Negative emotional consequences of labour market activation policies for long-term unemployed young adults in Finland

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Nega i e emo ional consequences o labou ma ke ac i a ion policies o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland © Sami Ylis ö and Hanna-Ma i Husu. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. Published e sion Ylis ö, Sami; Husu, Hanna-Ma i Ylis ö, S., & Husu, H.-M. (2021). Nega i e emo ional consequences o labou ma ke ac i a ion policies o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland. In e na ional Jou nal o Sociology and Social Policy, 41(13/14), 1-15. h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/ijssp-02-2021-0039 2021 Nega i e emo ional consequences o labou ma ke ac i a ion policies o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland Sami Ylis € o and Hanna-Ma i Husu Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy € askyl€ a, Jy € askyl€ a, Finland Abs ac Pu pose –This a icle deals wi h he nega i e emo ional consequences o ac i e labou ma ke policies (ALMPs) o long- e m unemployed young adul s in Finland. Al hough such policies may ha e posi i e e ec s, an explo a ion o hei nega i e impac s e eals hei p oblema ic side e ec s. We explo e a ious aspec s o ALMP in e en ions ha p e en indi iduals om gaining such posi i e ou comes and hus educe hei mo i a ion o in es in he policies. Design/me hodology/app oach –D awing on he a ec heo y o social exchange, we unde s and ha indi iduals seek posi i e ewa ds om social in e ac ions. Ou da a is aken om li e cou se in e iews wi h unemployed people aged 20–31 in cen al Finland in 2012–2013. Findings –We ind h ee ac o s linked o ALMPs ha diminish pa icipan s’emo ional well-being: expe iences o un ai ness, lack o con ol and a misma ch be ween ALMPs and clien s’needs. By paying a en ion o aspec s o labou ma ke policy ha diminish emo ional well-being, i is possible o build mo e unc ional policies ha be e mee he needs o long- e m unemployed indi iduals. O iginali y/ alue –This s udy ills a signi ican gap in he li e a u e, because he e is limi ed esea ch on unin ended nega i e ou comes o ALMP ac i a ion. Keywo ds Emo ions, Unemploymen , You h, A ec heo y o social exchange, Ac i e labou ma ke policies Pape ype Resea ch pape In oduc ion Wide ends such as globalisa ion, he g owing signi icance o ma ke s, inc easing compe i ion, p i a isa ion and de egula ion o labou ma ke s ha e c ea ed indi idualisa ion, de-s anda disa ion and agmen a ion o young peoples’ ansi ion and wo king ca ee s (Bloss eld e al., 2005;Wal he , 2006). Fo he wel a e s a es, hese labou ma ke ends ha e mean a shi owa ds wo k a e and ac i a ion policies, i.e. passi e bene i s owa ds mo e ac i e measu es. Ac i e labou ma ke policies (ALMPs) ha e become he main labou ma ke scheme in OECD coun ies (Klu e, 2010). The long- e m unemployed (F ase , 1999) and he young ha e been impo an a ge g oups (Ka jalainen, 2013;Die ich, 2012), because high and pe sis en you h unemploymen has aised conce ns abou you h labou ma ke in eg a ion (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016). Ac i a ion has changed unemployed jobseeke s’socie al posi ion, wi h s ic e condi ions and inc eased links be ween he obliga ion o wo k and unemploymen bene i s. I has also changed he poli ical ocus om Keynesian demand-side policies owa ds supply-side policies and he indi idualisa ion o unemploymen (Keski alo, 2008;Ra ass, 2017). Due o Nega i e emo ional consequences o ALMPs 1 © Sami Ylis € o and Hanna-Ma i Husu. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e, ansla e and c ea e de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial and non-comme cial pu poses), subjec o ull a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his licence may be seen a h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a : h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /0144-333X.h m Recei ed 16 Feb ua y 2021 Re ised 23 Ap il 2021 Accep ed 23 Ap il 2021 In e na ional Jou nal o Sociology and Social Policy Vol. 41 No. 13/14, 2021 pp. 1-15 Eme ald Publishing Limi ed 0144-333X DOI 10.1108/IJSSP-02-2021-0039 i s’“in ensi ied coe cion”agains ulne able g oups and indi idualisa ion, ac i a ion policies ha e e oked hea y c i icism (Ra ass, 2017, p. 349; E e sbe g, 2016;Ca e and Wi wo h, 2017;W igh and Pa ick, 2019). As ac i a ion policies end o inc ease