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Can changing schools help pee - ic imized s uden s escape hei pligh ? A mixed-
me hods s udy
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Published e sion
Tenhunen, Essi-Lo a; Kuusiaho, Inka-Liisa; Salmi alli, Ch is ina
Tenhunen, E.-L., Kuusiaho, I.-L., & Salmi alli, C. (2024). Can changing schools help pee -
ic imized s uden s escape hei pligh ? A mixed-me hods s udy. In e na ional Jou nal o
Beha io al De elopmen , Ea ly online. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/01650254241289308
2024
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/01650254241289308
In e na ional Jou nal o
Beha io al De elopmen
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You h who a e ic imized by hei pee s a school end up chang-
ing class ooms and schools mo e o en han hei non- ic imized
pee s (Ca son e al., 2013), sugges ing ha such a change o con-
ex is some imes mo i a ed by ic imiza ion. In o he wo ds,
when o he a emp s ha e ailed, changing schools may be he
las eso o end ic imiza ion. Ye , a ecen s udy sugges ed ha
being a newcome in a class oom o school is associa ed wi h a
heigh ened isk o ic imiza ion compa ed o es ablished s u-
den s, pa icula ly when he mo e is p omp ed by p e ious ic-
imiza ion expe iences (Tenhunen e al., 2024). Howe e , in
hese cases, he inc eased likelihood o expe iencing ic imiza-
ion in he new con ex migh be linked o indi idual cha ac e is-
ics ha con ibu ed o ic imiza ion in bo h he p e ious and
cu en school: he ole o school change hus emains unknown.
The p esen s udy add esses he ques ion o whe he and how
p e ious ic imiza ion his o y mode a es he e ec o school
change on subsequen ic imiza ion, and how s uden s wi h and
wi hou ic imiza ion his o y pe cei e he change.
No ma i e and Non-No ma i e School Changes
and Thei Associa ion Wi h Pee Vic imiza ion
While his s udy ocuses on non-no ma i e school changes, i is
essen ial o acknowledge he b oade con ex o school ansi-
ions wi hin he educa ional se ing. No ma i e ansi ions, such
as hose occu ing be ween middle and high school o due o he
me ging o schools, ep esen ypical s ages in s uden s’ aca-
demic jou neys. E en hese an icipa ed ansi ions can impac
nega i ely he s abili y o iendships (Ng-Knigh e al., 2019)
and place child en in o new pee g oups. Despi e he possible
loss o iendships, a educ ion in pee ic imiza ion was
epo ed among s uden s expe iencing middle school ansi ions,
compa ed o hose a ending schools wi hou such ansi ions
(Fa me e al., 2011). In ano he s udy, no ma i e middle school
ansi ions we e ound o dec ease ic imiza ion among gi ls
(Wang e al., 2016). Acco ding o s udy by Felmlee e al. (2018),
s uden s unde going high school ansi ions aced addi ional
challenges pos - ansi ion, including changes in iendship nom-
ina ions and inc eased isola ion. Mul i-school ansi ions, whe e
s uden s mo e in o one school om se e al eede schools, ini-
ially dis up exis ing iendships (Temkin e al., 2018) bu o en
lead o he eme gence o new ones by he end o he pos - ansi-
ion yea (Newcomb & Bagwell, 1995).
Can changing schools help pee - ic imized
s uden s escape hei pligh ?
A mixed-me hods s udy
Essi-Lo a Tenhunen1, Inka-Liisa Kuusiaho2
and Ch is ina Salmi alli1
Abs ac
Changing schools ends o be mo e equen among ic imized s uden s and is some imes used as a means o pu an end o pe sis en
bullying. Howe e , whe he hese changes bene i ic imized s uden s emains unclea , as bullying ic imiza ion o en pe sis s ac oss
di e en con ex s. This mixed-me hods s udy (n = 58,799 and n = 68 o quan i a i e and quali a i e da a, espec i ely) conduc ed in
Finland examines he ole o ic imiza ion his o y in he associa ion be ween newcome s a us and ic imiza ion in he new school among
elemen a y school s uden s ( ou h o six h g ade s, ha is, 10–12 yea s old) and middle school s uden s (se en h o nin h g ade s, ha
is, 12–15 yea s old). The indings showed ha elemen a y school newcome s wi h mos equen ic imiza ion his o y seemed o bene i
om he school change compa ed o es ablished s uden s wi h simila ic imiza ion his o ies. A co esponding, albei much weake ,
e ec was obse ed among middle schoole s. P e iously ic imized s uden s had ini ially been mo e willing o change schools han non-
ic imized s uden s. The quali a i e con en analysis showed a mo e complex eali y—some o he p e iously ic imized newcome s had
s ong aspi a ions o a be e u u e, while o he s expe ienced ea s and losses o es ablished iendships. E en ually, he school change
can b ing bo h disappoin men s and ewa ds, depending on he newcome s’ abili y o make new iends and escape bullying.
Keywo ds
Newcome s a us, school bullying, school mobili y, pee ic imiza ion, pe sis en ic imiza ion
1Uni e si y o Tu ku, Finland
2Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Co esponding au ho :
Essi-Lo a Tenhunen, INVEST Resea ch Flagship, Depa men o
Psychology, Uni e si y o Tu ku, 20500 Tu ku, Finland.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
1289308JBD0010.1177/01650254241289308In e na ional Jou nal o Beha io al De elopmen X(X)Tenhunen e al.
