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E hnog aphic challenges o s udying he poo in and om he global Sou h
© Au ho s, 2020
Published e sion
S a k, Lau a
S a k, L. (2020). E hnog aphic challenges o s udying he poo in and om he global Sou h. In
T. Lähdesmäki, E. Koskinen-Koi is o, V. L. Čeginskas, & A.-K. Kois inen (Eds.), Challenges and
Solu ions in E hnog aphic Resea ch : E hnog aphy wi h a Twis (pp. 131-145). Rou ledge.
h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9780429355608-9
2020
9
ETHNOGRAPHIC CHALLENGES TO
STUDYING THE POOR IN AND FROM
THE GLOBAL SOUTH
Lau a S a k
In oduc ion
Con a y o wha he UN and Wo ld Bank ha e p oclaimed in ecen yea s,
global po e y has inc eased d ama ically (Hickel 2016, 7). The Uni ed Na ions
and Wo ld Bank measu e only how many pe sons a e li ing unde an a bi a ily
chosen bounda y o 1.9 USD pe day, bu i he po e y line we e aised o he
minimum o a no mal li e expec ancy (app ox. 4 USD in mos coun ies) hen
3.5 billion pe sons –hal he wo ld’s popula ion –would be classified as poo
(Edwa d 2006; Hickel 2016, 7). An h opologis s ha e long s udied people in
low-income coun ies ypically defined by po e y, bu ha e a ely b ough hei
e hnog aphic me hods o bea on he causes and consequences o po e y pe se
(Fe guson 1997; Boo h e al. 1999; G een 2006). The ocus o an h opology in
he Anglophone li e a u e, o ins ance, has ended o be u al a eas and he s udy
o one e hnic g oup a he han e hnically di e se u ban a eas. Topics end o
de i e om an h opology’s“p imi i is eflex”(Kalb 2015, 52) ha is, he sea ch
o cul u al and social aspec s wi h minimal influence om colonialism, ma ke
capi alism, globalism, o mass consump ion. The e has been much less in e es in
using e hnog aphy o s udy how po e y affec s he people s udied h ough e h-
nog aphy, including asylum seeke s and mig an s coming om low-income o
ma e ially inadequa e condi ions. Ye e hnog aphic esea ch on po e y is so ely
needed. The mic o-economic esea ch domina ing s udies on po e y lacks he
necessa y ools o s udy socio-cul u al powe dynamics, and o en mis ecognizes
“on he g ound”complexi ies in he li es o he poo es (Boo h e al. 1999;
Be an 2004, 29; Fe guson 2015).
My aim in his chap e is o encou age e hnog aphe s o ca e ou a space o
hemsel es in esea ch on po e y in he global Sou h by ecognizing hei
s eng hs in his a ea, namely sensi i e me hods in local con ex s o answe
ques ions o why some hing happens a he han jus how much can be measu ed. Ye
quali a i e esea che s con on e y diffe en socioeconomic dynamics in he
global Sou h han hey do in he global No h. They he e o e need o be awa e o
e hical and me hodological challenges in s udying he poo in he global Sou h. In
his chap e I discuss he ollowing challenges: 1) unde s anding he expec a ions o
pe sons coming om socie ies whe e dependence ne wo ks s uc u e socio-eco-
nomic ela ions; 2) in o med consen among he poo in he global Sou h; 3)
pe sonal da a among hose wi h meag e iden i y documen a ion; and 4) he effec s
o po e y and s ess on pa icipan s’memo ies. These issues call o no me ely
new me hods, bu a new o e all app oach o e hnog aphy ha unde s ands how
po e y affec s he in o ma ion gi en by hose s udied. Mo e b oadly, I p opose
ha No he n e hnog aphe s need o e hink amilia e hical and me hodological
app oaches in a “ wis ” owa ds a “Sou he n”app oach ha encompasses bo h
eflexi e ecogni ion o socio-economic diffe ences and he al e na i e me hods o
pe cei ed causa ion and hi d-pe son elici a ion. These me hods allow he quali a i e
esea che o a oid asking o pe sonal da a and o ci cum en he non- e ifiabili y
o indi idual li e ac s.
