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Climbing he Ladde ? Communi y Pe spec i es on Lea ning o Be a Good Ci izen in
Uganda
© 2022 he Au ho s
Published e sion
Bananuka, Twine H.; Kon inen, Tiina; Holma, Ka a iina
Bananuka, T. H., Kon inen, T., & Holma, K. (2022). Climbing he Ladde ? Communi y
Pe spec i es on Lea ning o Be a Good Ci izen in Uganda. In K. Holma, & T. Kon inen (Eds.),
Lea ning, Philosophy, and A ican Ci izenship (pp. 197-213). Palg a e Macmillan.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-94882-5_11
2022
Climbing he Ladde ? Communi y
Pe spec i es on Lea ning o Be a Good
Ci izen in Uganda
Twine H. Bananuka, Tiina Kon inen, and Ka a iina Holma
1In oduc ion
This chap e examines he ways in which membe s o a u al communi y
in Wes e n Uganda pe cei e and concep ualize di e se ways o lea ning
o be a good ci izen. I analyzes da a gene a ed by means o a ool
called he ‘ladde o ci izenship’, which acili a ed explica ion o local ideas
conce ning good ci izenship, and e lec ions on how one can ‘climb he
ladde ’, hus lea ning o be a be e ci izen. In ela ion o he deba es
on concep ualiza ions o ci izenship in ways addi ional o he s a e-ci izen
ela ionship (e.g. Cla ke e al., 2014; Laza & Nuij en, 2013), we a e
pa icula ly inspi ed by Kabee ’s (2005: 3) emphasis on he impo ance o
T. H. Bananuka
Make e e Uni e si y, Kampala, Uganda
T. Kon inen (B)
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
T. H. Bananuka ·K. Holma
Uni e si y o Oulu, Oulu, Finland
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
© The Au ho (s) 2022
K. Holma and T. Kon inen (eds.), Lea ning, Philosophy,
and A ican Ci izenship,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-94882-5_11
197
198 T. H. BANANUKA ET AL.
explo ing ci izenship based on how ‘people de ine hemsel es in di e en
con ex s, how hey see hemsel es in ela ion o o he s, and wha his
implies o hei unde s anding o ci izenship in he wo ld as hey know
i ’. Ci izenship is o en discussed as some hing ha can be lea ned o
s eng hened h ough educa ion. These discussions always con ain an
idea—al hough i is some imes implici —abou he di ec ion in which ci i-
zenship should be s eng hened and he ideals unde lying he no ion o
good ci izenship which should be lea ned. Addi ionally, he e a e a leas
implici ideas o how he lea ning leading o good ci izenship is supposed
o happen. In his chap e , we ocus on local concep ualiza ions o how
one lea ns good ci izenship.
The chap e u ilizes wo heo e ical ideas. Fi s , he concep o cul u al
ci izenship (Delan y, 2003)—which unde s ands ci izenship as a con in-
uous lea ning p ocess ha akes place h ough in e ac ion in in o mal
se ings—is used o sc u inize lea ning ha occu s in he e e yday li e
o a communi y. Second, he no ion o olk pedagogies, in oduced in
he cul u al app oach o lea ning (B une , 1996), guides ou examina-
ion o people’s own concep ualiza ions o lea ning. Folk pedagogies e e
o e e yday a he han academic heo ies conce ning models o wha
lea ning is. In his chap e , he no ion enables us o ocus on commu-
ni y membe s’ own ideas abou how one migh lea n o be a good
ci izen. Al hough coming om di e en esea ch ields, bo h Delan y’s
and B une ’s heo ies d aw on simila iews o cul u e as an a ena whe e
meanings a e con inuously cons uc ed in in e ac ion wi h o he s. The e-
o e, in line wi h hese heo e ical app oaches, and ins ead o depa ing
om de ailed academic de ini ions o ci izenship and lea ning, he s a ing
poin o he chap e is o engage wi h he meanings o ci izenship and
lea ning a icula ed by communi y membe s.