esea ch-a icle2024
Special Sec ion: Pee Vic imiza ion
2 In e na ional Jou nal o Beha io al De elopmen 00(0)
The cu en s udy ocuses on non-no ma i e school changes,
whe e a child changes schools and en e s as a newcome in al eady
es ablished pee g oups. We examine how such school changes a e
associa ed wi h pee ic imiza ion in he new school among s u-
den s wi h a ying ic imiza ion his o ies. Acco ding o a s udy by
Ca son and colleagues (2013), pee ic imiza ion declines a e
changing schools, while wo s udies (Tenhunen e al., 2024;
Ve nbe g, 1990) ound ha newcome s in class ooms end o expe-
ience mo e pee ic imiza ion han es ablished s uden s. Two o he
s udies (Ramba an e al., 2020; Vandell e al., 2021) did no ind a
s a is ically signi ican e ec o newcome s a us on ic imiza ion,
bu he di ec ion o he associa ion was owa d inc easing ic imi-
za ion. Howe e , none o hese s udies conside ed s uden s’ p io
ic imiza ion his o y. In es iga ing he ini ial easons o s uden s’
mobili y, Tenhunen e al. (2024) ound ha ic imiza ion in he new
school was mos likely among s uden s who had swi ched schools
because hey we e ic imized in he p e ious school. Ne e heless,
hey did no compa e cu en ic imiza ion among p e iously ic-
imized s uden s who had e sus had no changed schools and
he e o e ailed o unco e whe he p e iously ic imized newcom-
e s expe ienced mo e o less ic imiza ion han hey would ha e
aced in hei p e ious schools.
Gaps in Resea ch on School Change and
Vic imiza ion
Despi e he g owing body o li e a u e on school mobili y and ic-
imiza ion, some no able gaps emain. Fi s , he e is a sho age o
esea ch examining whe he ic imiza ion expe iences end o
dec ease, inc ease, o pe sis a simila le els when p e iously ic-
imized s uden s a e ans e ed ( s no ) o a new school.
In es iga ing whe he school mobili y p o ides elie om ic imi-
za ion o leads o con inuing mise y in new en i onmen s is essen-
ial o unde s anding he dynamics o bullying and he e ec i eness
o school change in pu ing an end o pee ic imiza ion. Second, no
s udies ha e in es iga ed how p e iously ic imized child en pe -
cei e non-no ma i e school changes. One quali a i e s udy by
Messiou and Jones (2015) b ough o ligh he expe iences o chil-
d en who had ecen ly changed schools by in e iewing hem a e
he change. The conce ns child en b ough up du ing he in e iews
we e o en linked o losing and inding iends o becoming a a ge
o bullying (Messiou & Jones, 2015). While hese we e hough s
aised by newcome s whose ic imiza ion his o y was mos ly
unknown (excep o wo child en who men ioned hei ic imiza-
ion his o y), i is no known how p e iously ic imized newcome s
pe cei e school change. This is o pa icula impo ance because
anecdo al e idence sugges s ha ans e ing a ic imized s uden
o a new school is a ela i ely common—albei much deba ed—
p ac ice in handling pe sis en bullying cases. Hea ing he pe spec-
i es o p e iously ic imized newcome s can p o ide aluable
insigh s in o hei psychosocial adjus men , he eby con ibu ing o
he de elopmen o mo e p ecise and e ec i e s a egies o ease
hei in eg a ion in he new pee g oup.
The Impac o School Change on P e iously
Vic imized S uden s: Po en ial Bene i s and Risks
We p opose ha child en who ha e expe ienced equen ic imi-
za ion in p e ious schools may bene i om school change.
Speci ically, hose wi h a his o y o equen ic imiza ion migh
epo lowe le els o pee ic imiza ion du ing hei i s yea in
a new school compa ed o s uden s wi h simila ic imiza ion
his o ies who emain wi h hei p e ious classma es. Despi e he
heigh ened ini ial isk associa ed wi h newcome s a us, i is pos-
sible ha ic imiza ion dec eases o becomes less in ense in he
new con ex . In he p e ious class oom, g adual cogni i e
changes among pee s migh ha e led o a wo sening pe cep ion
o he ic imized child o e ime (Olweus, 1978). While a ic-
im’s epu a ion may pe sis and con inue o nega i ely in luence
pe cep ions among hese same pee s (Schus e , 2001), new pee s
in he new school, unbu dened by en enched biases, migh ini-
ially pe cei e he ic imized child di e en ly, po en ially esul -
ing in dec eased ic imiza ion. On he o he hand, we also know
ha pee ic imiza ion ends o pe sis in new se ings likely due
o ulne abili ies o p e iously ic imized s uden s (e.g., being
insecu e and igh ened abou wha will happen in he new class-
oom), which make hem an easy a ge o pe sis en bullying
(Salmi alli e al., 1998). In addi ion, newcome s gene ally expe-
ience highe le els o pee ic imiza ion compa ed o es ab-
lished s uden s (Tenhunen e al., 2024). Thus, i is also concei able
ha p e iously ic imized child en con inue o expe ience high
le els o ic imiza ion a e he school change, compa able o o
e en exceeding hose expe ienced by s uden s wi h simila ic-
imiza ion his o ies who emain in he same school.
Mo eo e , s uden mobili y can lead o b oade in e pe sonal
consequences beyond ic imiza ion. Resea ch indica es ha
school changes o en esul in ewe iends, smalle iendship
ne wo ks, less cen al posi ions in social ne wo ks, and inc eased
social isola ion (Haynie & Sou h, 2005; Sou h & Haynie, 2004;
Ve nbe g e al., 2006). Thus, i is c ucial o ho oughly unde -
s and he e ec s o non-p omo ional school changes on pee ic-
imiza ion, pa icula ly among p e iously ic imized s uden s.
Cu en S udy
The exis ing li e a u e p o ides aluable insigh s in o se e al key
a eas: he po en ial nega i e e ec s o being a newcome in a
class oom o school (Tenhunen e al., 2024; Ve nbe g, 1990), he
high equency o school changes among ic imized s uden s
(Ca son e al., 2013), and he impac o he ini ial easons o
mobili y on newcome s’ pee ic imiza ion (Tenhunen e al.,
2024). Howe e , p e ious s udies did no conside he possibili y
ha bo h p e ious ic imiza ion expe iences and changing
schools a e likely o a ec subsequen ic imiza ion, and impo -
an ly, school change may ha e di e en implica ions o s u-
den s wi h a ying ic imiza ion his o ies. Ano he aspec la gely
missing om he li e a u e is he pe spec i e o s uden s who
changed schools.