The e m e hnog aphy in his chap e e e s o he p esence o he esea che in
he e e yday spaces in which pa icipan s li e. I also indica es an “open no ebook”
app oach in which in e iew ques ions a e no p ede e mined by a esea ch design
bu ins ead a e adap ed o he new in o ma ion ecei ed om pa icipan s as he
s udy p oceeds. This app oach ensu es flexibili y in asking new ques ions and he
disco e y o hings no imagined o exis when he esea ch began. When used
among he u ban poo , he open no ebook app oach allows esea che s o see
e e yday li e and social dynamics in ways hey could no ha e en isioned based on
hei own non-po e y backg ounds. These momen s o disco e y se e as clues
leading o new and in e es ing pa hs o inqui y.
The se ing o my esea ch
As pa o an ongoing s udy o gende and u ban po e y ca ied ou be ween 2010
and 2018, I in e iewed a o al o 292 pe sons in wo low-income, p edominan ly
Muslim neighbou hoods in Da es Salaam, a ci y o 4.36 million inhabi an s
(Na ional Bu eau o S a is ics Tanzania 2013). He e, an es ima ed 50% o he
popula ion in in o mal se lemen s li e on an a e age income o oughly 1 USD
pe day, well below he in e na ional po e y line o 1.9 USD (Ndezi, 2009). The
majo i y o hose I in e iewed ( oughly 70%) had only a p ima y educa ion o less.
The neighbou hoods I s udied ulfilled UN-Habi a ’s (2010, 14–15) c i e ia o
“slums”as hey lacked secu e enu e, sufficien li ing space, sani a ion in a-
s uc u e, easy access o sa e d inking wa e , and du abili y o dwelling s uc u es.
As a po ci y ha d aws mig an s om h oughou Tanzania, Da es Salaam is an
e hnically he e ogeneous bu unilingual Kiswahili en i onmen . Al hough no offi-
cial census da a exis s on eligious affilia ion in Tanzania, Sunni Muslims comp ise
oughly 75–90% o he esiden s in he neighbou hoods I s udied. In e iews we e
132 L. S a k
conduc ed in Kiswahili wi h he assis ance o emale in e p e e s and emale key
in o man s who had fi s -hand amilia i y wi h he socio-economic ci cums ances
o hose in e iewed. Key in o man s and in e p e e s we e ound h ough local
non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions. All names o in e iew pa icipan s in his chap e
ha e been changed o p o ec pe sonal anonymi y.
I disco e ed soon a e I had begun in e iews ha I was ex emely o una e in
he andom choice o my fi s field si e: I had unin en ionally begun in e iews in a
locali y ha was sympa he ic o ou side s o easons linked o local and na ional
poli ics. The local au ho i ies he e welcomed me immedia ely, which se he one
o o he pe sons in he neighbou hood. In he neighbou hood jus ac oss he oad,
howe e , I was no so lucky: a diffe en poli ical si ua ion he e mean ha he
local au ho i ies iewed me wi h suspicion and demanded a diffe en bu eauc a ic
p ocess in o de o g an pe mission o in e iews. Al hough I conduc ed some
in e iews he e, I e en ually ocused ully on he fi s neighbou hood, which was
home o oughly 2,500 pe sons.
Skype as an al e na i e o ace- o- ace in e iews
In 2018, heal h issues p e en ed me om a eling o Tanzania, so I decided o
conduc my final ound o in e iews using Skype. O e he las decade, he e has
been g owing a en ion o al e na i es o adi ional ace- o- ace in e iews in
quali a i e esea ch such as Voice o e In e ne P o ocol (VoIP) echnologies
(Sulli an 2012; Lo Iacono e al. 2016; AlKha eeb 2018). Mos exis ing li e a u e on
he use o Skype desc ibes in e iews conduc ed among middle- and highe -
income pa icipan s. Thanks o he d ama ic up ake in usage o mobile phones
among low-income pe sons in he global Sou h, Skype in e iews a e also possible
ac oss as dis ances and wi h ch onically poo in e iew pa icipan s.
Th ough emails wi h Zakia, a emale in e p e e wi h whom I had wo ked wice
be o e, I explo ed his possibili y. Zakia downloaded he Skype p og am on o
a basic sma phone ha I sen he money o buy. She hen con ac ed Neema, a
woman in he la e 40s who was ou key in o man in he neighbou hood. Neema
ag eed o ask esiden s o pa icipa e in in e iews as she had done in p e ious
yea s, and Zakia a elled o he neighbou hood a he ag eed ime. The s eng h
o ou Skype connec ion was no sufficien o con inuous ideo, bu we we e able
o conduc he in e iews using audio.