labou supply, “while employe s obliga ions owa d labou a e minimised a he same ime”(Ra ass, 2017, p. 357), his inc eases p essu e on unemployed indi iduals. C i ics ha e no ed he speci ic ela ions be ween ac i a ion policies and neolibe alism (e.g. Whi wo h, 2016;Haikkola, 2019). In neolibe al ideology, an emphasis on indi idual au onomy displaces esponsibili y o young adul s’di icul ies om wide socie al s uc u es on o young peoples’own beha iou , glossing o e he s uc u al ea u es o unemploymen (e.g. Wal he , 2006; W igh , 2016). Some s udies ha e ound ha ALMP pa icipa ion has been associa ed wi h expe iences o ailu e and exclusion among unemployed indi iduals (Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015;Sandelin, 2014). The e is e idence ha neolibe al wo k a e ALMP in e en ions can inc ease pa icipan s’anxie y, dec ease hei li e sa is ac ion and os e hei eelings ha li e is no wo hwhile (Ca e and Wi wo h, 2017). The e a e occasionally also p oblems wi h he quali y o ALMP in e en ions, which can be s igma ising and o e oo ew oppo uni ies o social in e ac ion (Sage, 2013,2015b). In addi ion, sanc ions end o agg a a e p oblems among he mos disad an aged pa icipan s (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016). Howe e , he easons behind hese ad e se ou comes emain unclea (see also Ra ass, 2017). The wide use o ALMP measu es o igh you h unemploymen con as s s a kly wi h ou low le el o knowledge ega ding he e ec i eness o such measu es (Caliendo and Schmidl, 2016). I has been epea edly shown ha you h- a ge ed ALMP in e en ions esul in weake employmen ou comes han gene al ALMP in e en ions; hei impac on young people’s p obabili y o employmen can be e en nega i e (Ca d e al., 2017;Klu e, 2010). This aises se ious ques ions abou wha happens o you h du ing and a e ALMP in e en ions. The e may be a isk ha ALMP in e en ions can u he ma ginalise al eady ulne able indi iduals such as long- e m unemployed you h. We a e well awa e o he posi i e po en ial o ALMP measu es; indeed, in ou da a, posi i e ou comes o ALMP in e en ions a e qui e common: ALMP in e en ions ha e os e ed hei wo kabili y and men al heal h, enhanced hei employmen p ospec s and suppo ed hei well-being h ough p o iding meaning ul ac i i ies and new social con ac s (Ylis € o, 2021). Two Finnish quali a i e li e a u e e iews ha e concluded ha ALMP in e en ions can posi i ely impac pa icipan s coping skills, quali y o li e, ai h o u u e, inancial si ua ion, sel -es eem, wo kabili y, o e all ac i i y, ci cadian hy hm and o e social con ac s and meaning ul ac i i ies (Sandelin, 2014;Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015). In gene al, ALMP in e en ions can help o alle ia e hese ad e se ou comes by os e ing unemployed pa icipan s’subjec i e well-being, physical heal h and social capi al (Sage, 2013,2015a,b). Gi en he la ge and signi ican well-being cos s associa ed wi h unemploymen , ALMP in e en ions’posi i e well-being- ela ed ou comes may be an impo an inding om a social policy pe spec i e (Sage, 2015b). Howe e , he e is s ill a lack o unde s anding o how ad e se ou comes can esul om se ices whose pu pose is o help indi iduals gain employmen and cause unin ended, un a ou able emo ional consequences on unemployed young people. Quali a i e esea ch emains unde - ep esen ed in he li e a u e on ac i a ion and ALMPs. Ou s udy con ibu es o quali a i e app oaches o unemploymen esea ch (see Pa ick, 2014;W igh , 2016;W igh and Pa ick, 2019) and in es iga es he o en neglec ed and unde -in es iga ed nega i e consequences o ac i a ion policies. We s udy he emo ions o young pa icipan s in ALMP measu es based on he unde s anding o he policies as ansac ions and exchange ela ions. In pa icula , we aim o iden i y nega i e emo ional expe iences o young people eme ging om he daily con ex o ALMP pa icipa ion. By nega i e emo ional expe iences, we mean how ce ain emo ions such as anxie y, us a ion, he expe ience o injus ice and he lack o IJSSP 41,13/14 2 con ol, a ise om epea ed pa e ns o ailed exchanges in he con ex o ALMP in e en ions. Such esea ch is c ucial o he de elopmen o be e ALMP in e en ions o unemployed you h. ALMP in e en ions’e ec on young people’s emo ional well-being is an especially impo an esea ch opic because men al heal h issues a e p obably he mos common p oblem conce ning you h ac i a ion. App oxima ely 20–25% o Finnish you h ha e men al heal h p oblems (Ma unen