The p esen mixed-me hods s udy aims o ill hese gaps by
add essing he ollowing ques ions: i s , we explo e how posi-
i ely o nega i ely s uden s in gene al, and s uden s wi h di e -
en ic imiza ion his o ies in pa icula , pe cei ed he change o
schools, bo h a he ime i occu ed and a e hey s a a ending
he new school. Second, we in es iga e he unique and in e ac-
i e e ec s o p e ious ic imiza ion and school change on sub-
sequen ic imiza ion in he new con ex . We hypo hesize ha
bo h s uden s’ p e ious ic imiza ion and he change o schools
a e independen ly associa ed wi h a highe isk o ic imiza ion,
al hough we do no ha e a di ec ional hypo hesis ega ding he
Tenhunen e al. 3
in e ac ion e ec be ween hese ac o s. Finally, we examine how
newcome s wi h a cons an ic imiza ion his o y (CVH) desc ibe
hei expe iences ega ding school change and iden i y he ac-
o s in hei p e ious o new school ha a e ela ed o hese expe-
iences. This explo a o y ques ion is add essed h ough a
quali a i e con en analysis o he expe iences o p e iously ic-
imized newcome s ega ding school change, including a e si e
and a ac i e ac o s ela ed o hei o me and cu en schools.
Ma e ials and Me hods
S udy Design
We u ilize mixed me hods, wi h a quan i a i e analysis comple-
men ed by quali a i e con en analysis. By doing so, we can cap-
u e bo h he measu able phenomenon and deepe con ex ual
insigh s (C eswell & Plano Cla k, 2018). This app oach imp o es
he alidi y o ou indings and enables a comp ehensi e exami-
na ion o ic imized s uden s’ school change, unco e ing nuances
ha may be di icul o de ec wi h one me hod alone.
Pa icipan s and P ocedu es
Da a conce ning ic imiza ion expe iences in p e ious and cu en
school yea s we e collec ed in Ma ch 2022 in he con ex o an
annual s uden su ey in Finnish schools implemen ing KiVa an i-
bullying p og am. In Finland, ac i e pa en al consen is no
equi ed o la ge-scale su eys ha a e in eg a ed in o he school’s
egula ac i i ies. The e o e, no ins i u ional e iew boa d (IRB)
app o al was needed o his s udy. Bo h pa en s and s uden s ha e
been in o med ha s uden s’ anonymous esponses may be u ilized
o esea ch pu poses. In 2022, ques ions ega ding s uden mobil-
i y and ic imiza ion his o y we e included in he su ey o s u-
den s in G ades 4–9 (ages 10–15). A o al o 58,936 s uden s ac oss
498 comp ehensi e schools pa icipa ed in he su ey. Due o
missing da a ac oss all a iables, 137 cases we e omi ed, esul ing
in a inal sample o 58,799 pa icipan s. Among hem, 56.91%
we e in elemen a y school (G ades 4–6), 43.09% we e in middle
school (G ades 7–9), and 4.59% we e newcome s o hei schools.
In he quali a i e pa o he s udy, 94 newcome s wi h CVH we e
su eyed wi h open ques ions. Responses ha we e ound o be
ongue-in-cheek and did no answe he ques ions we e excluded,
esul ing in a inal sample o 68 s uden s.
Measu es
G ade le el (4–9, ha is, 10–15 yea s) was epo ed by he pa -
icipan s a he beginning o he su ey.
Newcome s a us was measu ed wi h he ollowing ques ion:
Ha e you ans e ed o his school om ano he school du ing
he cu en school yea (i.e., a e las summe b eak)? (1) No.
I’m in he same school as in he p e ious yea ; (2) Yes. Only I
changed schools, no he o he classma es; (3) Yes, because mos
(o all) o he s uden s o my age ans e ed o his school las
au umn; and (4) Yes, mos (o all) o he s uden s ans e ed o a
new school, bu I ans e ed o a di e en school han o he s. In
his s udy, indi iduals who selec ed op ion 2 o 4 we e classi ied
as newcome s. Gi en ha da a collec ion ook place du ing he
sp ing semes e (in Ma ch), hese newcome s had been in hei
cu en class oom o a pe iod anging om 0 o 7 mon hs.
Cu en pee ic imiza ion was assessed by ou i ems co e -
ing di e en o ms o pee ic imiza ion (name-calling, social
exclusion, physical ic imiza ion, and umo -sp eading). The
s uden s we e asked: “How o en ha e you been bullied like his
du ing he las wo mon hs?” ollowed by he i ems: I was called
names, mocked, o eased in a hu ul way; The o he s uden s
igno ed me comple ely o excluded me om he g oup; I was hi ,
kicked, o pushed; and The o he s uden s sp ead mean o o end-
ing s o ies abou me. The esponses we e gi en on a scale om 1
o 5: 1 = no a all; 2 = once o wice; 3 = 2–3 imes a mon h;
4 = once a week; 5 = se e al imes a week. Responses we e a e -
aged ac oss i ems o c ea e a sco e ep esen ing o e all pee ic-
imiza ion (α = .79).
Pee ic imiza ion his o y was assessed wi h wo e ospec i e
ques ions. Fi s , s uden s we e asked o hink abou p e ious school
yea s, and whe he hey we e ic imized hen. Those answe ing
“No” ecei ed a sco e o 0 on ic imiza ion his o y. Those who
answe ed “Yes” we e gi en a ollow-up ques ion: How equen ly
did bullying occu ? wi h esponse op ions 1 = Single occasions;
2 = Qui e o en; 3 = Almos cons an ly; 4 = Cons an ly. Thus, pee
ic imiza ion his o y anged om 0 o 4.