Whe eas in p e ious field isi s I had always begun wi h a isi o he local
go e nmen office o ob ain hei pe mission, now Zakia wen on my behal o ask
he go e nmen sec e a y pe mission o conduc he in e iews ia Skype. This
pe mission was g an ed, and I conduc ed 20 Skype in e iews. Each in e iew
las ed longe han i would ha e no mally aken ace- o- ace due o he poo
quali y o he audio and he need o epea ques ions and answe s. Al hough
challenging (o en I had o nea ly shou my ques ions in o my lap op o be hea d
by my in e p e e ), I ob ained impo an new da a o my esea ch. In e iewing
wi hou ideo was su p isingly easy, gi en ha I was al eady amilia wi h he flow
E hnog aphic challenges in he Sou h 133
and hy hm o he in e iew si ua ion in Swahili. Bo h Zakia and in e iew pa i-
cipan s we e highly accus omed o he use o mobile phones, so his helped o
make in e iews h ough mobile-enabled Skype flow smoo hly. Zakia also wo ked
ha d o ensu e comp ehension by enuncia ing clea ly, u ning o speak di ec ly in o
he phone when in e p e ing o me, wai ing o me o ask ques ions, and pa ien ly
epea ing hings.
Howe e , when compa ed o ace- o- ace in e iews, I no ed significan diffe -
ences. I was us a ing o no obse e wha was happening in he eal-li e con-
e sa ion a ea, o example, I could no see ges u es o acial exp essions, and I could
no immedia ely see who had newly a i ed o join in he con e sa ion. Skype
in e iews also exace ba ed he e hical dilemma o in o med consen . Zakia always
old in e iewees he pu pose o he esea ch and asked o hei consen be o e he
Skype call began, bu I could no know how he pa icipan had eac ed.
One benefi o using Skype o in e iewing was ha ha ing only wo Skype
in e iews pe week a he han ace- o- ace in e iews e e y day as I had done in
he field p o ided aluable ime needed o eflec ion be o e he nex in e iew,
ime ha I had a ely enjoyed when in he field. Skype in e iews also c ea ed a
psychological dis ance be ween he pa icipan and mysel . Many o he s o ies old
by in e iewees we e dis essing, o ins ance, when HIV suffe e s and hei ela-
i es old o hei suffe ing, o when sex wo ke s old o he iolence and abuse
hey had endu ed. Face o ace, I had expe ienced such na a i es as impo an bu
emo ionally exhaus ing. I was conside ably less s ess ul o lis en o hem a a dis-
ance wi hou a isual connec ion. Wha I expe ienced as sensi i e o dis u bing
opics o discussion, howe e , we e no necessa ily wha in e iewees seemed o
expe ience as opp essi e. In pa icula , expe iences o no ha ing ela i es o help
o suppo financially seemed emo ionally difficul o some pe sons o alk abou .
Skype in e iews would no ha e been use ul as a means o ga he ing ini ial da a
in ano he coun y i I had no spen conside able ime he e al eady. A ela ion-
ship o us wi h key pe sons in he neighbou hood as well as wi h an in e p e e
we e necessa y o he success o hese in e iews. Once ela ionships o us wi h
local pe sons a e al eady es ablished, howe e , long-dis ance Skype can c ea e an
oppo uni y o collec addi ional da a i a el is no easible.
Dependence ne wo ks
I isi ed fieldsi es only du ing he day and was accompanied by a leas one o he
pe son as I walked h ough he neighbou hood: usually my emale in e p e e o
emale key in o man . I ne e el ha I was pe sonally in dange , bu he ac ha
I was so easily iden ifiable as a o eigne by my skin colou mean ha I could no
li e o sleep in he neighbou hoods I s udied: I would ha e been an ins an a ge
o he , since many esiden s assumed ha any whi e pe son o mzungu was
ex emely weal hy. Indeed, jus by a i ing in Tanzania I had shown ha I had
enough money o fly om ano he con inen , a ea ha mos esiden s assumed
would always be beyond hei means. E e yone assumed ha I possessed mo e
134 L. S a k

money han I would e e need, he e o e nea ly e e y mee ing wi h a Tanzanian
local became a nego ia ion in which I was asked o financial assis ance: o buy a
house o a axi d i e , o help pay o child en’s school ees, o me ely o “help”
in he o m o gi ing cash. This quickly became exhaus ing, o al hough I
unde s ood people’s mo i es o asking, i was difficul o c ea e iendships when
people ( igh ly) pe cei ed ha my own economic si ua ion was so diffe en om
hei own. La e in my fieldwo k, my desi e o gi e small amoun s o cash o
pe sons in ex eme need was us a ed by he ac ha I was con inually sho o
cash because he local ATM machines we e ei he emp y o difficul o each om
my ho el on he ci y ou ski s.