e al., 2013); men al illness is also he leading eason why young adul s ecei e disabili y bene i s (see Kosken uo e al., 2014). We e e o he a ec heo y o social exchange (Lawle , 2001;Molm, 1997), which conside s he ewa ding and punishing aspec s o exchange ela ions and ansac ions in e ms o emo ional ou comes. This heo y o e s insigh s in o how he daily ou ines o ALMP in e en ions can lead o nega i e emo ions and e en long-las ing emo ional damage. Ou da a consis s o 28 semi-s uc u ed li e cou se in e iews conduc ed in 2012–2013 wi h long- e m unemployed young adul s aged 20–31 om he Jy € askyl€ a egion in Finland. We use con en analysis o add ess he p oblema ic emo ional consequences o you h ac i a ion policies. We summa ise he cen al p oblems in o h ee ca ego ies: expe iences o un ai ness, lack o con ol and misma ch be ween ac i a ion measu es and clien s’needs. Finnish ac i a ion policy Finnish you h unemploymen a e is ela i ely high compa ed o Sweden o No way and OECD coun ies on a e age. Finnish you h unemploymen a e can be explained pa ly by he la ge p opo ion o s uden s sea ching o pa - ime wo k. Tha is why he Finnish you h unemploymen spell du a ion is one o he lowes in he OECD coun ies. The numbe o NEETS is somewha lowe han he OECD a e age bu signi ican ly highe han, o example, in Sweden and No way. Finnish you h labou ma ke pe o mance is sligh ly abo e OECD a e ages bu weake han in o he No dic coun ies (OECD, 2019, pp. 19–37). The e ha e been nume ous ac i a ion e o ms a ge ed a you h in OECD coun ies, including Finland ha ep esen s an uni e salis ic and socio-democ a ic wel a e egime model (Wal he , 2006;Bloss eld e al., 2005). Finnish labou ma ke policies combine wo k a e policies and he human capi al de elopmen app oach. Neolibe al wo k a e policies ocus on supply-side ac o s ha lead indi iduals o ac i ely o e , con ibu e and adjus hemsel es o employe s’needs (McDonald and Ma s on, 2005;Se ano Pascual, 2007). The human capi al de elopmen app oach seeks b oade wel a e goals a he han a apid mo e in o employmen . I seeks o imp o e wel a e ecipien s’long- e m employabili y h ough a ious measu es including aining, educa ion, counselling and social and heal h se ices (Keski alo, 2008, pp. 106–107). One o he main a ge s o wo k a e elemen s in Finnish social policy has been young people wi hou o mal pos -compulso y educa ion (Haikkola, 2019). Unde -25-yea -olds we e he i s speci ic a ge g oup o Finnish labou ma ke policies (Haikkola, 2020). Finland has been qui e ac i e in you h ac i a ion policies since he 1990s. In 1996 labou ma ke subsidy was made condi ional o all unde -20 yea -olds who lacked oca ional deg ees; a yea la e his was ex ended o he unde -25s. In 2011 his obliga ion was b oadened o indi iduals who ha e in e up ed hei s udies wi hou public employmen se ice (PES) accep ance. These e o ms included a i e-mon h wai om he s a o unemploymen , he obliga ion o apply o s udy e e y yea and he obliga ion o pa icipa e in ALMP measu es. Also, he ehabili a i e wo k expe ience ac in 2001 a ge ed o iginally he unde 25-yea -old unemployed you h. Rehabili a i e wo k expe ience is a special wo k aining scheme o he long- e m unemployed people who ha e p oblems wi h employabili y. Rehabili a i e wo k expe ience la e b oadened o olde age g oups. In 2005 he i s you h gua an ee in oduced indi idualised job sea ch plans o he unemployed Nega i e emo ional consequences o ALMPs 3 you h, which had o include o e s o a job, educa ion o ALMP measu es. The implemen a ion o he job sea ch plans was also moni o ed du ing he egula mee ings. The second you h gua an ee e o m was made in 2013, which included a you h educa ion gua an ee. You h gua an ee s a ed he de elopmen o Ohjaamo mul i-p o essional one-s op guidance cen es o unde 30-yea s old you hs. You h gua an ee also s a ed a young adul ’s skill p og am (NAO-p og am), which pu pose was o gua an ee oca ional quali ica ions o he you h. One o he mos signi ican a ge g oups o hese you h ac i a ion policies has been school d opou s. The e also ha e been nume ous ac i a ion e o ms in Finland since he ea ly 1990s, which ha e a ge ed he unemployed popula ion in gene al. These egula ions a ec you h also, and i has mean igh ening moni o ing and equi emen s o pa icipa ion in educa ion, wo k o ALMP measu es. Failu e o ul il hese equi emen s can lead o sanc ions, e ealing neolibe alism’s s ong in luence on Finland’s employmen