Though s abou he school change we e assessed wi h wo ques-
ions: (1) Wha did you hink abou changing schools a he ime i
happened? and (2) Wha do you hink abou i now? Responses
we e gi en on a scale o 1–5. Fo he i s ques ion, he op ions
we e: 1 = I eally didn’ wan o; 2 = I didn’ wan o; 3 = I didn’ ma -
e o me; 4 = I hough i was qui e nice; and 5 = I eally wan ed o
change schools; and o he second ques ion: 1 = I was a bad hing;
2 = I was a p e y bad hing; 3 = I was nei he a good no a bad
hing; 4 = I was a p e y good hing; and 5 = I was a good hing.
Bo h o he abo e ques ions we e ollowed by a simple open ques-
ion: Why? The answe s o hese open ques ions cons i u ed he
quali a i e da a o he s udy. Despi e he i ele an esponses being
excluded (see Pa icipan s and P ocedu es), he da a eached sa u a-
ion poin (i.e., pa icipan s s a ed o gi e simila esponses), indi-
ca ing he sample size was su icien o con en analysis.
Analy ic Plan
The hough s abou he school change a he ime and a e he
e en we e i s examined using analysis o a iance (ANOVA),
compa ing s uden s wi h a ying le els o p e ious ic imiza-
ion. The ea e , mul i a ia e analyses we e conduc ed using wo-
le el andom in e cep models o accoun o he nes ed da a
s uc u e (s uden s nes ed wi hin schools). We used chained
equa ion mul iple impu a ion wi h 10 d aws o handle missing
da a and employed maximum likelihood es ima ion o he mixed
e ec s models. Al hough he in aclass co ela ion coe icien
(ICC) o ic imiza ion was only 0.01 be ween schools, his
app oach mi iga ed he isk o inaccu a e s anda d e o s and
biased es ima es. The da ase had ew missing alues (missing-
ness on s udy a iables <1%), and Li le’s MCAR es indica ed
ha da a we e no missing comple ely a andom (MCAR) bu
may be missing a andom (MAR), which is equi ed o mul iple
impu a ions. To ge close o he assump ion, we in oduced
measu es o loneliness, global ic imiza ion, and global bullying
as auxilia y a iables. The auxilia y a iables we e selec ed
based on hei co ela ions ( ⩾ .3) wi h missingness and/o he
ou come a iable. All quan i a i e analyses we e conduc ed
using S a a/MP 16.1.
4 In e na ional Jou nal o Beha io al De elopmen 00(0)
To del e deepe in o he CVH newcome s’ hough s abou he
school change, we employed quali a i e con en analysis by cod-
ing, g ouping, ca ego iza ion, and abs ac ion (Elo & Kyngäs,
2008). We w o e headings and no es o each s uden ’s esponses
du ing he open coding, using he whole sen ences as analy ic
uni s. Following his, we summa ized he meanings and expe i-
ences (i.e., g ouping). Fu he mo e, we sea ched o simila i ies
and dispa i ies, ending up wi h b oade ca ego ies. Finally, he
cons i uen s we e abs ac ed o a highe logical le el, esul ing in
a classi ica ion ha add esses ou esea ch ques ions.
Resul s
Desc ip i es
Desc ip i e s a is ics and pai wise co ela ions a e displayed in
Table 1. Vic imiza ion his o y was associa ed wi h cu en ic-
imiza ion ( = .44, p < .001). Newcome s a us had a posi i e,
albei e y weak, co ela ion wi h ic imiza ion his o y ( = .07,
p < .00) as well as wi h cu en ic imiza ion ( = .06, p < .001).
The mo e a child had been ic imized in hei p e ious school,
he mo e posi i ely hey had hough abou he school change a
he ime i happened ( = .09, p < .00). Vic imiza ion his o y was
un ela ed o how child en hough abou he school change now.
As indica ed by he mean sco es, s uden s we e o e all qui e
posi i e abou he school change, especially now ha hey we e
al eady in he new school.
School Change Among S uden s Wi h Di e en
Vic imiza ion His o ies
We compa ed newcome s wi h di e en ic imiza ion his o ies
ega ding hei hough s conce ning he school change using one-
way ANOVA. We ound ha he hough s abou he ansi ion a
he ime i occu ed a ied ac oss di e en ic imiza ion his o y
ca ego ies, F (4, 53.84) = 13.46, p < .001, η2 = .01. In line wi h
he co ela ions epo ed abo e, hose wi h no ic imiza ion his-
o y pe cei ed he school change mos nega i ely a he ime i
happened. In his espec , hey di e ed signi ican ly om hose
wi h an almos cons an his o y o ic imiza ion, acco ding o he
Tukey’s pos hoc es (mean di e ence = 0.58, p < .001).
Howe e , he di e ence in nega i e hough s be ween non- ic-
imized newcome s and hose wi h a cons an his o y o ic imi-
za ion did no each s a is ical signi icance (mean di e ence = 0.26,
p > .05). G oups wi h a ying ic imiza ion his o ies did no di -
e in hei cu en hough s ega ding he school change.