O e all, his chap e seeks o answe he ques ion: How do commu-
ni y membe s concep ualize he di e se ways in which hey lea n o
be good ci izens? Examining local ideas o good ci izenship in u al
communi ies is especially ele an in con ex s whe e non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ions (NGOs) implemen di e se ini ia i es o s eng hen ci i-
zenship. To be easible and sus ainable, hese ini ia i es need o build
on exis ing concep ualiza ions o wha good ci izenship is and how i
would be possible o suppo lea ning p ocesses leading owa ds i . We
explo e he ques ion in he con ex o Wes e n Uganda, whe e one NGO,
he Kaba ole Resea ch and Resou ce Cen e (KRC), has in e ac ed wi h
u al communi ies h ough p ojec s which a e based on he p inciple
CLIMBING THE LADDER? COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES … 199
ha ci ic compe ences go hand in hand wi h economic libe a ion (KRC,
2017). Mos likely, many ideas conce ning good ci izenship a icula ed by
communi y membe s in his s udy e lec hei in e ac ions wi h he KRC.
Ne e heless, ou main in e es is no o explo e only he ideas hey ha e
lea ned om he NGO o e alua e he in luence o i s p og ammes, bu
o analyze he meanings a ached o lea ning good ci izenship in gene al.
In wha ollows, we i s discuss he concep s o cul u al ci izenship
and olk pedagogies which in o m ou analysis. Then we p o ide a b ie
desc ip ion o he s udy loca ion and he me hods used, be o e b ie ly
desc ibing he no ion o good ci izenship ha holds in he a ea and
p esen ing ou main indings on hei concep ualiza ions o di e se ways
o lea ning good ci izenship. In conclusion, we discuss hese ideas in he
con ex o ou wo heo e ical sou ces o inspi a ion—Delan y’s heo y o
cul u al ci izenship and B une ’s heo y o olk pedagogies—and e lec
on he implica ions o ou indings o local de elopmen e o s e ol ing
a ound s eng hening ci izenship.
2Cul u al Ci izenship and Folk Pedagogies
In his sec ion, we discuss ou concep ual app oach o examining lea ning
o wha is pe cei ed as good ci izenship. Ou main s a ing poin is
o de ine ci izenship as a con ex ual phenomenon ha en ails an idea
o con inuous lea ning aking place in di e se ways. We d aw on he
no ion o cul u al ci izenship sugges ed by Ge a d Delan y (2003)and
he cul u al app oach o lea ning p oposed by Je ome B une (1996). In
bo h, cul u e is unde s ood as con inuous meaning-making, whe e ideas
a e cons uc ed in in e ac ion wi h o he s by using and ans o ming he
a ailable cul u al esou ces. These no ions guide ou examina ion o local
ideas o ci izenship and lea ning p ocesses in he pa icula con ex o he
u al communi ies unde s udy.
The no ion o cul u al ci izenship (Delan y 2003; S e enson, 2012)
app oaches ci izenship om he poin o iew o socio-cul u al iden i y.
Delan y (2003) di e en ia es he no ion o cul u al ci izenship om wha
he calls disciplina y ci izenship, which encompasses o mal membe ship
in a poli y, usually a s a e. Acco ding o him, cul u al ci izenship di e s
om bo h libe al and communi a ian ideas; a he , he sugges s a cul u al
a ena o ci izenship whe e indi idual and social lea ning in e wine, and
whe e belie s, alues and cul u e a e p ese ed and shaped. Mo eo e ,
200 T. H. BANANUKA ET AL.
cul u al ci izenship is highly con ex ual and is shaped in spon aneous ways
h ough coping wi h li es yles and su i al.
Fo Delan y (2003: 602), cul u al ci izenship ‘is a lea ning p ocess’
whe ein common expe ience, cogni i e p ocess, cul u al ansla ion and
empowe men gain mo e salience han ci izenship as o mal membe ship
and he consequen lea ning o igh s and esponsibili ies accompanying
i . He ca ego izes ci izenship lea ning using h ee in e wined le els:
indi idual biog aphy, he cul u al le el and he social le el (ibid.: 601).
