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T anspa ency o open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies : De ini ion and assessmen o he
ma u i y o anspa ency in 22 sma ci ies
© 2022 Else ie L d.
Accep ed e sion (Final d a )
Lnenicka, Ma in; Niki o o a, Anas asija; Lu e ek, Ma iusz; Aze oual, O mane;
Ukpabi, Dandison; Val enbe gs, Vis aldis; Macho a, Rena a
Lnenicka, M., Niki o o a, A., Lu e ek, M., Aze oual, O., Ukpabi, D., Val enbe gs, V., & Macho a,
R. (2022). T anspa ency o open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies : De ini ion and assessmen o
he ma u i y o anspa ency in 22 sma ci ies. Sus ainable Ci ies and Socie y, 82, A icle
103906. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103906
2022
T anspa ency o open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies: De ini ion and assessmen
o he ma u i y o anspa ency in 22 sma ci ies
Ma in Lnenicka, Anas asija Niki o o a, Ma iusz Lu e ek, O mane Aze oual, Dandison Ukpabi,
Vis aldis Val enbe gs, and Rena a Macho a
Abs ac : This pape ocuses on he issue o he anspa ency ma u i y o open da a ecosys ems seen
as he key o he de elopmen and main enance o sus ainable, ci izen-cen e ed, and socially esilien
sma ci ies. This s udy inspec s sma ci ies’ da a po als and assesses hei compliance wi h ans-
pa ency equi emen s o open (go e nmen ) da a. The expe assessmen o 34 po als ep esen ing
22 sma ci ies, wi h 36 ea u es, allowed us o ank hem and de e mine hei le el o anspa ency
ma u i y acco ding o ou p ede ined le els o ma u i y - de eloping, de ined, managed, and in e-
g a ed. In addi ion, ecommenda ions o iden i ying and imp o ing he cu en ma u i y le el and
speci ic ea u es ha e been p o ided. An open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con ex has been
concep ualized, and i s key componen s we e de e mined. Ou de ini ion conside s he componen s
o he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e using he sys ems heo y app oach. We ha e de-
ined i e p edominan ypes o cu en open da a ecosys ems based on p e ailing da a in as uc u e
componen s. The esul s o his s udy should con ibu e o he imp o emen o cu en da a ecosys ems
and build sus ainable, anspa en , ci izen-cen e ed, and socially esilien open da a-d i en sma
ci ies.
Keywo ds: open da a; sma ci y; anspa ency; ma u i y; ecosys em; expe assessmen
1 In oduc ion
Today, many ci ies wo ldwide join he sma ci y concep ha elies on using In o ma ion and Com-
munica ion Technologies (ICT) and In e ne o Things (IoT) solu ions in ci izens’ e e yday li es o
imp o e hei quali y o li e and assis local go e nmen s in o e coming challenges in he u ban e-
sou ce’ usage, ealloca ion, and deli e y o se ices. These imp o emen s a e achie ed h ough ICT,
which ans o m ci ies in o mo e sus ainable and sma en i ies (Abbas e al., 2018; Gao e al., 2021;
Pa ao e al., 2020), using mos ly human-o ien ed ci izen-cen e ed de elopmen (Ni oslawski e al.,
2019). As a esul , o a ci y o be sus ainable, i mus be sma , as many esea che s claim (Bib ia
and K ogs ie, 2017), which is only possible h ough he socio echnical ansi ion by adop ing echno-
logical inno a ions in a complex social ecosys em (K oh, 2021).
Wi h ime, he de ini ion o a sma ci y, which a he beginning e e ed mos ly o i s echnological
con ex , shi ed o ocus mos ly on people, wi h ICT ac ing as ools o d i e ci izen engagemen and
pa icipa o y go e nance schemes, as he ci y canno be uly sma wi hou e ec i ely ha nessing
he powe o i s social capi al, en ep eneu ship, and inno a ion (Kou i e al., 2012; Mølle e al.,
2019; Ni oslawski e al., 2019). ICT can also suppo anspa ency, ensu e he accoun abili y o deci-
sion-make s, and p omo e he pa icipa ion o ci izens in go e nance (Bonina and Ea on, 2020; Da id
e al., 2018; Ni oslawski e al., 2019). Tapping o ha po en ial equi es ci izens and local inno a o s
o be in o med, which means ha open da a and Open Go e nmen Da a (OGD) a e indispensable
componen s in open inno a ion, communi y engagemen , and sma ci y de elopmen (Mak and Lam,
2021). They a e used as e e ence poin s in local hacka hons, ci izen labs, and online pla o ms al-
lowing ci izens o sha e hei opinions on ma e s ele an o he ci y’s li e.