To es he unique and in e ac i e e ec s o p e ious ic imi-
za ion and school change on cu en ic imiza ion, we an wo-
le el models (s uden s nes ed wi hin schools) (Table 2). The
main e ec s model (Model 1a) showed ha newcome s a us
(B = 0.05, p < .001) and ic imiza ion his o y (i.e., cons an ly ic-
imized s uden s: B = 1.58, p < .001) had unique posi i e associa-
ions wi h cu en ic imiza ion. In Model 2a, we es ed whe he
he associa ion be ween newcome s a us and cu en ic imiza-
ion was mode a ed by ic imiza ion his o y. The newcome s
who had been cons an ly (B = −0.43, p < .001) o almos con-
s an ly (B = −0.13, p < .01) ic imized in he pas epo ed signi i-
can ly lowe pee ic imiza ion han es ablished s uden s wi h
simila ic imiza ion his o ies. Newcome s wi hou ic imiza ion
his o y, on he o he hand, epo ed sligh ly highe (B = 0.04,
p < .05) pee ic imiza ion in new se ings compa ed o es ab-
lished s uden s wi hou ic imiza ion his o y (Figu e 1).
The same models we e un sepa a ely o elemen a y
(Models 1b and 2b) and middle school s uden s (Models 1c and
2c) o add ess po en ial age g oup di e ences (Table 2). I
u ned ou ha he school change was mo e bene icial o ele-
men a y school s uden s who had been cons an ly (B = −0.46,
p < .001) o almos cons an ly (B = −0.17, p < .01) ic imized in
he pas (Figu e 2). In con as , he e ec was weake among
middle schoole s and signi ican only among hose who had
been p e iously cons an ly (B = −0.18, p < .05) ic imized.
Among middle school s uden s who had been ic imized o a
lesse ex en (“qui e o en”), school change inc eased he isk
o ic imiza ion (B = 0.09, p < .05) (Figu e 3).
Expe iences o P e iously Vic imized S uden s
The quali a i e analysis p o ides a nuanced unde s anding o
p e iously ic imized s uden s’ a i udes owa d changing
schools, e ealing a spec um o emo ions and expe iences.
This sec ion del es in o he con as ing pe spec i es o hose
who we e eluc an e sus hose who we e eage o make a
school change.
A e si e and A ac i e Though s Abou P e ious and New
School. Fi s , some s uden s we e unwilling o change schools,
e en hough hey had expe ienced cons an ic imiza ion in hei
p e ious school. Some o hese s uden s exp essed ea ela ed o
school change, o example, S uden 1 s a ed: “[I eally didn’
wan o change schools because] I was a aid I wouldn’ make
iends, bu o una ely, I was w ong.” Some imes, hey empha-
sized he a ac i e aspec s o hei p e ious school while
Table 1. Desc ip i e S a is ics and Co ela ion Ma ix o he S udy Va iables.
n M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Cu en ic imiza ion ( ange, 1–5) 58,700 1.24 0.55
2. Newcome s a us 58,782 0.05 0.21 0.06***
3. P e ious ic imiza ion ( ange, 0–4) 58,265 0.47 0.88 0.45*** 0.07***
4. G ade Le el (g ades 4–9, 10 o 15 yea s old) 58,799 6.26 1.68 -0.01** -0.03*** 0.02***
5. Seeing school change posi i ely when i happened ( ange, 1–5) 2,710 3.26 1.27 -0.05*** -0.01 0.09*** 0.08***
6. Seeing school change posi i ely now ( ange, 1–5) 2,672 3.69 1.16 -0.15*** 0.06** 0.03 -0.004 0.49***
No e. M = mean, SD = s anda d de ia ion.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Tenhunen e al. 5
Table 2. Cu en Vic imiza ion P edic ed by Vic imiza ion His o y, Newcome S a us, and Thei In e ac ion.
Pee - ic imiza ion Whole sample Elemen a y school s uden s Middle school s uden s
N58,700 33,377 25,323
Model 1a Model 2a Model 1b Model 2b Model 1c Model 2c
B (SE) [95% CI] B (SE) [95% CI] B (SE) [95% CI] B (SE) [95% CI] B (SE) [95% CI] B (SE) [95% CI]
Newcome 0.05*** (0.01) [0.04, 0.07] 0.08*** (0.01) [0.06, 0.11] 0.04*** (0.1) [0.02, 0.07] 0.08*** (0.02) [0.05, 0.11] 0.07*** [0.04, 0.10] 0.08*** (0.02) [0.04, 0.12]
G ade le el -0.01*** (0.001) [-0.01, -0.01] -0.01*** (0.001) [-0.01, -0.01] -0.02*** (0.003) [-0.03, -0.01] -0.02*** (0.003) [-0.03, -0.01] -0.02*** (0.004) [-0.02, -0.01] -0.02*** (0.004) [-0.02, -0.01]
Vic imiza ion his o y
0. No ( e .)
1. Single occasions 0.20*** (0.01) [0.19, 0.21] 0.20*** (0.01) [0.19, 0.22] 0.21*** (0.01) [0.20, 0.23] 0.21*** (0.01) [0.20, 0.23] 0.19*** (0.01) [0.17, 0.21] 0.19*** (0.01) [0.17, 0.21]
2. Qui e o en 0.45*** (0.01) [0.44, 0.47] 0.45*** (0.01) [0.43, 0.46] 0.50*** (0.01) [0.48, 0.52] 0.50*** (0.01) [0.49, 0.52] 0.39*** (0.01) [0.37, 0.41] 0.38*** (0.01) [0.36, 0.41]
3. Almos cons an ly 0.76*** (0.01) [0.74, 0.78] 0.77***(0.01) [0.75, 0.80] 0.80*** (0.02) [0.76, 0.83] 0.81*** (0.02) [0.78, 0.84] 0.72*** (0.02) [0.69, 0.76] 0.73*** (0.02) [0.69, 0.77]
4. Cons an ly 1.58*** (0.02) [1.55, 1.61] 1.64*** (0.02) [1.60, 1.67] 1.29*** (0.03) [1.24, 1.34] 1.38*** (0.03) [1.32, 1.43] 1.79*** (0.02) [1.74, 1.83] 1.80*** (0.02) [1.75, 1.85]
Newcome ×
Vic imiza ion his o y
1 × 1 -0.03 (0.03) [-0.09, 0.02] -0.008 (0.03) [-0.07, 0.06] -0.07 (0.05) [-0.15, 0.02]
1 × 2 0.01 (0.03) [-0.04, 0.08] -0.05 (0.04) [-0.13, 0.03] 0.09* (0.05) [0.00, 0.18]
1 × 3 -0.13** (0.05) [-0.23, -0.04] -0.17** (0.06) [-0.29, -0.05] -0.09 (0.07) [-0.22, 0.05]
1 × 4 -0.43*** (0.05) [-0.53, -0.33] -0.46*** (0.07) [-0.59, -0.33] -0.18* (0.08) [-0.34, -0.02]
AdjR
2
..20 .22 .19 .19 .21 .25
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
6 In e na ional Jou nal o Beha io al De elopmen 00(0)
highligh ing he a e si e ac o s associa ed wi h he new school.
