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Nega i e emo ional consequences o labou ma ke ac i a ion policies o long- e m
unemployed young adul s in Finland
© Sami Ylis ö and Hanna-Ma i Husu. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed.
Published e sion
Ylis ö, Sami; Husu, Hanna-Ma i
Ylis ö, S., & Husu, H.-M. (2021). Nega i e emo ional consequences o labou ma ke ac i a ion
policies o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland. In e na ional Jou nal o Sociology
and Social Policy, 41(13/14), 1-15. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/ijssp-02-2021-0039
2021
Nega i e emo ional consequences
o labou ma ke ac i a ion policies
o long- e m unemployed young
adul s in Finland
Sami Ylis €
o and Hanna-Ma i Husu
Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy €
askyl€
a,
Jy €
askyl€
a, Finland
Abs ac
Pu pose –This a icle deals wi h he nega i e emo ional consequences o ac i e labou ma ke policies
(ALMPs) o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland. Al hough such policies may ha e posi i e e ec s,
an explo a ion o hei nega i e impac s e eals hei p oblema ic side e ec s. We explo e a ious aspec s o
ALMP in e en ions ha p e en indi iduals om gaining such posi i e ou comes and hus educe hei
mo i a ion o in es in he policies.
Design/me hodology/app oach –D awing on he a ec heo y o social exchange, we unde s and ha
indi iduals seek posi i e ewa ds om social in e ac ions. Ou da a is aken om li e cou se in e iews wi h
unemployed people aged 20–31 in cen al Finland in 2012–2013.
Findings –We ind h ee ac o s linked o ALMPs ha diminish pa icipan s’emo ional well-being:
expe iences o un ai ness, lack o con ol and a misma ch be ween ALMPs and clien s’needs. By paying
a en ion o aspec s o labou ma ke policy ha diminish emo ional well-being, i is possible o build mo e
unc ional policies ha be e mee he needs o long- e m unemployed indi iduals.
O iginali y/ alue –This s udy ills a signi ican gap in he li e a u e, because he e is limi ed esea ch on
unin ended nega i e ou comes o ALMP ac i a ion.
Keywo ds Emo ions, Unemploymen , You h, A ec heo y o social exchange, Ac i e labou ma ke policies
Pape ype Resea ch pape
In oduc ion
Wide ends such as globalisa ion, he g owing signi icance o ma ke s, inc easing
compe i ion, p i a isa ion and de egula ion o labou ma ke s ha e c ea ed indi idualisa ion,
de-s anda disa ion and agmen a ion o young peoples’ ansi ion and wo king ca ee s
(Bloss eld e al., 2005;Wal he , 2006). Fo he wel a e s a es, hese labou ma ke ends ha e
mean a shi owa ds wo k a e and ac i a ion policies, i.e. passi e bene i s owa ds mo e
ac i e measu es. Ac i e labou ma ke policies (ALMPs) ha e become he main labou
ma ke scheme in OECD coun ies (Klu e, 2010). The long- e m unemployed (F ase , 1999)
and he young ha e been impo an a ge g oups (Ka jalainen, 2013;Die ich, 2012), because
high and pe sis en you h unemploymen has aised conce ns abou you h labou ma ke
in eg a ion (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016).
Ac i a ion has changed unemployed jobseeke s’socie al posi ion, wi h s ic e condi ions
and inc eased links be ween he obliga ion o wo k and unemploymen bene i s. I has also
changed he poli ical ocus om Keynesian demand-side policies owa ds supply-side
policies and he indi idualisa ion o unemploymen (Keski alo, 2008;Ra ass, 2017). Due o
Nega i e
emo ional
consequences
o ALMPs
1
© Sami Ylis €
o and Hanna-Ma i Husu. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is
published unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce,
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Recei ed 16 Feb ua y 2021
Re ised 23 Ap il 2021
Accep ed 23 Ap il 2021
In e na ional Jou nal o Sociology
and Social Policy
Vol. 41 No. 13/14, 2021
pp. 1-15
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
0144-333X
DOI 10.1108/IJSSP-02-2021-0039
i s’“in ensi ied coe cion”agains ulne able g oups and indi idualisa ion, ac i a ion policies
ha e e oked hea y c i icism (Ra ass, 2017, p. 349; E e sbe g, 2016;Ca e and Wi wo h,
2017;W igh and Pa ick, 2019). As ac i a ion policies end o inc ease labou supply, “while
employe s obliga ions owa d labou a e minimised a he same ime”(Ra ass, 2017, p. 357),
his inc eases p essu e on unemployed indi iduals. C i ics ha e no ed he speci ic ela ions
be ween ac i a ion policies and neolibe alism (e.g. Whi wo h, 2016;Haikkola, 2019).