Real- ime open da a is a majo componen o sma ci ies ha is c i ical o acili a ing mul i-scale
u ban managemen and imp o ing o he quali ies such as adap abili y, e iciency, in e ope abili y,
lexibili y, anspa ency, and eal- ime esponse capaci y (Sha i i, 2020). In addi ion, hey a e seen as
a majo enable o anspa ency and us , which is a p e-condi ion o he de elopmen o pa icipa-
i e and sma communi ies. In bo h academia and p ac ice, i is inc easingly ecognized ha da a,
pa icula ly open da a, can p o ide cla i y on p e iously unde explo ed ecosys em p ocesses and dy-
namics and c ea e mo e sophis ica ed modeling capabili ies (Ni oslawski e al., 2019). A he same
ime, ecen s udies s ess ha he slow p og ess in open da a ini ia i es has hinde ed he mo emen
o sma ci ies’ de elopmen lowe ing hei social and economic alues (Mak and Lam, 2021). Ac-
co ding o O ejon-Sanchez e al. (2022), he e is a lis o sma ci y- ela ed ac ions o be conduc ed
unde he commi men o open da a in he upcoming yea s wi h a s ong ocus on he a ailabili y o
hese da a as open da a and a de ailed plan o a ac echnical alen and suppo he digi al o ma ion
o i s popula ion.
T anspa ency-by-design, oge he wi h pa icipa ion and collabo a ion p ocesses, a e key concep s in
he cu en deba e on open go e nmen and open da a ini ia i es in sma ci ies (Lněnička and Niki-
o o a, 2021; Lněnička and Saxena, 2021; Ne es e al., 2020). Se e al s udies ha e shown how da a
euse can gene a e p omising bene i s in he sma ci y en i onmen (Gup a e al., 2020). Open da a
a e one o he mos aluable esou ces in his con ex . They can be used as he only sou ce o in
combina ion wi h o he da a ypes o sol e ci il socie y p oblems, imp o e anspa ency and close
he gap be ween local go e nmen and i s ci izens (Ca a a e al., 2020; Johannessen and Be n zen,
2018). The epo by Be ends e al. (2020) showed ha mo e and mo e Membe S a es o he Eu o-
pean Union ecognized he po en ial alue o open da a, and a ious open da a po als a e becoming
inc easingly suppo ed by obus open da a policies.
The e o e, oge he wi h he p essu es o mo e anspa en and esponsi e go e nmen , open da a
policies ha e become inc easingly widesp ead (Be one e al., 2016; Gao e al., 2021), and open da a
po als a e commonly de eloped o enable access o ele an da a (Bonina and Ea on, 2020; Lněnička
and Niki o o a, 2021). Such pla o ms include closed and open da a, which alue po en ial may a y
(Gup a e al., 2020; Pe ei a e al., 2017). Da a po als and o he pla o ms usually p o ide ea u es o
sea ch, il e , download, analyze, link, isualize, e alua e, discuss, eques , and sha e da ase s. Each
ci y usually has mo e o hese pla o ms, bu hei le els o in eg a ion and openness can be di e en
(Buchinge e al., 2021; Da ies, 2020; Niki o o a and Lněnička, 2021). The dynamics o he di usion
o open da a a e gi en by he cha ac e is ics o social sys ems in which hey occu . These a e ech-
nology-enabled and ely on he in ensi ies o in o ma ion lows (Ha ison e al., 2012). The concep
o deli e ing anspa ency elies on he echnical s anda ds o OGD and how hey a e implemen ed
by co esponding ea u es o da a in as uc u es (Da ies, 2020). Fo his pape OGD can be de ined
as da a p oduced by public sec o agencies and ins i u ions, eely a ailable on da a po als in open
o ma s and unde open licenses o e e yone o be eused (Lněnička e al., 2021).