In ci ies whe e all ansac ions a e o e -mone a ized cash is i al o su i al bu
difficul o he poo es o ob ain (de Sa dan 1999). People we e unable o g ow
enough ood o hemsel es in an u ban neighbou hood, and needed money o pay
anspo a ion, en , medicines, medical bills, and school ees o hei child en. The
end o in e iews we e o en momen s when some in o man s asked o mone a y
assis ance. Some pe sons old me in epea in e iews ha I had p omised las ime o
b ing hem a gi , al hough I had no ecollec ion o doing so. A he ime, I expe i-
enced hese si ua ions as uncom o able, because I did no wan o “b ibe”my in o -
man s wi h money o gi s, and I did no enjoy being p essu ed. I was clea o me ha
e e yone needed help despe a ely, and imp ession was o en o e whelming.
A fi s , d awing a fi m line agains gi ing money was a way o men ally block
ou he dis ess and suffe ing all a ound me du ing in e iew isi s. I was also
wo ied abou he infla iona y effec o mone a y help on in e iew pa icipan s.
I one esiden hea d ha someone else had ecei ed help, hey hemsel es would
expec help, and possibly a la ge sum o money. Fo his eason, I ga e each
pa icipan a in o powde ed chocola e d ink ( ha would ha e been expensi e
o hem in he shops). A PhD s uden who conduc ed in e iews sepa a ely in
he same neighbou hood la e old me ha pa icipan s had complained o he
ha his chocola e d ink was useless o hei e e y needs. One in e p e e
sugges ed ha suga ( o ea-d inking B i ish s yle) migh make a mo e use ul gi ,
and so I began o gi e each pa icipan a wo-kilog amme bag o suga . Ye his
did no help hose pe sons who had no hing o ea , no ood o gi e hei chil-
d en, o no way o pay hei en .
Upon eflec ion, knowing ha jus a ew eu os would make a diffe ence in
many pe son’s li es, I began making excep ions o my no-money ule o single
mo he s wi h no income, pe sons in ec ed wi h HIV, and ecen mig an s o he
ci y sleeping in a ela i e’s house who had no income. I had no ye ealized,
howe e , ha when in e iew pa icipan s asked o “help” hey we e ac ually
s i ing o c ea e a ela ionship o dependence upon me. Wha hey wan ed om
me was no simply money, bu a ela ionship ha would con e upon hem a sense
o secu i y as well as he social iden i y o being he iend o an mzungu, a whi e
pe son imagined o be weal hy.
Once I became mo e in e wined in a se e al pa icipan s’ne wo ks o assis ance,
I began o eflec u he on how hese ne wo ks we e, in ac , s uc u ing nea ly all
E hnog aphic challenges in he Sou h 135
o he socio-economic ela ions wi hin he neighbou hoods s udied. An h opologis
James Fe guson (2013) poin s ou ha in much o sub-Saha an A ica ela ions o
dependence ha e been p e e ed o p io i ized o e independence. In A ica, people
a he han land ha e his o ically been he sou ce o weal h, so he goal has o en been o
build hie a chical ela ions in which pe sons compe e o ollowe s. Bo h pa ons and
dependen s ha e he e o e benefi ed om “weal h in people”(Fe guson 2013; see also
Bledsoe 1980; Iliffe 1987; de Sa dan 1999), a e m s ill used by Tanzanians oday.
Rega dless o whe e one fi in he social hie a chy, dependence con e ed social iden i y:
“wi hou ne wo ks o dependen s you we e nobody […] wi h hem you we e a pe son
o consequence”(Fe guson 2013, 226). As he A ican con inen is ma ginalized wi hin
he global ne wo k o ade and many unemployed a e now locked ou o he labou
ma ke , wha used o be ‘kin ne wo ks’in he an h opological li e a u e a e no longe
necessa ily obus o nume ous social linkages, bu o en ely on a ew pe sons, whose
suppo has become meag e, i egula , and un eliable (Clea e 2005). Social ne wo ks
ha e shed dependen s, and unclaimed pe sons sc amble o find new pe sons o be
dependen upon (Clea e 2005; Fe guson 2013; 2015).