In neolibe al ideology, an emphasis on indi idual au onomy displaces esponsibili y
o young adul s’di icul ies om wide socie al s uc u es on o young peoples’own
beha iou , glossing o e he s uc u al ea u es o unemploymen (e.g. Wal he , 2006;
W igh , 2016).
Some s udies ha e ound ha ALMP pa icipa ion has been associa ed wi h expe iences
o ailu e and exclusion among unemployed indi iduals (Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015;Sandelin,
2014). The e is e idence ha neolibe al wo k a e ALMP in e en ions can inc ease
pa icipan s’anxie y, dec ease hei li e sa is ac ion and os e hei eelings ha li e is no
wo hwhile (Ca e and Wi wo h, 2017). The e a e occasionally also p oblems wi h he
quali y o ALMP in e en ions, which can be s igma ising and o e oo ew oppo uni ies o
social in e ac ion (Sage, 2013,2015b). In addi ion, sanc ions end o agg a a e p oblems
among he mos disad an aged pa icipan s (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016). Howe e , he
easons behind hese ad e se ou comes emain unclea (see also Ra ass, 2017). The wide use
o ALMP measu es o igh you h unemploymen con as s s a kly wi h ou low le el o
knowledge ega ding he e ec i eness o such measu es (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016). I has
been epea edly shown ha you h- a ge ed ALMP in e en ions esul in weake
employmen ou comes han gene al ALMP in e en ions; hei impac on young people’s
p obabili y o employmen can be e en nega i e (Ca d e al., 2017;Klu e, 2010). This aises
se ious ques ions abou wha happens o you h du ing and a e ALMP in e en ions. The e
may be a isk ha ALMP in e en ions can u he ma ginalise al eady ulne able
indi iduals such as long- e m unemployed you h.
We a e well awa e o he posi i e po en ial o ALMP measu es; indeed, in ou da a,
posi i e ou comes o ALMP in e en ions a e qui e common: ALMP in e en ions ha e
os e ed hei wo kabili y and men al heal h, enhanced hei employmen p ospec s and
suppo ed hei well-being h ough p o iding meaning ul ac i i ies and new social con ac s
(Ylis €
o, 2021). Two Finnish quali a i e li e a u e e iews ha e concluded ha ALMP
in e en ions can posi i ely impac pa icipan s coping skills, quali y o li e, ai h o u u e,
inancial si ua ion, sel -es eem, wo kabili y, o e all ac i i y, ci cadian hy hm and o e social
con ac s and meaning ul ac i i ies (Sandelin, 2014;Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015). In gene al,
ALMP in e en ions can help o alle ia e hese ad e se ou comes by os e ing unemployed
pa icipan s’subjec i e well-being, physical heal h and social capi al (Sage, 2013,2015a,b).
Gi en he la ge and signi ican well-being cos s associa ed wi h unemploymen , ALMP
in e en ions’posi i e well-being- ela ed ou comes may be an impo an inding om a social
policy pe spec i e (Sage, 2015b).
Howe e , he e is s ill a lack o unde s anding o how ad e se ou comes can esul om
se ices whose pu pose is o help indi iduals gain employmen and cause unin ended,
un a ou able emo ional consequences on unemployed young people. Quali a i e esea ch
emains unde - ep esen ed in he li e a u e on ac i a ion and ALMPs. Ou s udy con ibu es
o quali a i e app oaches o unemploymen esea ch (see Pa ick, 2014;W igh , 2016;W igh
and Pa ick, 2019) and in es iga es he o en neglec ed and unde -in es iga ed nega i e
consequences o ac i a ion policies. We s udy he emo ions o young pa icipan s in ALMP
measu es based on he unde s anding o he policies as ansac ions and exchange ela ions.