Abella e al. (2017) de ined a sma ci y as a public-p i a e ecosys em ha p o ides se ices o ci i-
zens and o ganiza ions wi h s ong echnological suppo and conside s he economic and social im-
pac on socie y. Acco ding o Abbas e al. (2018), sma ci ies a e cha ac e ized by complex sys ems
in openness, he e ogenei y, complexi y, dynamic wo k en i onmen s, and la ge-scale na u e. In his
ega d, using an ecosys em app oach enables us o unde s and and cla i y he ela ionships and in e -
ac ions be ween componen s (Baghe i e al., 2021; Capu o e al., 2019; Dawes e al., 2016; Lněnička
e al., 2017). Nu mi e al. (2019) epo ed ha his app oach inspi ed new models o public in o -
ma ion and da a lows, se ices, and p oduc s deli e y, in which ecosys ems-enabled co-c ea ion is
conside ed a key inno a ion o inc ease anspa ency. The e o e, oge he wi h inc easing p essu es
on he adop ion o sus ainable de elopmen goals and p ac ices, he concep o he sma ci y seems
o in e link all e o s and o m he ecosys em, in which he expec ed impac s and alues can be
achie ed o s akeholde s (Capu o e al., 2019; Gao e al., 2021; Lněnička e al., 2017; Ne es e al.,
2020; Pe ei a e al., 2017).
Resea che s iden i y di e en ecosys ems aiming o p o ide solu ions o speci ic p oblems (Ooms e
al., 2020); conside ing he da a-cen ic na u e o he sma ci y (Baghe i e al., 2021; Ko achi and
Bounaba , 2018; Lněnička and Saxena, 2021), da a ecosys ems a e especially ele an . They a e ep-
esen ed by da a po als, pla o ms, and o he eposi o ies and da a sou ces p o iding OGD and o he
open da a, in which ci izens and o he s akeholde s can ind da ase s and ea u es ha enable hem o
wo k wi h hese da a making hem ac ionable a he han s a ic. The concep o anspa ency equi es
openness, accoun abili y, and public pa icipa ion (Da id e al., 2018; Da ies, 2020; Lněnička and
Niki o o a, 2021; Ni oslawski e al., 2019). As epo ed by Ko achi and Bounaba (2018), sma ci ies
need an assessmen sys em o manage and assess he p og ess o sma ci y p ojec s and he deg ee
o ecosys em ma u i y (Danneels e al., 2017). Benchma ks and models should p o ide a way o iden-
i y he de elopmen pa hs o sma ci ies and enable hei compa isons wi h o he ci ies (Lu e ek,
2020). Conside ing hese challenges, we aim o explo e he anspa ency ma u i y o open da a eco-
sys ems in sma ci ies.
Since sma ci ies a e close o hei ci izens and p o ide ele an se ices acco dingly, hey should
conside he ecosys em, and anspa ency ma u i y app oaches o p o e ha hey as sma ci ies a e
e icien and sus ainable. Rega ding he cu en sma ci y app oaches, we inspec di e en da a po -
als in selec ed sma ci ies and assess hei compliance wi h open (go e nmen ) da a anspa ency
equi emen s. This allows us o de ine he concep o he open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con ex
and de e mine i s key componen s. The assessmen esul s enable us o ank he ecosys ems in se-
lec ed sma ci ies, iden i y and discuss hei anspa ency ma u i y, and in oduce di e en ypes o
open da a ecosys ems. Fo his s udy, we es ablish and a emp o answe he ollowing Resea ch
Ques ions (RQs):
RQ1: Wha componen s and ela ionships o m open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies?
RQ2: Whe he and how open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies comply wi h anspa ency e-
qui emen s o open (go e nmen ) da a?
RQ3: Wha is he ma u i y le el o anspa ency o open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies, and
how can i be assessed?
Mos o he la ge-scale esea ch done on he OGD and da a po als e e s o he na ional le el and
solu ions p o ided by he cen al go e nmen . The con ibu ion o he pape is six- old: (1) a bench-
ma king amewo k o assess he le el o anspa ency o open da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies con-
sis ing o 36 ea u es has been de eloped by adap ing anspa ency-by-design amewo k o open
da a po als by Lněnička and Niki o o a (2021); (2) he de eloped amewo k has been applied o 34
po als ep esen ing 22 sma ci ies, allowing de e mina ion o he le el o anspa ency ma u i y a
gene al, indi idual, and g oup le els; (3) ou -le el anspa ency ma u i y model has been de ined o
allow he classi ica ion o he po al as de eloping, de ined, managed, and in eg a ed, he eby allow-
ing o iden i y key issues o be ans o med in o co ec i e ac ions o be included in o agenda and
na iga e o he se o mo e compe i i e po als; (4) he po als conce ned ha e been anked based on
hei anspa ency ma u i y, he eby allowing mo e success ul po als o be iden i ied in o de o be
used as an example o imp o ing o e all o ea u e-wised pe o mance by p o iding ecommenda-
ions o he iden i ica ion and imp o emen o cu en ma u i y le el and speci ic ea u es; (5) an
open da a ecosys em in he con ex o a sma ci y has been concep ualized and i s key componen s
we e de e mined conside ing he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e and o he componen s
and ela ionships, using he sys em heo y app oach; (6) on he basis o he dominan componen s o
da a in as uc u e, i e ypes o cu en open da a ecosys ems ha e been de ined, he eby opening up
a new ho izon o esea ch in he a ea o sus ainable and socially esilien sma ci ies by means o
open da a and ci izen-cen e ed open sma ci y go e nance.