Fo he indi idual, ci izenship is lea ned h ough hei li e his o y, bo h
h ough in e pe sonal in e ac ion and inc easing sel -knowledge. Cul u al
le el lea ning e e s o he collec i e lea ning o symbolic o ms and cogni-
i e models ha p o ide sha ed in e p e a ions o he wo ld. Social le el
lea ning embodies cul u al le el lea ning in an ins i u ional o m, enabling
social change o occu . In cul u al ci izenship, hese lea ning le els in e -
wine in a p ocess ha Delan y (ibid.) e e s o as he cons uc ion o
ci izenship. He e, ci izenship is unde s ood as con inuously e ol ing and,
hus, also ha ing he po en ial o ans o m.
D awing on Delan y’s no ion o cul u al ci izenship, we sc u inize
ci izenship as a lea ning p ocess aking place in he space be ween he
indi idual and communi ies. Ou s a ing poin is ha u al communi-
ies in Uganda p esen a con ex o cons uc ing ci izenship h ough
in o mal lea ning ha occu s in he cou se o pa icipa ion and in e ac ing
wi h o he s. Addi ionally, he cons uc ion o ci izenship aking place in
a pa icula communi y is in e wined wi h cul u al meanings, especially
hose a icula ed in he ocabula ies used when ci izenship is discussed,
and he belie s and alues ha guide ideas o wha is ega ded as good
ci izenship o which i is wo h aspi ing.
Depa ing om he no ion o cul u al ci izenship as a lea ning p ocess
in which ci izenship is cons uc ed and ans o med, we aim o examine
how he idea o lea ning i sel is unde s ood by communi y membe s.
Whils he e a e plen y o di e se heo e ical accoun s o indi idual (Kolb,
1981) and social (Bandu a, 1977) lea ning, less esea ch has been done
on people’s own explana ions o wha hey conside as lea ning and how
lea ning akes place. In ou e o o g asp hese phenomena, we d aw
on B une ’s (1996) no ion o olk pedagogies, which inco po a es di e se
explana ions o lea ning and pe cep ions o he in e ac ion be ween mind
and ac ion (B une 1996; Ili´c&Bojo i´c, 2016). B une (ibid.: 46)
sugges s ha in he p ac ice o educa ion and lea ning, whe he in a class-
oom o any o he se ing, he e a e implici ‘ olk heo ies’ abou lea ning

CLIMBING THE LADDER? COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES … 201
in play. These olk pedagogies migh esona e wi h academic lea ning
heo ies, bu hey a e e e yday ideas abou mind and lea ning. Whils
B une mainly discusses olk pedagogies in he eache -lea ne ela ion-
ship, he also connec s he no ion o olk pedagogies wi h a wide ‘cul u al
app oach’ o he mind and lea ning. He discusses he cul u al app oach in
con as o he ‘compu a ional’ one whe e mind and lea ning a e gea ed
a ound in o ma ion p ocessing. The cul u al app oach emphasizes ha
lea ning akes place in cul u al se ings ha p o ide ools o cons uc-
ion o meanings (ibid.: 4). Cul u al meanings play a ole in how people
unde s and he mind, lea ning and, u he , ideal socie y and he ideal
ci izen (ibid.: 5).
Acco ding o B une (1996: 63), people o en hold bo h ex e nalis
and in e nalis heo ies o lea ning. The o me ocuses on how lea ning
can be suppo ed om ou side and he la e on how lea ning is based
on he in en ional s a es o lea ne s, hus, no only e e ing o cogni-
i e capabili ies, bu also o belie s, wishes and emo ions (Ili´c&Bojo i´c,
2016). Unde hese wo dimensions, B une (1996: 53) u he p oposes
ou models o lea ne s’ minds which can guide eaching and also illus-
a e a ange o ideas conce ning lea ne s and lea ning in gene al. These
models pe cei e lea ne s as imi a o s, as subjec o didac ic exposu e, as
hinke s and as knowledgeable. When a lea ne is pe cei ed as an imi a o ,
lea ning is mainly seen as ollowing he models p o ided by eache s
and men o s, and he skills and knowledge lea ned a e aken- o -g an ed
and nei he nego ia ed no subjec ed o c i ical e lec ion. In a simila
ein, pe cei ing lea ning as esul ing om didac ic exposu e includes he
idea o unques ioned knowledge being p esen ed o lea ne s, as in many
con en ional class oom si ua ions. These ideas emphasize he ex e nal
gene a ion o lea ning. The models ha ocus on he in e nal dimen-
sions o lea ning, acco ding o B une (1996: 56–61), include pe cei ing
lea ne s as hinke s and lea ne s as knowledgeable. The o me ca ego y
pays a en ion o wha he lea ne al eady hinks and s i es o achie e,
wi h lea ning aiming o de elop hese ideas h ough discussion and in e -
ac ion. The la e e e s o lea ning whe e he in o ma ion p o ided is
c i ically assessed and may be gi en c edi o disc edi ed based on he
knowledge he lea ne al eady has.