These s uden s o en had es ablished iendships in he p e ious
school and losing hem in he school change added complexi y o
he si ua ion. One s uden desc ibed hei posi i e hough s abou
hei old school by saying (S uden 2): “[I eally didn’ wan o
change schools] because I had made eally good iends o e
he e and I hadn’ done ha in a while” and hen con inued wi h
a desc ip ion o nega i e hough s abou hei new school: “[I
was a p e y bad hing o change schools because] I ha e maybe
ew iends, and a on o o he people ei he dislike me o jus
ha e me.” By w i ing his, he s uden emphasizes he unde s and-
able disappoin men hey aced in he school change; hey had
los good iends and encoun e ed challenges in pee ela ions.
On he o he hand, some s uden s we e eage o make a school
change. They ended o ocus on he a ac i e elemen s o he
new school and he a e si e ac o s o hei p e ious ins i u ion.
Fo ins ance, his s uden exp essed hei desi e o ans e by
emphasizing hei nega i e expe iences a hei o me school
(S uden 3): “[I eally wan ed o change schools] because I had
been bullied o h ee yea s in he old school. I was al eady so
i ed o de ending mysel .” Subsequen ly, hey b ough up a posi-
i e aspec o he new school: “[I was a good hing o change
schools] because I’m no bullied anymo e.” A common h ead
ha uns h ough in hese ypes o s uden s’ answe s is he aspi a-
ion o a b igh e u u e and a since e hope o inding iends.
The s uden s had expe ienced equen ic imiza ion which hey
managed o escape by changing schools, allowing hem o s a
anew and make iends. Ha ing e sus no ha ing iends o
aspi a ion o ind new iends may be he mos c i ical ac o s
di e en ia ing CVH newcome s who we e ini ially willing e -
sus unwilling o change schools. Ha ing a s ong social ne wo k
in he p e ious school may discou age ic imized s uden s om
pu suing a school change, while eelings o isola ion and a lack
o social suppo se e as mo i a ions o conside ing a ans e
o a new school, as he e is no hing wo hy o lose.
School Change Impac s All—Bu No All he Same. Expe i-
ences in s uden s’ iendships we e di ided be ween hose who
we e sa is ied, ha ing ound new iends, such as S uden 4, who
w o e: “[I was a good hing o change schools because] I like his
school much mo e, and I ha e iends” and hose who we e dis-
sa is ied due o hei inabili y o es ablish new iendships, o
example, S uden 5: “[I was nei he good no bad hing o change
schools] I ha en’ eally ound sui able iends o me.”
The expe iences wi h ic imiza ion a ied, wi h some s uden s
epo ing a educ ion o comple e inish o bullying ic imiza ion.
Fo example, S uden 6 i s explained why hey wan ed o change
schools in he i s place: “[I eally wan ed o change schools
because] I was hi , hu , and called names, and because o ha , I
couldn’ go o school. I was sca ed he e, and I became dep essed.”
Subsequen ly, he same s uden w o e abou a comple e u na ound
esul ing om changing schools: “[I was a good hing o change
schools because] I made iends, I’m no bullied o hu , and I’m
glad.” Also S uden 7 desc ibed a posi i e u na ound by w i ing:
“[I was a good hing o change schools because] I ha en’ been
Figu e 1. The Mode a ing E ec o Vic imiza ion His o y on he
Associa ion Be ween Newcome S a us and Cu en Vic imiza ion
(Scale 1–5) Among Fou h o Nin h G ade s (n = 58,700).
Figu e 2. The Mode a ing E ec o Vic imiza ion His o y on he
Associa ion Be ween Newcome S a us and Cu en Vic imiza ion
(Scale 1–5) Among Fou h o Six h G ade s (i.e., 10–12 Yea s Old)
(n = 33,377).
Tenhunen e al. 7
bullied he e, and I’ e been able o a end school no mally.” While
hese s uden s expe ienced less ic imiza ion in he new school,
he e we e s ill s uden s who had no been able o escape hei
pligh by changing o ano he school. Fo example, S uden 8
w o e abou hei edious expe ience: “[I wan ed o change schools]
because I hough I didn’ ha e o endu e bullying anymo e, bu i
con inued in he new school.”
Some CVH newcome s exp essed g a i ude o be e school
acili ies, such as he school’s close dis ance om home o be e
lea ning oppo uni ies. The la e was exp essed by S uden 9:
“[I was a good hing o change schools because] he e a e a lo o
new iends he e and an exp essi e a s class.” The e we e no
nega i e esponses di ec ly linked o he school acili ies.
Feelings o belongingness in he new school we e occasion-
ally enhanced by sa is ac ion wi h he class oom (o school) cli-
ma e o hinde ed by gene al challenges wi h i ing in. Fo
example, one s uden desc ibed hei school and class posi i ely,
al hough hey i s hesi a ed wi h he decision, S uden 10: “[I
eally didn’ wan o change schools because] he new school was
sca y.”A e he school change, he same s uden changed hei
mind: “[I was a p e y good hing o change schools because]
s uden s a e ca ed abou mo e, and eache s a e also iendlie .”