In pa icula , we aim o iden i y nega i e emo ional expe iences o young people eme ging
om he daily con ex o ALMP pa icipa ion. By nega i e emo ional expe iences, we mean
how ce ain emo ions such as anxie y, us a ion, he expe ience o injus ice and he lack o
IJSSP
41,13/14
2
con ol, a ise om epea ed pa e ns o ailed exchanges in he con ex o ALMP
in e en ions.
Such esea ch is c ucial o he de elopmen o be e ALMP in e en ions o
unemployed you h. ALMP in e en ions’e ec on young people’s emo ional well-being is
an especially impo an esea ch opic because men al heal h issues a e p obably he mos
common p oblem conce ning you h ac i a ion. App oxima ely 20–25% o Finnish you h
ha e men al heal h p oblems (Ma unen e al., 2013); men al illness is also he leading eason
why young adul s ecei e disabili y bene i s (see Kosken uo e al., 2014). We e e o he a ec
heo y o social exchange (Lawle , 2001;Molm, 1997), which conside s he ewa ding and
punishing aspec s o exchange ela ions and ansac ions in e ms o emo ional ou comes.
This heo y o e s insigh s in o how he daily ou ines o ALMP in e en ions can lead o
nega i e emo ions and e en long-las ing emo ional damage.
Ou da a consis s o 28 semi-s uc u ed li e cou se in e iews conduc ed in 2012–2013
wi h long- e m unemployed young adul s aged 20–31 om he Jy €
askyl€
a egion in Finland.
We use con en analysis o add ess he p oblema ic emo ional consequences o you h
ac i a ion policies. We summa ise he cen al p oblems in o h ee ca ego ies: expe iences o
un ai ness, lack o con ol and misma ch be ween ac i a ion measu es and clien s’needs.
Finnish ac i a ion policy
Finnish you h unemploymen a e is ela i ely high compa ed o Sweden o No way and
OECD coun ies on a e age. Finnish you h unemploymen a e can be explained pa ly by
he la ge p opo ion o s uden s sea ching o pa - ime wo k. Tha is why he Finnish you h
unemploymen spell du a ion is one o he lowes in he OECD coun ies. The numbe o
NEETS is somewha lowe han he OECD a e age bu signi ican ly highe han, o
example, in Sweden and No way. Finnish you h labou ma ke pe o mance is sligh ly abo e
OECD a e ages bu weake han in o he No dic coun ies (OECD, 2019, pp. 19–37).
The e ha e been nume ous ac i a ion e o ms a ge ed a you h in OECD coun ies,
including Finland ha ep esen s an uni e salis ic and socio-democ a ic wel a e egime
model (Wal he , 2006;Bloss eld e al., 2005). Finnish labou ma ke policies combine wo k a e
policies and he human capi al de elopmen app oach. Neolibe al wo k a e policies ocus on
supply-side ac o s ha lead indi iduals o ac i ely o e , con ibu e and adjus hemsel es o
employe s’needs (McDonald and Ma s on, 2005;Se ano Pascual, 2007). The human capi al
de elopmen app oach seeks b oade wel a e goals a he han a apid mo e in o
employmen . I seeks o imp o e wel a e ecipien s’long- e m employabili y h ough
a ious measu es including aining, educa ion, counselling and social and heal h se ices
(Keski alo, 2008, pp. 106–107). One o he main a ge s o wo k a e elemen s in Finnish social
policy has been young people wi hou o mal pos -compulso y educa ion (Haikkola, 2019).
Unde -25-yea -olds we e he i s speci ic a ge g oup o Finnish labou ma ke policies
(Haikkola, 2020).
Finland has been qui e ac i e in you h ac i a ion policies since he 1990s. In 1996 labou
ma ke subsidy was made condi ional o all unde -20 yea -olds who lacked oca ional
deg ees; a yea la e his was ex ended o he unde -25s. In 2011 his obliga ion was
b oadened o indi iduals who ha e in e up ed hei s udies wi hou public employmen
se ice (PES) accep ance. These e o ms included a i e-mon h wai om he s a o
unemploymen , he obliga ion o apply o s udy e e y yea and he obliga ion o pa icipa e in
ALMP measu es. Also, he ehabili a i e wo k expe ience ac in 2001 a ge ed o iginally he
unde 25-yea -old unemployed you h. Rehabili a i e wo k expe ience is a special wo k
aining scheme o he long- e m unemployed people who ha e p oblems wi h
employabili y. Rehabili a i e wo k expe ience la e b oadened o olde age g oups. In 2005
he i s you h gua an ee in oduced indi idualised job sea ch plans o he unemployed
Nega i e
emo ional
consequences
o ALMPs
3
you h, which had o include o e s o a job, educa ion o ALMP measu es. The
implemen a ion o he job sea ch plans was also moni o ed du ing he egula mee ings.