Inspi ed by he gene al concep o cul u al ci izenship as a lea ning
p ocess and olk pedagogies as di e se ideas conce ning lea ning, ou nex
s ep is o examine how hese a e demons a ed in he pa icula con ex
desc ibed in wha ollows.
202 T. H. BANANUKA ET AL.
3S udy Con ex and Me hodology
This chap e d aws on a s udy ha was ca ied ou in he communi ies o
Kanya e e and Busaiga in Ha ugongo Sub-Coun y, Kaba ole Dis ic in
Wes e n Uganda. The inhabi an s o he wo communi ies a e peasan
a me s engaged in subsis ence ag icul u e. In dis inc ion om many
o he simila u al communi ies, he e mos people ha e no land and he e-
o e en i om a ew ich landowne s, which makes hem ulne able due
o uns able ma ke s and luc ua ing p ices o hei p oduce. The Kaba ole
Resea ch and Resou ce Cen e (KRC), a Ugandan de elopmen NGO,
has been pa ne ing wi h hese communi ies o he las 25 yea s. The
KRC’s engagemen has been in he ields o ag icul u al p oduc ion and
p ocessing on he one hand, and ci ic educa ion on he o he , d awing on
he philosophy ha ci ic compe ence goes hand in hand wi h economic
empowe men .
Da a gene a ion was designed wi h he KRC who also acili a ed
building close con ac s wi h he communi ies. The esea ch eam decided
o use he ool e e ed o as he ‘ladde o ci izenship’ o acili a e
communi y membe s’ explica ions. The ool is based on he amilia image
o a physical ladde used in cons uc ion and i has been p e iously used
by A ns ein (1969) o illus a e a con inuum o ci izenship pa icipa ion.
In ou s udy, he ladde ’s ungs ep esen ed a jou ney owa ds wha was
conside ed good ci izenship, which is a he op o he ladde ; his ini i-
a ed discussion on possible ways o climb he ladde and lea n o be a
good ci izen. Toge he wi h s udy pa icipan s, we d ew he ladde and
accompanying illus a ions on any su ace a ailable, such as he loo ,
ables, pape o walls (see examples in Fig. 1). The ladde o ci izenship
was used du ing quali a i e in e iews (n=37), and he issues a ising
we e u he discussed in ou ocus-g oup discussions wi h a o al o 52
indi idual pa icipan s.
The analysis and in e p e a ions a e suppo ed by he i s au ho ’s
p olonged s ay in he communi ies, whe e he pa icipa ed in commu-
ni y mee ings, a ming g oups, chu ch se ices, Village Sa ings and Loans
Associa ion (VSLAs) mee ings and o he ac i i ies. Mo eo e , a e ini ial
analysis, dissemina ion mee ings in each communi y we e a anged, joined
by majo s akeholde s such as he KRC, local go e nmen o icials and
o he opinion leade s. Fo his chap e , he in e iew and discussion an-
sc ip s we e analyzed hema ically (B adley e al., 2007), i s iden i ying
ins ances whe e ‘good ci izenship’ was de ined, and second, places in
CLIMBING THE LADDER? COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES … 203
Fig. 1 Samples o ield pa icipa o y discussion ames o ‘ladde o ci izenship’
(Sou ce Au ho ’s own ield pho o)
which he acquisi ion and lea ning o he cha ac e is ics o pe cei ed good
ci izenship we e discussed. The conc e e a icula ions o lea ning we e
u he combined in o i e ca ego ies, which illus a e he di e se ways in
which lea ning was concep ualized.