Ad ance awa eness o pa icipan s’socio-economic expec a ions can ease an e hno-
g aphe ’s en ance in o he field and make i easie o d aw clea pe sonal bounda ies. An
awa eness ha powe , income and social ela ions in he global Sou h a e equen ly
o ganized h ough dependence ne wo ks also has implica ions o e hnog aphe s’wo k
wi h mig an s and e ugees. As has been widely documen ed in he mig a ion li e a u e
(mos no ably in wo k on emi ances), dependence ne wo ks may mo i a e o obliga e
mig a ion, and o en con inue a e an indi idual o amily has mig a ed. This means ha
mig an s can depend on al eady exis ing e hnic, eligious and/o kinship ne wo ks in he
coun y o which hey mig a e. They may also be unde hea y p essu e o send money o
kin o iends in he depa u e coun y o in e ugee camps, which limi s he amoun hey
can in es in hei own socio-economic in eg a ion in he new coun y (Lindley 2010;
Hammond 2011). They may, o ins ance, find hemsel es o ced o engage in low-
paying and exploi a i e wo k a he han con inuing hei educa ion because he isk o
losing income is oo g ea when hey need o send money egula ly (Humph ies e al.
2009; E e sole and Johnson 2014). Asylum seeke s may also expec o es ablish long- e m
ela ions o dependence wi h he olun ee s and ecep ion cen e wo ke s whom hey
see egula ly (Wo ld Relie 2017; EURITA 2019).
In o med consen
Rela ionships o dependence in he neighbou hood we e linked o ano he me ho-
dological and e hical challenge I aced while in e iewing: in o med consen . To
ob ain alid ee, a ional and in o med consen om esea ch pa icipan s, pa icipan s
mus be accu a ely in o med o he pu pose, me hods, isks, and benefi s o he
esea ch, and mus unde s and his in o ma ion (Campbell 2009). This no ion o
in o med consen , howe e , es s on Wes e n unde s andings o he pe son as an
indi idual. Al hough I ecei ed e bal consen om all pa icipan s, he pe sons whom
I in e iewed had no way o making “independen ”o “ ee”choices o se e al
136 L. S a k
easons. They did no ha e he educa ional backg ound aken o g an ed in Eu ope o
No h Ame ica ha would ha e allowed hem o be able o e alua e hei bes in e -
es s wi h espec o he in e iews I was conduc ing. Some o my in e iew pa ici-
pan s did no know wha a uni e si y was, much less wha basic esea ch was. Despi e
my bes effo s o explain mysel and he pu pose o my esea ch, many pa icipan s
emained con inced ha I wo ked o an NGO, which was o hem he mos amilia
ole o a whi e woman in Da es Salaam. Many o hem we e dependen upon social
ela ionships o neighbou liness ha e ol ed a ound my key in o man Neema, who
was a espec ed and us ed middle-aged emale membe o he communi y. I is
possible ha pe sons she in i ed o pa icipa e in in e iews ound i difficul o e use
he . Finally, many pa icipan s we e so despe a e financially ha hey migh ha e been
eluc an o e use he bag o suga ha I ga e o e e yone who was in e iewed.
O e all, he e exis e y ew op ions o e hnog aphe s o ensu e ha he people
s udied pa icipa e olun a ily, wi h no s ings a ached. E hnog aphe s can only
s i e o ecognize how No he n assump ions o “ ee”pa icipa ion a e unse led
by local ci cums ances, and desc ibe his unse ling o eading and lis ening audi-
ences. The al e na i e would be o no s udy he Sou he n poo a all. This would
mean ha hose whose oices a e al eady s ifled by lack o social powe and
influence would be u he igno ed and ma ginalized by social science.
Pe sonal da a and spa se iden i y documen a ion
In Eu ope, he issue o pe sonal da a has come o he o e wi h he Eu opean
Union’s Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion 2016/679 (GDPR), which came in o
effec in 2018. The GDPR s ic ly egula es da a p o ec ion and p i acy o all
indi idual ci izens o he Eu opean Union (EU) and he Eu opean Economic A ea
(EEA), as well as he ans e o pe sonal da a ou side hese a eas. The e m “pe -
sonal da a”wi hin e hnog aphy e e s o all po en ially iden i ying ma ke s: pe so-
nal names, places, exac ages, exac da es, i les o unusual occupa ions.
Ensu ing adhe ence o his egula ion when p ocessing and s o ing any pe sonal da a
may demand conside able effo s om e hnog aphe s. When s udying li e his o ies o
pe sonal case s udies, i is difficul o a oid collec ing such in o ma ion. Howe e ,
answe ing why ce ain p ocesses o e en s occu in g oups o communi ies does no
necessa ily equi e pe sonal da a o be collec ed, as I discuss u he below. E hnog aphe s
aking his app oach may choose o collec no pe sonal da a a all, and ins ead eco d
in o ma ion in he o m o ully anonymized con e sa ions and obse a ions (field no es).