policies. A ec heo y o social exchange Social exchange heo y (Homans, 1958) sees ha “much o wha we need and alue in li e (e.g. goods, se ices, companionship, app o al, s a us, in o ma ion) can only be ob ained om o he s”(Molm, 1997, p. 12). Social exchange is unde s ood as a ela ional p ocess whe e an exchange ne wo k is “a se o “connec ed”exchange ela ions”en ailing epea ed ansac ions by ac o s (Lawle and Yoon, 1998, p. 872). The a ec heo y o social exchange (Molm, 1997;Lawle , 2001) is gene ally in e es ed in sc u inising wha ypes o emo ions eme ge om ansac ions and how hey in luence he o ma ion o s onge o weake ies o social uni s and objec s such as ela ions, g oups, ne wo ks, communi ies o socie y (Lawle , 2001;Lawle e al., 2006). The main idea in he a ec heo y o social exchange is o explo e “how ac o s expe ience, in e p e , and espond o hei own emo ions and eelings p oduced by success ul o unsuccess ul exchange e o s”(Lawle , 2001, p. 323). Emo ions a e unde s ood as in e nal e en s ha occu wi hin an ac o and de i e om ex e nal condi ions and e en s (Lawle e al., 2006). They “a e a sub le signal o ac o s abou hei own esponses in in e ac ion”(Lawle , 2001, p. 323). Indi iduals seek ewa ding and posi i e emo ional expe iences om hei ansac ions. Exchange ou comes may be ewa ding o punishing, and hei emo ional e ec s a y in o m and in ensi y (Lawle , 2001;Molm, 1990). All ypes o ansac ions –i.e. indi iduals ansac ing wi h ins i u ions, wi hin o ganisa ions and wi h a ious o ms o policy in hei daily li es –gene a e emo ional consequences. The a ec heo y o social exchange sc u inises he social condi ions unde which social exchange p oduces posi i e o nega i e emo ional consequences. The nega i e and posi i e emo ions ha ac o s expe ience a e likely o ha e an e ec on hei u u e ansac ions by ei he dec easing o inc easing hei mo i a ion o pa icipa e in u u e exchanges (Lawle , 2001;Lawle e al., 2006). The heo y gene ally acknowledges ha signi ican powe imbalances in exchange ela ions c ea e nega i e emo ional eac ions such as shame o ange among hose in he disad an aged posi ion (Molm, 1990). In addi ion, when hei needs and alua ions a e endange ed o no easily me , people gene ally expe ience emo ional dis ess. Va ious o ms o ansac ion a e ela ed o ac o s’expe ience o jus ice and ai ea men . In ci cums ances “in which bene i s a e exchanged o dis ibu ed, ques ions o jus ice a ise”– meaning ha indi iduals ca e deeply abou he no ms o ecip oci y and ai exchange, and abou eelings o un ai ea men . Such eelings make hem less mo i a ed o in es in and commi o such ela ions in u u e (Molm e al., 2003, p. 128). Commi men is ela ed o he posi i e emo ional consequences ha he exchange ela ion gene a es; i is unde s ood as “ he a achmen an indi idual eels o a collec i e en i y”(Lawle and Yoon, 1996, p. 90). IJSSP 41,13/14 4 We unde s and ALMP measu es as ansac ions and exchange ela ions be ween o ganising ac o s and long- e m unemployed young people. Unemployed young adul s a e expec ed o pa icipa e in a ious ac i i ies and ac i ely seek employmen in exchange o bene i s. An exchange heo y would see hese ansac ions and in e ac ions as “a p ocess o gi ing and ecei ing”in which unemployed indi iduals ul il he expec a ions o PES in o de o ecei e aluable esou ces while simul aneously seeking “p o i ” om hose exchange ela ions (Tu ne and S e s, 2005, p. 179). ALMP measu es o m a con ex whe e his daily exchange akes place. Social exchange heo ies a e able o sc u inise he aspec s o hese measu es ha long- e m unemployed young adul s expe ience as p oblema ic, and d aw a en ion o he emo ional dynamics o daily exchanges ha can a ec young people. Da a and me hod Ou da a consis s o 28 semi-s uc u ed li e cou se in e iews, 17 men and 11 women, conduc ed in 2012–2013 wi h long- e m unemployed young adul s aged 20–31 in he Jy € askyl€ a egion in cen al Finland, which hen had a high gene al unemploymen a e. We de ine long- e m unemploymen acco ding o he b oade de ini ion o unemploymen : pa icipa ion in labou ma ke measu es does no end unemploymen (Mon  en and Tuomala, 2003). An indi idual is long- e m unemployed i hey ha e been con inuously wi hou wo k o a leas 12 mon hs. Ou in e iewees we e con ac ed h ough ehabili a i e and aining o ganisa ions and by snowball sampling h ough he social ne wo ks o he unemployed hemsel es. In e iewed you h’s li e si ua ion a ied a he momen o he in e iews: 