The second you h gua an ee e o m was made in 2013, which included a you h educa ion
gua an ee. You h gua an ee s a ed he de elopmen o Ohjaamo mul i-p o essional one-s op
guidance cen es o unde 30-yea s old you hs. You h gua an ee also s a ed a young adul ’s
skill p og am (NAO-p og am), which pu pose was o gua an ee oca ional quali ica ions o
he you h. One o he mos signi ican a ge g oups o hese you h ac i a ion policies has
been school d opou s.
The e also ha e been nume ous ac i a ion e o ms in Finland since he ea ly 1990s, which
ha e a ge ed he unemployed popula ion in gene al. These egula ions a ec you h also, and
i has mean igh ening moni o ing and equi emen s o pa icipa ion in educa ion, wo k o
ALMP measu es. Failu e o ul il hese equi emen s can lead o sanc ions, e ealing
neolibe alism’s s ong in luence on Finland’s employmen policies.
A ec heo y o social exchange
Social exchange heo y (Homans, 1958) sees ha “much o wha we need and alue in li e (e.g.
goods, se ices, companionship, app o al, s a us, in o ma ion) can only be ob ained om
o he s”(Molm, 1997, p. 12). Social exchange is unde s ood as a ela ional p ocess whe e an
exchange ne wo k is “a se o “connec ed”exchange ela ions”en ailing epea ed
ansac ions by ac o s (Lawle and Yoon, 1998, p. 872). The a ec heo y o social
exchange (Molm, 1997;Lawle , 2001) is gene ally in e es ed in sc u inising wha ypes o
emo ions eme ge om ansac ions and how hey in luence he o ma ion o s onge o
weake ies o social uni s and objec s such as ela ions, g oups, ne wo ks, communi ies o
socie y (Lawle , 2001;Lawle e al., 2006). The main idea in he a ec heo y o social exchange
is o explo e “how ac o s expe ience, in e p e , and espond o hei own emo ions and
eelings p oduced by success ul o unsuccess ul exchange e o s”(Lawle , 2001, p. 323).
Emo ions a e unde s ood as in e nal e en s ha occu wi hin an ac o and de i e om
ex e nal condi ions and e en s (Lawle e al., 2006). They “a e a sub le signal o ac o s abou
hei own esponses in in e ac ion”(Lawle , 2001, p. 323). Indi iduals seek ewa ding and
posi i e emo ional expe iences om hei ansac ions. Exchange ou comes may be
ewa ding o punishing, and hei emo ional e ec s a y in o m and in ensi y (Lawle ,
2001;Molm, 1990). All ypes o ansac ions –i.e. indi iduals ansac ing wi h ins i u ions,
wi hin o ganisa ions and wi h a ious o ms o policy in hei daily li es –gene a e emo ional
consequences.
The a ec heo y o social exchange sc u inises he social condi ions unde which social
exchange p oduces posi i e o nega i e emo ional consequences. The nega i e and posi i e
emo ions ha ac o s expe ience a e likely o ha e an e ec on hei u u e ansac ions by
ei he dec easing o inc easing hei mo i a ion o pa icipa e in u u e exchanges (Lawle ,
2001;Lawle e al., 2006). The heo y gene ally acknowledges ha signi ican powe
imbalances in exchange ela ions c ea e nega i e emo ional eac ions such as shame o
ange among hose in he disad an aged posi ion (Molm, 1990). In addi ion, when hei
needs and alua ions a e endange ed o no easily me , people gene ally expe ience
emo ional dis ess.
Va ious o ms o ansac ion a e ela ed o ac o s’expe ience o jus ice and ai ea men .
In ci cums ances “in which bene i s a e exchanged o dis ibu ed, ques ions o jus ice a ise”–
meaning ha indi iduals ca e deeply abou he no ms o ecip oci y and ai exchange, and
abou eelings o un ai ea men . Such eelings make hem less mo i a ed o in es in and
commi o such ela ions in u u e (Molm e al., 2003, p. 128). Commi men is ela ed o he
posi i e emo ional consequences ha he exchange ela ion gene a es; i is unde s ood as “ he
a achmen an indi idual eels o a collec i e en i y”(Lawle and Yoon, 1996, p. 90).