The s a emen e lec s eelings o belongingness and success ul
in eg a ion. In con as , hose s uden s who may ha e had di i-
cul ies i ing in esponded wi h opposing iews o example,
S uden 11: “[I was a bad hing o change schools because] I
should ha e gone o [X school]” and S uden 12: “[I was a bad
hing o change schools because] I ha e his school.” Since hese
esponses did no cla i y he eason behind he exp essed eelings
o aliena ion, we also checked hese s uden s’ cu en ic imiza-
ion sco es. I e ealed ha o e all (wi h one excep ion), he
CVH newcome s who epo ed challenges in i ing in also
sco ed high on cu en pee ic imiza ion, al hough hey did no
men ion i in hei open answe s.
Based on he con en analysis, we can conclude ha CVH
newcome s’ hough s abou he p e ious and new schools we e
posi ioned on a spec um anging om a e si eness o a ac ion
as ollows: he a e si e ac o s o he p e ious school, he a ac-
i e ac o s o he p e ious school, he a e si e ac o s o he new
school, and he a ac i e ac o s o he new school. A ac i e
ac o s owa d he new school included he hope o he be e
u u e, including new iends, esh s a wi hou pee ic imiza-
ion and willingness o join in o weigh ed cu iculum eaching.
A e si e hough s abou he new school some imes s em om he
ea o he school change. S uden s men ioned ea s abou no
inding a iend, he pe sis ence o ic imiza ion, no liking he
school as well as mo ing o a new place. Simila ly, a ac i e ac-
o s ela ed o he old school emphasized he amilia i y o he old
school as well as he people and he memo ies made he e.
A e si e ac o s ela ed o he old school we e mos ly ela ed o
pee ic imiza ion expe iences, loneliness, and men al heal h
p oblems, which we e linked o ad e se expe iences wi h pee s.
Newcome s desc ibed hei expe iences ega ding he school
change, de ailing i s impac on iendships, ic imiza ion expe i-
ences, school acili ies, and belongingness. Some newcome s
missed hei old iends while some had ound new iends. A ew
newcome s epo ed inding iends which hey had no had be o e.
Newcome s’ expe iences wi h pee ic imiza ion also a ied: some
newcome s epo ed ha ic imiza ion con inued in he new
school, while o he s expe ienced a dec ease o comple e inishing
o ic imiza ion. School acili ies we e men ioned a o ably, such
ha he newcome s we e happy wi h he new school’s loca ion and
educa ional oppo uni ies. Belongingness was exp essed by being
g a e ul o he new classma es and nice eache s. Nega i e expe i-
ences o no belonging we e di icul o de ine, bu some s uden s
we e gene ally unhappy wi h he new school which may indica e
hei eeling o aliena ion, ha is, no belonging.
Discussion
This s udy i s examined newcome s’ pe spec i es on school
change, bo h a he ime i happened and a e he change, and
compa ed hese iews ac oss i e di e en ic imiza ion his o y
ca ego ies (i.e., no ic imized, single occasions o ic imiza ion,
qui e o en ic imized, almos cons an ly ic imized, and con-
s an ly ic imized in he pas ). Second, we es ed whe he he
ela ionship be ween newcome s a us and cu en ic imiza ion
was mode a ed by ic imiza ion his o y. These quan i a i e anal-
yses we e complemen ed by a quali a i e analysis explo ing he
expe iences o newcome s wi h a his o y o cons an ic imiza-
ion (CVH).
O e all, newcome s had ela i ely posi i e hough s abou
hei school change. S uden s wi hou ic imiza ion his o y an ic-
ipa ed he school change mo e nega i ely (p obably ha ing mo e
o lose), while hose who had been ic imized in he pas ended
o iew he change mo e posi i ely a he ime i occu ed. The
quali a i e analysis e ealed he a ying expe iences o CVH
Figu e 3. The Mode a ing E ec o Vic imiza ion His o y on he
Associa ion Be ween Newcome S a us and Cu en Vic imiza ion
(Scale 1–5) Among Se en h o Nin h G ade s (i.e., 13–15 Yea s Old)
(n = 25,323).
8 In e na ional Jou nal o Beha io al De elopmen 00(0)
newcome s. Some s uden s had pu sued school change and iden-
i ied a e si e hough s abou hei o me school (i.e., pee ic-
imiza ion and loneliness) and a ac i e hough s (i.e., hope o
he be e u u e, new iends, inishing o pee ic imiza ion)
abou he new school. O he s, howe e , epo ed he opposi e.
Since all o hese s uden s had a his o y o cons an ic imiza ion,
he e mus be o he ac o s explaining he he e ogenei y in hei
esponses. Ins ead, he con en analysis iden i ied h ee highe -
le el classes aside om pee ic imiza ion: iendships, school
acili ies, and belongingness. Some o he CVH s uden s had
iends in hei o me school, while he o he s desc ibed hei
pas as iendless. Thus, ha ing iends adds complexi y o he
school change and makes i less desi able, e en hough a s uden
is cons an ly ic imized. Feelings o belongingness o aliena ion,
home- o-school dis ance, and new lea ning oppo uni ies we e
also men ioned among hough s ega ding he school change.
The mul ile el analysis showed ha CVH newcome s may
bene i om school change when compa ed o equally ic imized
s uden s con inuing wi hin he same schools. This in e ac i e
e ec be ween school change and p e ious ic imiza ion was
signi ican among he whole sample, bu when he analysis was
done sepa a ely o elemen a y and middle schools, i was ound
o be s onge among elemen a y school s uden s. In middle
schools, he bene i o hose who said hey had been cons an ly
ic imized in hei p e ious school was only ma ginal. Thus,
elemen a y school s uden s wi h ic imiza ion his o y can bene i
om changing schools, whe eas such a bene i is negligible
among middle school s uden s.