15 we e in ALMP measu es, en we e unemployed, wo s udied and one was on a disabili y pension. The in e iewed you h we e no excep ionally dissa is ied se ice use s because hey also ga e posi i e eedback o ALMP in e en ions. Da a is ele an as i is based on li e cou se in e iews o a ulne able g oup ha is di icul o each. The e ha e no been many signi ican labou ma ke policy e o ms a e he da a ga he ing excep labou se ice o ganisa ional e o m; he second you h gua an ee e o m in 2013; es ablishmen o you h one-s op guidance cen es due o you h gua an ee 2014; and unemployed pe iodic in e iews since 2017. These e o ms ha e b ough only mino changes in ALMP in e en ions. The e ha e no been signi ican changes in Finnish labou ma ke s, he na ional economy o he Finnish you h’s socie al posi ion be ween da a ga he ing and he Co id-19 pandemic. In ou da a, posi i e expe iences ela ed o ac i e labou policies we e common. This indica es ha ac i a ion measu es o some ex en can mimic paid wo k and p oduce simila posi i e psychosocial ou comes (Sage, 2015b) by o e ing simila la en unc ions o eal employmen o wo k in gene al (Jahoda, 1979). Bu in addi ion o hese posi i e expe iences, we also ound wo ying indica ions o ad e se emo ional consequences eme ging om a ious si ua ions du ing and a e ac i a ion measu es. Such ad e se ou comes a e usually ha d o s udy, because dissa is ied se ice use s end no o pa icipa e in any esea ch. Such young people may also simply disappea om he whole se ice sys em i he in e en ion ails (Ka jalainen and Ka jalainen, 2010). Hence, collec ing da a o e en eedback om hese young se ice use s is complica ed. Ou da a mee s hese challenges because i comes om a g oup o young adul s ha o en “disappea ”in su eys (Siisi€ ainen, 2014;Ka jalainen and Ka jalainen, 2010). Ou in e iewees aced ulne able li e si ua ions and had special needs o psychosocial suppo . The majo i y su e ed om dep ession o o he men al heal h p oblems such as anxie y o panic a acks, and app oxima ely a qua e had p oblems wi h subs ance abuse. The o e all majo i y ( hough no all) had been socialised in o low le els o economic, cul u al and social esou ces om an ea ly age. Nea ly all o hem lacked social ne wo ks (e.g. h ough pa en al di o ce, Nega i e emo ional consequences o ALMPs 5 be ea emen o pee ejec ion) in hei daily li es, which indica ed ha hey ecei ed li le help om signi ican o he s o hei nea en i onmen . Du ing in e iews, pa icipan s we e asked abou hei expe iences wi h ega d o educa ion, wo k and pa icipa ion in labou ma ke measu es; hey we e also asked abou hei emo ional well-being and (men al) heal h. In ligh o Finland’s you h ALMP policies, we pa icula ly in es iga ed ou ac i a ion measu es supe ised by PES: (1) aining and suppo ed employmen in e en ions, including subsidised wo k; (2) he obliga ion o apply o s udy; (3) PES cou ses and employmen aining; (4) egula mee ings wi h PES (Haikkola, 2019). We ocused on how hese ou ypes o ac i a ion caused emo ional s ess o ha m o long- e m unemployed you h. Ou s udy is impo an because Finnish you h ALMP measu es ha e s ongly a ge ed school d opou s (Haikkola, 2019,2020), who a e also a ulne able g oup in espec o men al heal h (Pa iainen e al., 2020), meaning ha hey a e especially ulne able o he nega i e emo ional ou comes o unsa is ac o y social exchange ela ions. The in e iew da a was subjec ed o induc i e con en analysis, in which concep s a e de i ed om da a (Ca anagh, 1997;Elo and Kyng€ as, 2007). Fi s , we sc eened he da a sys ema ically, which enabled us o selec all he ex ac s including nega i e emo ions in ela ion o ALMPs. We ound 106 ex ac s o be ween one and en sen ences in leng h. Then we coded he da a, and c ea ed ca ego ies and abs ac ions. We coded he ex ac s by summa ising he cen al idea in a ew wo ds. Fo example, he ex ac “I was so dis essed abou hose job o e s”was summa ised as “dis ess because o job o e ”. Then we ca ego ised he codes hie a chically and labelled he ca ego ies wi h heo e ically ele an concep s. We o med 27 subca ego ies ha desc ibed si ua ions whe e nega i e emo ions we e a oused in ela ion o ac i a ion measu es. We me ged hese subca ego ies in o eigh highe ca ego ies desc ibing de ici s in labou ma ke se ices, which we inally abs ac ed in o h ee heo e ical ca ego ies: (1) expe iences o un ai ness; (2) lack o con ol; (3) he misma ch be ween ac i a ion measu es and clien s’needs. Expe iences o un ai