IJSSP
41,13/14
4

We unde s and ALMP measu es as ansac ions and exchange ela ions be ween
o ganising ac o s and long- e m unemployed young people. Unemployed young adul s
a e expec ed o pa icipa e in a ious ac i i ies and ac i ely seek employmen in
exchange o bene i s. An exchange heo y would see hese ansac ions and in e ac ions
as “a p ocess o gi ing and ecei ing”in which unemployed indi iduals ul il he
expec a ions o PES in o de o ecei e aluable esou ces while simul aneously seeking
“p o i ” om hose exchange ela ions (Tu ne and S e s, 2005, p. 179). ALMP measu es
o m a con ex whe e his daily exchange akes place. Social exchange heo ies a e able
o sc u inise he aspec s o hese measu es ha long- e m unemployed young adul s
expe ience as p oblema ic, and d aw a en ion o he emo ional dynamics o daily
exchanges ha can a ec young people.
Da a and me hod
Ou da a consis s o 28 semi-s uc u ed li e cou se in e iews, 17 men and 11 women,
conduc ed in 2012–2013 wi h long- e m unemployed young adul s aged 20–31 in he
Jy €
askyl€
a egion in cen al Finland, which hen had a high gene al unemploymen a e. We
de ine long- e m unemploymen acco ding o he b oade de ini ion o unemploymen :
pa icipa ion in labou ma ke measu es does no end unemploymen (Mon 
en and Tuomala,
2003). An indi idual is long- e m unemployed i hey ha e been con inuously wi hou wo k
o a leas 12 mon hs. Ou in e iewees we e con ac ed h ough ehabili a i e and aining
o ganisa ions and by snowball sampling h ough he social ne wo ks o he unemployed
hemsel es. In e iewed you h’s li e si ua ion a ied a he momen o he in e iews: 15 we e
in ALMP measu es, en we e unemployed, wo s udied and one was on a disabili y pension.
The in e iewed you h we e no excep ionally dissa is ied se ice use s because hey also
ga e posi i e eedback o ALMP in e en ions.
Da a is ele an as i is based on li e cou se in e iews o a ulne able g oup ha is
di icul o each. The e ha e no been many signi ican labou ma ke policy e o ms a e
he da a ga he ing excep labou se ice o ganisa ional e o m; he second you h gua an ee
e o m in 2013; es ablishmen o you h one-s op guidance cen es due o you h gua an ee
2014; and unemployed pe iodic in e iews since 2017. These e o ms ha e b ough only
mino changes in ALMP in e en ions. The e ha e no been signi ican changes in Finnish
labou ma ke s, he na ional economy o he Finnish you h’s socie al posi ion be ween da a
ga he ing and he Co id-19 pandemic.
In ou da a, posi i e expe iences ela ed o ac i e labou policies we e common. This
indica es ha ac i a ion measu es o some ex en can mimic paid wo k and p oduce simila
posi i e psychosocial ou comes (Sage, 2015b) by o e ing simila la en unc ions o eal
employmen o wo k in gene al (Jahoda, 1979). Bu in addi ion o hese posi i e expe iences,
we also ound wo ying indica ions o ad e se emo ional consequences eme ging om
a ious si ua ions du ing and a e ac i a ion measu es. Such ad e se ou comes a e usually
ha d o s udy, because dissa is ied se ice use s end no o pa icipa e in any esea ch. Such
young people may also simply disappea om he whole se ice sys em i he in e en ion
ails (Ka jalainen and Ka jalainen, 2010). Hence, collec ing da a o e en eedback om hese
young se ice use s is complica ed.
Ou da a mee s hese challenges because i comes om a g oup o young adul s ha o en
“disappea ”in su eys (Siisi€
ainen, 2014;Ka jalainen and Ka jalainen, 2010). Ou in e iewees
aced ulne able li e si ua ions and had special needs o psychosocial suppo . The majo i y
su e ed om dep ession o o he men al heal h p oblems such as anxie y o panic a acks,
and app oxima ely a qua e had p oblems wi h subs ance abuse. The o e all majo i y
( hough no all) had been socialised in o low le els o economic, cul u al and social esou ces
om an ea ly age. Nea ly all o hem lacked social ne wo ks (e.g. h ough pa en al di o ce,
Nega i e
emo ional
consequences
o ALMPs
5
be ea emen o pee ejec ion) in hei daily li es, which indica ed ha hey ecei ed li le
help om signi ican o he s o hei nea en i onmen .