4Local Concep ualiza ions
o Lea ning Ci izenship
In his sec ion, we p esen ou indings on he di e se ways in which
local communi y membe s concep ualize hei lea ning o good ci izen-
ship. We begin by b ie ly desc ibing he gene al cha ac e is ics o good
ci izenship as explica ed in pa icipan s’ e lec ions on how o si ua e
people on di e en ungs o he ladde o ci izenship. We hen o e a
mo e de ailed analysis o di e se ways o lea ning and acqui ing wha was
conside ed good ci izenship quali ies, based on he analysis o discussions
wi h pa icipan s abou mo ing up and down he ladde o ci izenship.
The Cha ac e is ics o ‘good Ci izenship’
In o de o g asp local concep ualiza ions o good how ci izenship may
be lea ned, we s a wi h a b ie desc ip ion o unde s andings o ci izen-
ship in his pa icula con ex . In he con ex s o o he Ugandan u al
communi ies, Ndidde e al. (2020) claimed ha he meanings assigned
204 T. H. BANANUKA ET AL.
o ‘ci izenship’ by communi y membe s mainly e ol ed a ound local
membe ship in he communi y, a he han legal s a us o membe ship
o he poli y o he Ugandan s a e. This esona es wi h Delan y’s (2003)
ema k ha a p ocess o ci izenship cons uc ion akes place in a pa icula
communi y ia i s common belie s and in e es s, and he sha ed meanings
used o make sense o he wo ld.
Sha ed meanings a e closely connec ed wi h he language and ocab-
ula ies used. In he local language o dialec , Ru oo o, which was used
in he in e iews and o he in e ac ions, he wo d omwikazi was used o
ansla e he English e m ‘ci izen’. Omwikazi li e ally e e s o esiden
o membe o a communi y, coun y o coun y mo e b oadly. Thus, i was
used o desc ibe communi y membe ship a di e en le els, and u he ,
a he na ional le el, whe e i acqui es legal s a us. Howe e , when he
esea ch pa icipan s discussed he ladde o ci izenship, hei meanings
e ol ed mos ly a ound local esidency and good communi y membe -
ship, whe eas ci izenship as membe ship in he s a e was a ely discussed,
e en when p omp ed.
In local accoun s, omwikazi was pe cei ed as a aching o a pe son who
has li ed long enough in he communi y o be accep ed, has a sou ce
o li elihood and a known add ess. As one o he pa icipan s explained,
‘Ci izenship occu s when a pe son s ays in an a ea o a long ime and
wo ks wi h people in ha a ea in one way o ano he , and sleeps in hei
home.’ In a simila ein, he cha ac e is ics o good ci izenship, obwikazi
obu ungi, we e also usually e lec ed on in ela ion o wha was conside ed
he beha iou o a good membe o he local communi y. Cha ac e is-
ics, such as a good home, ha d wo k and sel -sus ainabili y we e cen al
o good ci izenship: ‘A good ci izen is one who ensu es ha he home
is clean, and he child en sleep well.’ Ha ing a s able sou ce o income
and he economic abili y o ‘educa e one’s child en’ we e cen al quali-
ies enabling one o climb he ladde . Fu he mo e, good ela ions wi h
o he s as well as he abili y and willingness o help o he s in need we e
seen as impo an . A good ci izen is expec ed o pa icipa e in join ac i -
i ies, such as cleaning communi y wa e sou ces and helping a bu ial
ce emonies. Good ci izenship also in ol es subsc ip ion and allegiance o
accep able belie s and communi y alues exp essed in local cul u e and
eligion. Occasionally, i was also men ioned ha good ci izens ough
o abide by go e nmen ules and egula ions, as when one pa icipan
claimed, ‘A good ci izen in he illage mus ha e good ela ions wi h
CLIMBING THE LADDER? COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVES … 211
5Discussion and Conclusions
The o e all aim o his chap e was o in es iga e he meanings o ci izen-
ship and lea ning as cons uc ed in ce ain loca ions. This s a ing poin
was inspi ed by, on he one hand, Delan y’s (2003) idea o ci izenship as a
con inuous lea ning p ocess encompassing indi idual, cul u al and social
le els, and on he o he , by B une ’s (1996) no ion o olk heo ies o
lea ning. In wha ollows, ou indings on local concep ualiza ions will be
discussed h ough he lens o Delan y’s and B une ’s heo e ical ideas.