ness Ten o he 28 in e iewees men ioned ha hey had expe ienced un ai ness du ing ac i a ion in e en ions. Mos expe iences o un ai ea men conce ned di e en kinds o wo k aining and subsidised employmen in e en ions, including wo kplace ac i i ies. In wo kplaces, he young people usually wo ked wi h o he employees, and hey ine i ably compa ed hei own si ua ion wi h ha o o he s. Un ai ea men ook many di e en o ms conce ning igh s, wo k asks, wages and he ci cula ion o ainees. The i s emo ionally p oblema ic ea u e conce ns igh s. Helen (aged 29) had a oca ional deg ee, bu he wo k ca ee had no s a ed because she su e s om se e e dep ession, and a he ime o he in e iew, she was eco e ing. She men ioned ha ainees do no ha e he same legal igh s as o he wo ke s because hey a e no en i led o s a u o y holidays o occupa ional heal hca e. T ainees a e no p o ec ed by collec i e ag eemen s, and his in e io posi ion compa ed wi h o he wo ke s exposes hem o expe iences o un ai ea men and exploi a ion (see also Sandelin, 2014;Pa kkila-Pu anen, 2015). Thei weak legal igh s also ela e o he second ea u e: hei smalle mone a y compensa ion. T ainees ecei e no sala y a all, and o hose in subsidised employmen he pay is usually signi ican ly poo e han ha o pe manen s a . Ou in e iewees did no make un ealis ic sala y demands: hey unde s ood ha hey we e me ely ainees o in subsidised employmen . Howe e , he lack o p ope compensa ion could os e young people’s expe iences o hei own in e io posi ion and powe imbalance compa ed wi h o he wo ke s. Fo example, Ma ia (aged 28), a e y ac i e job seeke and pa icipa ed in nume ous ALMP measu es, s udied he second oca ional deg ee h ough app en iceship aining. In IJSSP 41,13/14 6 he in e iew, she said: “i was a li le bi dep essing when you did h ee imes mo e wo k han hose who we e hi ed he e, and you go like i e imes wo se sala y han hem, so i did no eel nice”. La y (aged 30), who su e ed om a slowly p og essing neu ological condi ion, said ha he had eal esponsibili ies, bu he was he only one who did no ge paid. Bo h Ma ia and La y e lec ed on exchange ela ions in hei wo kplaces, and on p ocess o gi ing and ecei ing, no ms o ecip oci y and ai ness. Thei expe iences o un ai ness we e ela ed o he amoun o wo k and he deg ee o complexi y o he wo k asks, o which hei eceip o V8 subsidy pe day was inapp op ia e compensa ion. The hi d p oblem is ha wo king wi hou p ope compensa ion became inc easingly p oblema ic o e ime, because young people inc easingly el ha employe s we e aking ad an age o hei labou . They s a ed o suspec ha employe s had ne e had any eal in en ion o hi e hem, and ha hey we e jus being ci cula ed be ween wo kplaces. James (aged 30) g adua ed as a che nine yea s ago and had done occasional pa - ime wo k, had also aken pa in aining and subsidised wo k in e en ions James said: “en e p ises do no ha e an in e es in hi ing ainees, because hey a e a ee wo k o ce o hem”. Michael (aged 21), who had aken pa in aining a e he had d opped ou om oca ional s udies, men ioned ha he had been a ee wo ke , and a e he cou se he was i ed. Pe e (aged 26) had p oblems wi h alcohol and had ecen ly been homeless o wo yea s, had he same expe ience as James and Michael. Acco ding o Pe e : “en e p ises do no hi e ainees, because when he maximum aining ime expi es, hey immedia ely ake a new ainee o eplace he p e ious one”. The young people usually did no ealise his un il he aining had al eady s a ed. I caused bi e ness and disappoin men , because hey el ha he no ms o ai exchange we e iola ed, and hey did no ecei e he bene i s hey had expec ed (see Tu ne and S e s, 2005). Eigh o ou in e iewees ga e simila s a emen s, highligh ing he p oblema ic na u e o epea ed pa icipa ion in ALMP in e en ions. In he mos emo ionally de as a ing cases, he young el ha hey had been delibe a ely misled by being gi en alse hope o u u e employmen . Fo ins ance, Lucy (aged 27), who had accomplished oca ional deg ees and was a single pa en ca ing o he p eschool-age child en a home, had had in ense expe iences o injus ice and el he sel a ic im o exploi a ion: Well, I ha e big ucking un inished business wi h [company name], who make money om he so oys ha I ha e designed. I did no ge any hing om hem bu he ainee’s sala y [subsidy o V8 pe day]. I was a huge disappoin men when I was p omised ha he e migh be some hing o me, and he e is lo s o epai wo k in sewing and so on. Then, when we