To mee he objec i es o his s udy, he pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 es ablishes he
heo e ical backg ound, sec ion 3 p o ides he me hodology o he esea ch, he ini ial esul s, and
discussion, as well as limi a ions, a e b ough o h in sec ion 4, 5 and 6, espec i ely, and he pape
concludes in sec ion 7 highligh ing u u e di ec ions o esea ch and cla i ying he p ima y con ibu-
ions o his pape .
2 Theo e ical backg ound
2.1 Concep s – sma ci y, (open) da a po al/pla o m, and ecosys em
Sma ci ies ha e de eloped mainly due o inno a i e ICT indus ies and ma ke s and began using
and aking ad an age o he IoT, cybe -physical sys ems, A i icial In elligence (AI), big da a, high-
pe o mance compu ing, and cloud compu ing o es ablish a link be ween each componen and laye
o a ci y (Ki im a e al., 2020; Ramu e al., 2022). They use ICT o imp o e u ban se ices' quali y,
pe o mance, and in e ac i i y, educe cos s and esou ce consump ion, and imp o e ela ionships
be ween ci izens and go e nmen (Abella e al., 2017). All hese p ocesses and e o s p oduce la ge
olumes o da a ha a e ully, pa ly, o no p ocessed (Capu o e al., 2019). Since i is widely ag eed
among esea che s as well as public o icials ha hese da a can p o ide alue o he de elopmen
o he sma ci y and imp o e he quali y o li e o ci izens, he p inciples o open da a a e ecognized
o enable he euse o da a (Abella e al., 2015; Abella e al., 2017). This elies on he assump ion ha
he cen e o hese e o s a e ci izens and hei needs, so hey can p o ide ele an eedback on wha
da a should be published and wha se ices should be p o ided o imp o ed.
Da a sou ces in ci ies may be di ided based on he basic ac o and he na u e o he p ocess hey we e
ob ained wi h (A ibas-Bel, 2014). These a e da a om 1) indi iduals holding loca ion-awa e de ices,
2) da abases used o p o ide (usually ee) se ices h ough he in e ne by web companies, and 3)
public and go e nmen o ganiza ions ha elease da a in an open o ma . Da a pla o ms a e essen ial
in as uc u e o da a managemen , inno a i e da a-based se ices, and sma ci y ini ia i es
(Buchinge e al., 2021). Mos da a in sma ci ies a e published unde open da a p inciples. Danneels
e al. (2017) de ined an open da a pla o m as a da a se ices a chi ec u e, along wi h he managemen
o access and ( e)use, c ea ed o allow hi d pa ies o c ea e new alue. Acco ding o Co êa e al.
(2017), he e m da a po al/pla o m can e e o local go e nmen endpoin s used o disclose da a o
in o ma ion. Da a po als may a y om a ypical implemen a ion aimed a collec ing and publishing
da ase s o p o ide a one-s op-shop o da a consume s, maximizing hei euse, o a simple web page
ha does no p o ide any euse. Ci izens and o he s akeholde s can supply and sell da a using da a
pla o ms o c ea e new business models on op o hem (Baghe i e al., 2021).