This means no audio, ideo o pho og aphic eco ding, as i is nea ly impossible o
emo e iden i ying in o ma ion om hese da a s o age media. Non-iden i ying in o -
ma ion can include gende , app oxima e age (speci ying only 20s, 30s, o 40s, o
ins ance), gene al educa ion le el, and ma i al s a us. Acco ding o GDPR ules, i is
pe mi ed o hese ully anonymized fieldno es o be impo ed om non-EU ( hi d)
coun ies in o he EU wi hou u he p o ec i e measu es.
Fully anonymized da a has one ad an age when s udying he ch onically poo
who may no be li e a e. Since he p inciples o da a p o ec ion do no apply o
E hnog aphic challenges in he Sou h 137
anonymous in o ma ion, signed consen o ms a e no equi ed i no pe sonal da a
is collec ed. In my own esea ch I ound ha in spi e o manda o y p ima y
schooling in Tanzania, a su p ising numbe o in e iew pa icipan s epo ed no
ha ing a ended school o a ious easons and hey could no ead, much less
w i e. They usually wished o hide his ac om hei neighbou s, howe e , and i
is possible ha many mo e pe sons ne e e ealed hei lack o li e acy. I ob ained
e bal a he han w i en consen in o de o a oid humilia ing hese pa icipan s,
especially since hey o en came o be in e iewed accompanied by neighbou s.
Resea che s conduc ing longi udinal s udies, howe e , will need iden i ying da a
o keep ack o he same pa icipan s o e ime. In his sec ion, I ocus on he pa -
icula challenges su ounding pe sonal da a collec ion in in e iews wi h he poo in
he global Sou h. Fo ins ance, mos esea che s conduc ing fieldwo k assume ha
hey can ask an in o man ’s name, age o o he ele an pe sonal da a and will
ecei e answe s ha can be e ified –a leas in heo y – h ough ac -checking. Bu
his assump ion is oo ed in he expe ience o li ing in he global No h, whe e
indi iduals’li es end o be highly documen ed. No he n ci izens a e cons an ly
eminded by go e nmen al ins i u ions (schools, ax offices, egis a s), financial ins i u ions
(banks, c edi ca ds) and places o employmen ha any iden i y de ails hey ell abou
hemsel es should con o m o his documen ed in o ma ion.
When I began fieldwo k, I was unp epa ed o a sys em o pe sonal da a e e -
encing ha diffe ed om my own expe ience. I began each in e iew by asking
he pa icipan ’s name, age, educa ional s a us, how many child en he pa icipan
had, and e hnic g oup affilia ion. I assumed ha he e was only one igh answe o
each o hese ques ions. I asked abou e hnic sel -iden ifica ion because I wan ed o
demons a e he e hnically mixed na u e o he neighbou hood I s udied. E en-
ually e hnici y and numbe o child en u ned ou o be he only eliable pe sonal
iden ifie s when I la e ied o find someone I had in e iewed p e iously, because
names, ages, and educa ional s a us could change om in e iew o in e iew.
I had ailed in he beginning o ealize ha he names old o me by pa icipan s could
be o h ee diffe en ypes: pe sonal name plus amily name, as in Eu ope; o pe sonal
name plus a he ’s pe sonal name. Al e na i ely, names could consis o a pe sonal name,
he a he ’s name, and he g and a he ’s name. Bu i he pa icipan was a ma ied
woman wi h child en, usually none o hese names we e used o e en known by hei
neighbou s. Ins ead, neighbou s knew adul women by he name o hei fi s child, o
example, “Mama Hassan”o “Mama Asha”. Whene e I asked my key emale in o man
whe he a p e iously in e iewed pe son was s ill li ing in he neighbou hood, she o en
had no idea who I was alking abou , since none o he ma ied emale esiden s knew
each o he by he combina ion o names hey had old me du ing he in e iew.
A pa icula ly pe plexing momen came whenIbegan o ealize ha manyin e iew
pa icipan s, e en young ones, did no know exac ly how old hey we e. Some imes
olde in o man s (o e 40) did no know hei age o said hey we e bo n in a yea ha
did no ma ch he age hey had p e iously old. Some imes hei only way o eckon hei
yea o bi h was an impo an na ional e en ha a pa en had old hem had happened
nea hei yea o bi h. Addi ionally, e en younge pe sons occasionally ga e diffe en
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