had his mee ing wi h he o icial in PES and we alked abou u u e wo k.... Well, we do no ha e any hing o Lucy, she has done e e y hing al eady. So I had ime o design hose dolls, which we e hen sen o Japan o some hing, whe e hey manu ac u e hem now. So i was like a big ip-o kind o place. Despi e he p omises he employe made o he , Lucy did no ecei e ai compensa ion o he wo k she had done, which was also ela ed o he ac ha he wo kplace had aken economic ad an age o he so oys she had designed. Lucy el be ayed and esen ul when alking abou he company. She had had high hopes o he u u e ha we e ne e ealised. This illus a es how ALMP exchange ne wo ks we e pe cei ed as un ai by ou esea ch pa icipan s. The ou h p oblem is ha ou in e iewees occasionally el ha hey we e gi en he asks ha no one else wan ed o do, which made hem eel ha hey we e no espec ed. Fo example, Pe e said ha he spen his days in he wo kplace “doing all he c appy asks, like shel ing and ins alling bu gla ala ms”. La y said ha in one o his many wo k y-ou s he had mainly “made co ee o o he wo ke s, pu pape s in alphabe ical o de and did o he poin less asks”. The young people el hey we e gi en in e io asks no because hey we e incapable o mo e demanding wo k, bu because hei supe io s would no le hem do such Nega i e emo ional consequences o ALMPs 7 wo k. Pe e and La y el ha he si ua ion was un ai , making hem less mo i a ed o commi o hei asks. Lack o con ol A sense o con ol is a key ea u e in exchange heo ies conce ned wi h emo ional aspec s (Lawle and They, 1999). The eeling o losing con ol among long- e m unemployed young adul s is ela ed o hei expe iences o coe cion, inabili y o in luence hei own li es, and isk- aking. Fou een o ou 28 in e iewees men ioned such si ua ions. In e ms o exchange ela ions, he powe dependency (e.g. Eme son, 1962) be ween hese young adul s and PES was signi ican , as he esea ch pa icipan s depended upon PES o alued esou ces. The lack o con ol was also ela ed o he ac ha he esea ch pa icipan s did no usually ha e he means o educe ha dependency (see Tu ne and S e s, 2005). A powe imbalance e e s o “di e en capabili ies o gene a e ewa ds and a oid cos s”(Lawle and Thye, 1999, p. 222). The i s mani es a ion o lack o con ol is coe cion. Ou in e iewees expe ienced he coe ci e o ce o ac i a ion measu es when hey el o ced o p essu ed o pa icipa e, which in many cases was ela ed o he h ea o sanc ions (e.g. Sandelin, 2014). Some o his coe cion was based on he law, and i s ongly cons ained he young adul s’decision-making powe and agency, causing s ess and anxie y. Fo ins ance, Sam (aged 25), who su e ed om lea ning disabili ies and d opped nume ous oca ional s udies, desc ibed nega i e eelings abou he obliga ion o apply o s udy: I canno apply o wo k, because i causes s omach c amps and nausea.... Bu applying o s udy is e en mo e dis essing han job-seeking. I do no belie e ha I can ollow hei schedule and ge assignmen s done in ime. I jus do no belie e so. My obliga ion o apply o s udy ends nex yea , so I mus conside applying o adul educa ion. I so, I mus p epa e mysel eally ca e ully. I always ha e a good eeling a he beginning, bu hen e e y hing alls apa . I has happened so many imes be o e, so i p obably will happen again. Sam desc ibed s ong soma ic symp oms such as “s omach c amps”and “nausea”, demons a ing he s eng h o his nega i e emo ional esponses o he obliga ion o apply o s udy. Young people’s obliga ion o apply o s udy means ha unde -25s who lack o mal oca ional educa ion mus apply o a oca ional school e e y yea . I hey e use o apply, hey migh be sanc ioned. Sam had ied o s a his oca ional s udies se e al imes bu had ailed e e y ime, and his explained his ex emely pessimis ic a i ude owa ds educa ion. He could no explain why all his s udies had b oken o soon a e he beginning, and his lack o unde s anding pe haps made he si ua ion e en mo e unbea able. Sam had no eques ed an exemp ion om he obliga ion o apply o s udy, e en hough his anxie y diso de and dep ession migh ha e gi en him good g ounds o do so. Tha was also why PES had ailed o ecognise his special si ua ion. Hence he aced he same sanc ions and equi emen s as e e yone else. This was an example o exchange ela ions whe e PES ewa ded desi able beha iou and punished undesi able beha iou (see Molm, 1990): Sam was no capable o he desi ed beha iou , and nega i e emo ional esponses eme ged as an ou come. Ou da a includes a couple