Du ing in e iews, pa icipan s we e asked abou hei expe iences wi h ega d o
educa ion, wo k and pa icipa ion in labou ma ke measu es; hey we e also asked abou
hei emo ional well-being and (men al) heal h. In ligh o Finland’s you h ALMP policies, we
pa icula ly in es iga ed ou ac i a ion measu es supe ised by PES: (1) aining and
suppo ed employmen in e en ions, including subsidised wo k; (2) he obliga ion o apply
o s udy; (3) PES cou ses and employmen aining; (4) egula mee ings wi h PES (Haikkola,
2019). We ocused on how hese ou ypes o ac i a ion caused emo ional s ess o ha m o
long- e m unemployed you h. Ou s udy is impo an because Finnish you h ALMP
measu es ha e s ongly a ge ed school d opou s (Haikkola, 2019,2020), who a e also a
ulne able g oup in espec o men al heal h (Pa iainen e al., 2020), meaning ha hey a e
especially ulne able o he nega i e emo ional ou comes o unsa is ac o y social exchange
ela ions.
The in e iew da a was subjec ed o induc i e con en analysis, in which concep s a e
de i ed om da a (Ca anagh, 1997;Elo and Kyng€
as, 2007). Fi s , we sc eened he da a
sys ema ically, which enabled us o selec all he ex ac s including nega i e emo ions in
ela ion o ALMPs. We ound 106 ex ac s o be ween one and en sen ences in leng h. Then
we coded he da a, and c ea ed ca ego ies and abs ac ions. We coded he ex ac s by
summa ising he cen al idea in a ew wo ds. Fo example, he ex ac “I was so dis essed
abou hose job o e s”was summa ised as “dis ess because o job o e ”. Then we
ca ego ised he codes hie a chically and labelled he ca ego ies wi h heo e ically ele an
concep s. We o med 27 subca ego ies ha desc ibed si ua ions whe e nega i e emo ions
we e a oused in ela ion o ac i a ion measu es. We me ged hese subca ego ies in o eigh
highe ca ego ies desc ibing de ici s in labou ma ke se ices, which we inally abs ac ed
in o h ee heo e ical ca ego ies: (1) expe iences o un ai ness; (2) lack o con ol; (3) he
misma ch be ween ac i a ion measu es and clien s’needs.
Expe iences o un ai ness
Ten o he 28 in e iewees men ioned ha hey had expe ienced un ai ness du ing ac i a ion
in e en ions. Mos expe iences o un ai ea men conce ned di e en kinds o wo k
aining and subsidised employmen in e en ions, including wo kplace ac i i ies. In
wo kplaces, he young people usually wo ked wi h o he employees, and hey ine i ably
compa ed hei own si ua ion wi h ha o o he s. Un ai ea men ook many di e en o ms
conce ning igh s, wo k asks, wages and he ci cula ion o ainees.
The i s emo ionally p oblema ic ea u e conce ns igh s. Helen (aged 29) had a
oca ional deg ee, bu he wo k ca ee had no s a ed because she su e s om se e e
dep ession, and a he ime o he in e iew, she was eco e ing. She men ioned ha ainees
do no ha e he same legal igh s as o he wo ke s because hey a e no en i led o s a u o y
holidays o occupa ional heal hca e. T ainees a e no p o ec ed by collec i e ag eemen s, and
his in e io posi ion compa ed wi h o he wo ke s exposes hem o expe iences o un ai
ea men and exploi a ion (see also Sandelin, 2014;Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015). Thei weak
legal igh s also ela e o he second ea u e: hei smalle mone a y compensa ion. T ainees
ecei e no sala y a all, and o hose in subsidised employmen he pay is usually
signi ican ly poo e han ha o pe manen s a . Ou in e iewees did no make un ealis ic
sala y demands: hey unde s ood ha hey we e me ely ainees o in subsidised
employmen . Howe e , he lack o p ope compensa ion could os e young people’s
expe iences o hei own in e io posi ion and powe imbalance compa ed wi h o he wo ke s.