In communi y membe s’ desc ip ions, good ci izenship e ol ed
a ound being a good esiden o he locale and a good membe o he
communi y. This included ha ing a good home, being ha d-wo king and
sel -sus aining in e ms o li elihood, being socially engaged and willing o
pa icipa e in common ac i i ies and help o he s in need. This mains eam
o he indings esona es wi h Delan y’s no ion o cul u al ci izenship as a
con inuously cons uc ed socio-cul u al iden i y. In some ins ances, wha
Delan y e ms disciplina y ci izenship also occu ed. The ole a ached
o local go e nmen o icials o ins uc ing people in he na u e o good
ci izenship and punishing hose who ail can be seen as a mani es a ion
o s a e’s disciplina y ci izenship. Mo eo e , s essing he impo ance o
mu ual help, in addi ion o being a sign o communali y, also demon-
s a es how he ideals o good ci izenship as a con ibu ing and help ul
communi y membe a e closely ela ed o he poli ical and socie al condi-
ion o he absence o he s a e as p o ide o social p o ec ion in he
e en o ha dship.
Delan y (2003: 601) ca ego ized lea ning o ci izenship unde h ee
in e wined le els: indi idual biog aphy, he cul u al le el and he social
le el. Ou indings e lec he in e wining o sou ces o lea ning ci izen-
ship. Some ca ego ies, such as he edi y and challenges, e lec ed indi idual
biog aphy, whils o he s, such as copying, acknowledged lea ning h ough
in e ac ion in acqui ing and po en ially changing he p e alen cul u al
meanings a ached o good ci izenship.
The iden i ied no ions o lea ning also esona e wi h B une ’s sugges-
ion ha ce ain olk heo ies o lea ning ocus on in e nal sou ces o
lea ning, whils o he s s ess he ex e nal. Howe e , he o e all hemes in
concep ualiza ions o lea ning we e ha , i s , hey we e closely ied o
communi y alues and belie s abou wha a good ci izen is, and second,

212 T. H. BANANUKA ET AL.
hey e lec ed, in a one way o ano he , combina ions o social in e ac-
ion and pe sonal unde s andings, some imes as a esul o in en ional
educa ion, some imes o wha was happening in in o mal spaces.
Taking a close look on B une ’s (1996) heo y, some u he poin s o
con ac can be iden i ied. Fo example, s ess on copying esona es wi h
B une ’s idea o lea ne s as imi a o s, whe eby he p ac ices, ideas and
beha iou o he mo e espec ed membe s o he communi y a e imi a ed
by he es . Lea ning h ough he educa ion p o ided by NGOs o he
chu ch demons a es B une ’s ‘didac ic exposu e’ scena io. The in e nal
dimension was mos ly e lec ed in he ca ego y o challenges, when he
ealiza ion ha one was no ega ded as being a good ci izen esul ed in
changes in a i udes and beha iou .
To conclude, he meanings a ached o he no ion o good ci izen-
ship by communi y membe s we e mix u e o cul u al belie s, go e nmen
egula ions, eligious guidelines and ideas in oduced by NGOs. Local
unde s andings o how good ci izenship is cons uc ed and he ways o
lea ning i , o climbing he ladde o ci izenship, a e impo an o de el-
opmen wo ke s and NGOs seeking o empowe ci izens. Iden i ica ion
o local unde s andings o cul u al ci izenship and he olk heo ies held
on ways o lea ning i a e i al in o de o embed in e en ions in he
local con ex o ensu e hei ele ance, sus ainabili y and esonance wi h
he local p io i ies.
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