o simila cases whe e he young people had p oblems wi h s udying o did no know wha kind o oca ional educa ion hey wan ed. Fo hem, he obliga ion o apply o s udy was an emo ional bu den which hey would ha e o encoun e epea edly e e y yea un il hey we e 25. They oo migh ha e been unable o epo hei si ua ion o PES. In addi ion o he obliga ion o apply o s udy, he e a e also coe ci e labou ma ke policy ea u es conce ning PES cou ses and employmen aining. PES wo ke s may no be awa e o young people’s expe iences o anxie y abou hese ALMP measu es, and he coe ci eness may be unin en ional. Ne e heless, James said ha he was “ h ea ened and IJSSP 41,13/14 8 Pa kkila-Pu anen, P. (2015), “Sys emaa inen ki jallisuuska saus kun ou a an y€ o oiminnan aiku a uudes a”, hesis, Lapland Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Ro aniemi. Pa iainen, M., Aunola, K., To ppa, M., Poikkeus, A.-M. and Vasalampi, K. (2020), “Symp oms o psychological ill-being and school d opou in en ions among uppe seconda y educa ion s uden s: a pe son-cen e ed app oach”,Lea ning and Indi idual Di e ences, Vol. 80, pp. 1-11. Pa ick, R. (2014), “Wo king on wel a e: indings om a quali a i e longi udinal s udy in o he li ed expe ience o wel a e e o m in he UK”,Jou nal o Social Policy, Vol. 43 No. 4, pp. 705-725. Ra as, T. (2017), “Demanding ac i a ion”,Jou nal o Social Policy, Vol. 46 No. 2, pp. 349-365. Sage, D. (2013), “Ac i a ion, heal h and well-being: neglec ed dimensions”,In e na ional Jou nal o Sociology and Social Policy, Vol. 33 No. 1, pp. 4-20. Sage, D. (2015a), “Do ac i e labou ma ke policies p omo e he subjec i e well-being o he unemployed? E idence om he UK Na ional Well-Being P og amme”,Jou nal o Happiness S udies, Vol. 16, pp. 1281-1298. Sage, D. (2015b), “Do ac i e labou ma ke policies p omo e he well-being, heal h and social capi al o he unemployed? E idence om he UK”,Social Indica o s Resea ch, Vol. 124 No. 2, pp. 319-337. Sandelin, I. (2014), Kun ou a a y€ o oimin a Asiakkaiden kokemana. Ki jallisuuska saus Asiakkaiden oiminnalle An amis a Me ki yksis € a, THL, Helsinki. Se ano Pascual, A. (2007), “Reshaping wel a e s a es: ac i a ion egimes in Eu ope”, Se ano Pascual, A. and Magnusson, L. (Eds), Reshaping Wel a e S a es and Ac i a ion Regimes in Eu ope, PIE Pe e Lang, B ussels, pp. 275-316. Siisi€ ainen, M. (2014), “Ty€ o € a ailla ole a nuo e ”,Lempi € ainen, K. and Sil as i, T. (Eds), E ia oisuuden Raken ee : Hau as u a Ty€ oma kkina Suomessa, Vas apaino, Tampe e, pp. 91-125. Sil ala, J. (2020), “Nuo en henkil€ okoh aisen oi on ja yleisen n€ ak€ oala omuuden is i edossa”,in Haikkola, L. and Myllyniemi, S. (Eds), Hy € a€ aTy € o € a! Nuo isoba ome i 2019, Val ion Nuo isoneu os o, Helsinki, pp. 111-134. Tuomaala, M. (2019), “Ak ii isil a y€ o oimapolii isil a pal eluil a sijoi uminen uonna 2017”, TEM- analyysej€ a 95/2019, TEM, Helsinki. Tu ne , J.H. and S e s, J.E. (2005), Sociology o Emo ions, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, Camb idge. Vas am€ aki, J. (2010), “Kohe enssin unne ja y€ o € omyys: € ai € oski jan keskeisi€ a uloksia”, hesis, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Kuopio. Wal he , A. (2006), “Regimes o you h ansi ion: choice, lexibili y and secu i y in young people’s expe iences ac oss di e en Eu opean con ex s”,Young, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 119-139. Whi wo h, A. (2016), “Neolibe al pa e nalism and pa adoxical subjec s: con usion and con adic ion in UK ac i a ion policy”,C i ical Social Policy, Vol. 36 No. 3, pp. 412-431. W igh , S. (2016), “Concep ualising he ac i e wel a e subjec : wel a e e o m in discou se, policy and li ed expe ience”,Policy and Poli ics, Vol. 44 No. 2, pp. 235-252. W igh , S. and Pa ic, R. (2019), “Wel a e condi ionali y in li ed expe ience: agg ega ing quali a i e longi udinal esea ch”,Social Policy and Socie y, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 579-613. Ylis € o, S. (2021), “Hy € a paha ak i oin i. Ak i oin i oimenpi eiden posi ii is en ja nega ii is en aiku us en a ioin ia pi k€ aaikais y€ o € omien nuo en n€ ak€ okulmas a”,Sosiologia, Fo hcoming. Co esponding au ho Sami Ylis € o can be con ac ed a : [email p o ec ed],[email p o ec ed] Fo ins uc ions on how o o de ep in s o his a icle, please isi ou websi e: www.eme aldg ouppublishing.com/licensing/ ep in s.h m O con ac us o u he de ails: [email p o ec ed] Nega i e emo ional consequences o ALMPs 15