Fo example, Ma ia (aged 28), a e y ac i e job seeke and pa icipa ed in nume ous
ALMP measu es, s udied he second oca ional deg ee h ough app en iceship aining. In
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6
he in e iew, she said: “i was a li le bi dep essing when you did h ee imes mo e wo k han
hose who we e hi ed he e, and you go like i e imes wo se sala y han hem, so i did no
eel nice”. La y (aged 30), who su e ed om a slowly p og essing neu ological condi ion,
said ha he had eal esponsibili ies, bu he was he only one who did no ge paid. Bo h Ma ia
and La y e lec ed on exchange ela ions in hei wo kplaces, and on p ocess o gi ing and
ecei ing, no ms o ecip oci y and ai ness. Thei expe iences o un ai ness we e ela ed o
he amoun o wo k and he deg ee o complexi y o he wo k asks, o which hei eceip o
V8 subsidy pe day was inapp op ia e compensa ion.
The hi d p oblem is ha wo king wi hou p ope compensa ion became inc easingly
p oblema ic o e ime, because young people inc easingly el ha employe s we e aking
ad an age o hei labou . They s a ed o suspec ha employe s had ne e had any eal
in en ion o hi e hem, and ha hey we e jus being ci cula ed be ween wo kplaces. James
(aged 30) g adua ed as a che nine yea s ago and had done occasional pa - ime wo k, had
also aken pa in aining and subsidised wo k in e en ions James said: “en e p ises do no
ha e an in e es in hi ing ainees, because hey a e a ee wo k o ce o hem”. Michael
(aged 21), who had aken pa in aining a e he had d opped ou om oca ional s udies,
men ioned ha he had been a ee wo ke , and a e he cou se he was i ed. Pe e (aged 26)
had p oblems wi h alcohol and had ecen ly been homeless o wo yea s, had he same
expe ience as James and Michael. Acco ding o Pe e : “en e p ises do no hi e ainees,
because when he maximum aining ime expi es, hey immedia ely ake a new ainee o
eplace he p e ious one”. The young people usually did no ealise his un il he aining had
al eady s a ed. I caused bi e ness and disappoin men , because hey el ha he no ms o
ai exchange we e iola ed, and hey did no ecei e he bene i s hey had expec ed (see
Tu ne and S e s, 2005). Eigh o ou in e iewees ga e simila s a emen s, highligh ing he
p oblema ic na u e o epea ed pa icipa ion in ALMP in e en ions.
In he mos emo ionally de as a ing cases, he young el ha hey had been delibe a ely
misled by being gi en alse hope o u u e employmen . Fo ins ance, Lucy (aged 27), who had
accomplished oca ional deg ees and was a single pa en ca ing o he p eschool-age
child en a home, had had in ense expe iences o injus ice and el he sel a ic im o
exploi a ion:
Well, I ha e big ucking un inished business wi h [company name], who make money om he so
oys ha I ha e designed. I did no ge any hing om hem bu he ainee’s sala y [subsidy o V8 pe
day]. I was a huge disappoin men when I was p omised ha he e migh be some hing o me, and
he e is lo s o epai wo k in sewing and so on. Then, when we had his mee ing wi h he o icial in
PES and we alked abou u u e wo k.... Well, we do no ha e any hing o Lucy, she has done
e e y hing al eady. So I had ime o design hose dolls, which we e hen sen o Japan o some hing,
whe e hey manu ac u e hem now. So i was like a big ip-o kind o place.
Despi e he p omises he employe made o he , Lucy did no ecei e ai compensa ion o he
wo k she had done, which was also ela ed o he ac ha he wo kplace had aken economic
ad an age o he so oys she had designed. Lucy el be ayed and esen ul when alking
abou he company. She had had high hopes o he u u e ha we e ne e ealised. This
illus a es how ALMP exchange ne wo ks we e pe cei ed as un ai by ou esea ch
pa icipan s.
The ou h p oblem is ha ou in e iewees occasionally el ha hey we e gi en he
asks ha no one else wan ed o do, which made hem eel ha hey we e no espec ed. Fo
example, Pe e said ha he spen his days in he wo kplace “doing all he c appy asks, like
shel ing and ins alling bu gla ala ms”. La y said ha in one o his many wo k y-ou s he
had mainly “made co ee o o he wo ke s, pu pape s in alphabe ical o de and did o he
poin less asks”. The young people el hey we e gi en in e io asks no because hey we e
incapable o mo e demanding wo k, bu because hei supe io s would no le hem do such
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7
wo k. Pe e and La y el ha he si ua ion was un ai , making hem less mo i a ed o
commi o hei asks.