The lowe likelihood o ic imiza ion among newcome s who
epo ed cons an (in bo h age g oups) o almos cons an (in
elemen a y school) ic imiza ion his o y, in compa ison o es ab-
lished s uden s wi h simila ic imiza ion his o ies, may be
explained by hei escape om he con ex whe e classma es
ha e de eloped a sha ed nega i e pe cep ion o hem (Olweus,
1978; Schus e , 2001) and whe e hey ha e a epu a ion as ic-
ims. Such a epu a ion can esul in ewe iendship oppo uni-
ies (Boul on, 2013), u he exace ba ing ic imiza ion. This
ic im epu a ion is no as s ong among hose less equen ly
ic imized, so changing schools p ima ily bene i s hose who a e
mos equen ly ic imized.
Howe e , changing schools dec eases ic imiza ion only ma -
ginally among middle schoole s. The o e all e ec among CVH
newcome s was −0.43, wi h a spli e ec o −0.46 o elemen a y
school s uden s and −0.18 (41%) o middle school s uden s. This
di e ence is likely due o he main e ec s o ic imiza ion his o y
and newcome s a us on cu en ic imiza ion. These p edic ions
a e s onge among middle schoole s compa ed o elemen a y
schoole s, explaining why he in e ac ion e ec is lowe . Long-
las ing ic imiza ion may esul in beha io s o cha ac e is ics ha
expose he s uden o ic imiza ion e en in a new con ex (Salmi alli
e al., 1998). Such beha io s could include ac ing agains g oup
no ms o s uggling o i in wi h he new pee g oup (e.g., Hui sing
e al., 2012; W igh e al., 1986). Due o hei de elopmen al s age,
middle schoole s may be mo e adep a ecognizing non-no ma i e
beha io s due o he s onge in luence o pee s and he g ea e
emphasis on pee g oup compa ibili y a ha age (Lau sen &
Veens a, 2021), which could explain why hey mo e eadily a ge
CVH newcome s compa ed o elemen a y schoole s.
The quan i a i e and quali a i e esul s p o ide a complemen-
a y pic u e o school change. In he quan i a i e analysis, we
ound ha CVH newcome s epo ed less pee ic imiza ion in
new schools compa ed o s uden s wi h simila ic imiza ion his-
o ies who s ayed in he same school. In line wi h his, none o he
CVH newcome s epo ed an inc ease in ic imiza ion expe i-
ences in hei new school in he open-ended answe s analyzed
quali a i ely. They did ell abou pe sis ing, dec easing, and com-
ple e ending o ic imiza ion, as well as changes in iendships,
school acili ies, and belongingness. Many CVH newcome s old
abou ha ing ound iends in he new school, which is also
known o p o ec om pee ic imiza ion in a new con ex
(Tenhunen e al., 2024). Howe e , in eg a ing esul s based on
bo h me hods challenges a simplis ic in e p e a ion o he da a.
The quan i a i e analysis sugges s s uden mobili y is a complex
e en in which CVH newcome s may bene i , bu he less o en
ic imized o non- ic imized newcome s may no expe ience he
same bene i s— hey could e en encoun e nega i e conse-
quences. In addi ion, he quali a i e esponses un eil e en a
mo e nuanced eali y. I becomes e iden ha , despi e he bene-
i s obse ed among CVH newcome s, some s uden s do no
expe ience he an icipa ed ad an ages o school change. Thus,
based on he esul s, we can conclude ha changing schools does
no seem o exace ba e pee ic imiza ion among CVH s uden s;
howe e , he possibili y o i s pe sis ence a he same le el mus
be acknowledged. Also, some hing o conside is he po en ial
consequences i CVH s uden s a e exposed o ic imiza ion again
in he new class oom—would i be e en wo se o one’s men al
heal h i hey a e no accep ed in he new g oup ei he ?
Ou indings pa ly align wi h hose o Ca son e al. (2013),
who obse ed a decline in pee ic imiza ion ollowing a school
change. Howe e , ou esul s also e eal ha newcome s who
we e no equen ly ic imized in hei p e ious school do no
always expe ience a educ ion in ic imiza ion a e he school
change. This con adic s he no ion ha a school change is uni-
e sally bene icial and sugges s ha he impac may depend on
he indi idual’s ic imiza ion his o y—a a iable no conside ed
by Ca son e al. Mo eo e , ou s udy adds dep h o he indings o
Ve nbe g (1990) and Tenhunen e al. (2024) by demons a ing
ha while some newcome s ace inc eased ic imiza ion, o he s,
pa icula ly hose equen ly ic imized in he pas , may bene i
om school change.
Ou esea ch also expands on he indings o Sou h and
Haynie (2004) and Haynie and Sou h (2005), who highligh ed
he b oade social impac s o school change, such as smalle
iendship ne wo ks and inc eased isola ion. We obse ed ha
while some CVH newcome s ound new iends, o he s con in-
ued o expe ience social challenges, indica ing ha he impac
o school change on social ne wo ks is complex and may be
in luenced by indi idual his o ies o ic imiza ion. We also
ound ha he s uden ’s hough s abou he school change we e
simila o hose desc ibed in a s udy by Messiou and Jones
(2015). Fo example, conce ns ela ed o inding iends, being
ic imized, and i ing in we e highly emphasized in bo h quali-
a i e samples.
Fu u e esea ch should con inue o explo e he nuanced expe-
iences o CVH newcome s, wi h a ocus on long- e m ou comes
beyond he ini ial school change pe iod. In addi ion, in es iga -
ing he ole o school en i onmen , eache suppo , and pee
ela ionships in shaping he expe iences o mobile s uden s
would p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he ac-
o s con ibu ing o success ul school change. Resea ch should