o join con empla ion (Kaikkonen 2005b).
The eache plays a c ucial ole in in oducing o eign language
lea ne s o in e cul u al encoun e s (c . Jaa inen 2014). In e cul u al
lea ning equi es an ini ia ion o se e al expe ien ial p ocesses. No
me ely cogni i e, hese p ocesses also include as essen ial elemen s
he pupils’ a ec i e, emo ional and social beha iou and lea ning (c .
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Pauli Kaikkonen
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Nyman & Kaikkonen 2013). Thus i would be jus i ied o alk abou
holis ic lea ning and guidance owa ds i . Tha means lea ning o li e
in a mul ilinguis ic and mul icul u al wo ld, whe e encoun e s wi h
di e si y and o eignness a e pa o e e yday li e. Thus i seems a he
odd ha eache s should be able o assess hei s uden s’ in e cul u al
expe ience and lea ning jus by means o es s (c . By am 2009). Wha
is called me acogni i e lea ning is also an essen ial pa o hese
p ocesses. In he inal analysis, we a e conce ned wi h enhancing a
p ocess whe eby pupils become ull membe s o socie y and lea n
o li e in he in e na ional global wo ld. I is hus a cen al ask o
educa ion o enable an indi idual o become he ype o pe son ha is
equi ed in he li e o oday’s wo ld and omo ow.
To sum up, I p opose a numbe o heses o mode n o eign
language educa ion based on he esea ch indings and hough s
discussed abo e. As I see i , o eign language educa ion emphasizes
he ollowing human, linguis ic and pedagogical aspec s:
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129Subjec eache educa ion in ansi ion
Theses o o eign language educa ion
– Due o hei na u e, human beings a e holis ic ac o s, i. e.
hinking, eeling, knowing and ac ing pe sons in con ac wi h
o he people. The goal o schooling is o educa e whole pe sons,
human beings, who us in hei expe ience (Jaa inen 2001; c .
also Jaa inen 2007; Kohonen in his olume).
– Language is an essen ial pa o human iden i y. Languages
o he han he na i e language can also ha e an impo an ole
in he de elopmen o he lea ne s’ iden i y (Kaikkonen 2007;
Kaikkonen 2009a). Human beings a e plu ilingual in di e en
ways (Lüdi 2003).
– Language unc ions abo e all as a medium o speech,
whe eby human in e ac ion is e y e sa ile, and non- e bal
communica ion plays a subs an ial ole in i (e.g. Kaikkonen
2001).
– Fo eign language educa ion in ol es coope a ion be ween
language, cul u e and iden i y. All o hese a e equally impo an
and in luence each o he . (Hu 2003; Kaikkonen 2010.)
– Language is in a na u al and obliga o y con ac wi h i s cul u al
backg ound. When we speak a o eign language, he cul u e o
he na i e language has an in luence on i h ough in e e ence.
Consequen ly, o eign language educa ion does no p opose
he na i e language compe ence as i s goal, bu an in e cul u al
communica i e compe ence (Kaikkonen 2012a, b).
– Lea ning a o eign language is meaning ul in au hen ic
si ua ions. This means ha lea ne s a e c ea o s and co-
o ganise s o hei lea ning and linguis ic ac ion (e. g.
Kaikkonen 2002).
– Expe iences and coming o e ms wi h hei possible con lic s
a e use ul and educa ional in o eign language lea ning. A
signi ican in e cul u al o eign language lea ning p ocess
is dialogical. I is based on he espec o each o he , on an
au hen ic s ance and equal igh s o pa icipa ion o all pe sons
in ol ed (Kaikkonen 2007; 2009b).
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