Lack o con ol
A sense o con ol is a key ea u e in exchange heo ies conce ned wi h emo ional aspec s
(Lawle and They, 1999). The eeling o losing con ol among long- e m unemployed young
adul s is ela ed o hei expe iences o coe cion, inabili y o in luence hei own li es, and
isk- aking. Fou een o ou 28 in e iewees men ioned such si ua ions. In e ms o exchange
ela ions, he powe dependency (e.g. Eme son, 1962) be ween hese young adul s and PES
was signi ican , as he esea ch pa icipan s depended upon PES o alued esou ces. The
lack o con ol was also ela ed o he ac ha he esea ch pa icipan s did no usually ha e
he means o educe ha dependency (see Tu ne and S e s, 2005). A powe imbalance e e s
o “di e en capabili ies o gene a e ewa ds and a oid cos s”(Lawle and Thye, 1999, p. 222).
The i s mani es a ion o lack o con ol is coe cion. Ou in e iewees expe ienced he
coe ci e o ce o ac i a ion measu es when hey el o ced o p essu ed o pa icipa e, which
in many cases was ela ed o he h ea o sanc ions (e.g. Sandelin, 2014). Some o his coe cion
was based on he law, and i s ongly cons ained he young adul s’decision-making powe
and agency, causing s ess and anxie y. Fo ins ance, Sam (aged 25), who su e ed om
lea ning disabili ies and d opped nume ous oca ional s udies, desc ibed nega i e eelings
abou he obliga ion o apply o s udy:
I canno apply o wo k, because i causes s omach c amps and nausea.... Bu applying o s udy is
e en mo e dis essing han job-seeking. I do no belie e ha I can ollow hei schedule and ge
assignmen s done in ime. I jus do no belie e so. My obliga ion o apply o s udy ends nex yea , so
I mus conside applying o adul educa ion. I so, I mus p epa e mysel eally ca e ully. I always
ha e a good eeling a he beginning, bu hen e e y hing alls apa . I has happened so many imes
be o e, so i p obably will happen again.
Sam desc ibed s ong soma ic symp oms such as “s omach c amps”and “nausea”,
demons a ing he s eng h o his nega i e emo ional esponses o he obliga ion o apply o
s udy. Young people’s obliga ion o apply o s udy means ha unde -25s who lack o mal
oca ional educa ion mus apply o a oca ional school e e y yea . I hey e use o apply,
hey migh be sanc ioned. Sam had ied o s a his oca ional s udies se e al imes bu had
ailed e e y ime, and his explained his ex emely pessimis ic a i ude owa ds educa ion. He
could no explain why all his s udies had b oken o soon a e he beginning, and his lack o
unde s anding pe haps made he si ua ion e en mo e unbea able.
Sam had no eques ed an exemp ion om he obliga ion o apply o s udy, e en hough
his anxie y diso de and dep ession migh ha e gi en him good g ounds o do so. Tha was
also why PES had ailed o ecognise his special si ua ion. Hence he aced he same sanc ions
and equi emen s as e e yone else. This was an example o exchange ela ions whe e PES
ewa ded desi able beha iou and punished undesi able beha iou (see Molm, 1990): Sam
was no capable o he desi ed beha iou , and nega i e emo ional esponses eme ged as an
ou come. Ou da a includes a couple o simila cases whe e he young people had p oblems
wi h s udying o did no know wha kind o oca ional educa ion hey wan ed. Fo hem, he
obliga ion o apply o s udy was an emo ional bu den which hey would ha e o encoun e
epea edly e e y yea un il hey we e 25. They oo migh ha e been unable o epo hei
si ua ion o PES.
In addi ion o he obliga ion o apply o s udy, he e a e also coe ci e labou ma ke
policy ea u es conce ning PES cou ses and employmen aining. PES wo ke s may no be
awa e o young people’s expe iences o anxie y abou hese ALMP measu es, and he
coe ci eness may be unin en ional. Ne e heless, James said ha he was “ h ea ened and
IJSSP
41,13/14
8
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Nega i e
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