The concep o open da a, especially OGD and anspa ency, a e closely ela ed e ms in which ICT
play as much an impo an ole as in he case o sma ci ies. The cu en pa h o OGD e olu ion is
owa ds open da a sus ainabili y and sma ness (Gao e al., 2021). Since all p ocesses should be ans-
pa en , he design o da a in as uc u es is a c ucial ask (Lněnička and Niki o o a, 2021). Johannes-
sen and Be n zen (2018) p o ided an o e iew o he a ailable echnologies and ools o achie ing
di e en o ms o anspa ency in sma ci ies. The ela ion be ween anspa ency and sma ci ies is
linked o bo h echnology and objec i es ha should ollow he elease o go e nmen da a. T ans-
pa ency da a s anda ds ope a e a he bo de be ween he in e nal da a amewo k o he s a e and he
public ealm (Da ies, 2020). Di e en in as uc u es, especially social in as uc u e, in he sma
ci y need o be in eg a ed o make i easy o sha e in o ma ion be ween di e en ci y se ices and
s akeholde s (Dinah e al., 2019). By building da a in as uc u es, wo-way communica ion channels
be ween in ol ed s akeholde s can be es ablished o discuss da a collec ion, managemen , and use
wi hin go e nance. Acco ding o Da ies (2020), his can allow ci izens o build he da a in as uc-
u es ha can shape he ope a ion o sma ci ies and a mode n da a-d i en policy en i onmen . Sim-
ila ly, ICT-enabled ne wo ks o in e ac ing s akeholde s can be conside ed he ecosys em’s social
in as uc u e, he socio- echnical pipelines sha ing and ansmi ing da a, in o ma ion, and ideas
(Ha ison e al., 2012). Acco ding o Abella e al. (2015), sma ci ies can be modeled as da a sou ces
and se ice p o ide s’ ecosys ems: popula ed by he main agen , he ci y, and sha ed wi h o he s ake-
holde s who will euse open da ase s.
In gene al, open da a ecosys ems a e buil a ound OGD and o he ypes o open da a such as Open
Ci izen Da a (OCD), Open Business Da a (OBD), and Open Science Da a (OSD), and in o ma ion
and da a lows esul ing om ela ions and in e ac ions among in ol ed s akeholde s. The e m open
da a ecosys em also encompasses many a ibu es, which u he de ine i s pu pose and goals, such
as sma , alue-c ea ing, sus ainable, e c. Acco ding o Van Loenen e al. (2021), sus ainable and
alue-c ea ing open da a ecosys ems need o be use -d i en, inclusi e, ci cula , and skill-based. Eco-
sys ems in sma ci ies a e mo e se ice-o ien ed since hei main objec i es a e o ans o m indi id-
uals’ li es and imp o e socie y’s well-being (Ooms e al., 2020).
The impac o open da a on sma ci ies ecosys ems was explo ed by Ne es e al. (2020). They high-
ligh ed hei ole in gene a ing and analyzing ac ionable da a and open da a managemen o unde -
s and, manage, and plan he ci y. Gup a e al. (2020) epo ed ha he open da a ecosys em should
allow he de elopmen o da a inno a ion capabili ies while acili a ing da a li e acy and conside ing
c oss-bounda y da a collabo a ion and da a access. Open and use -d i en inno a ion ecosys ems, con-
sis en wi h sma ci y s akeholde s' in e es s and needs, suppo a da a-d i en economy whe e da a
can help imp o e policy and business decisions (Be one e al., 2016). The da a-d i en sma ci y
ecosys em de eloped by Abella e al. (2017) comp ises (1) he ci y as he sou ce o da a, (2) he
ci izens as end-use s o da a and inno a i e se ices, and (3) he agen s as euse s o da a. These
ecosys ems a e amed by exis ing policies and p ac ices ha need o be managed and econ igu ed
o e ime o suppo inno a ion cul u es and ci izen in e ac ions (Ha ison e al., 2012). To educe he
complexi y o da a ecosys ems, a da a managemen amewo k ha conside s all ele an da a li ecy-
cle phases is needed o in eg a e p ocesses, s akeholde s, and sys ems (Sinaeepou a d e al., 2016).
I should also help add ess his ecosys em’s challenges, which need o in eg a e di e en componen s
and help wi h s akeholde s’ communica ion (Lněnička e al., 2017).
2.2 Sma ci ies benchma ks, indices, and ankings
Benchma king is a pe o mance measu emen p ocess wi h he op pe o me s in he ield as a e e -
ence poin . In his case, i is conduc ed by ob aining a benchma k used o assess he ci y’s success in
being sma (e ) agains o he ci ies. Benchma ks a e usually p esen ed as indices, ankings, and e-
po s ha include analysis o he ci y’s sma cha ac e is ics, which le el o de ail may a y. Va ious
indices and ankings ha e been p esen ed in ecen yea s (Be one and Rica , 2018; Pa ao e al.,
2020). Mos o he benchma ks include indica o s aligned wi h he dimensions de ined by Gi inge
e al. (2007). Howe e , he s uc u e and componen s o hese benchma ks a e s ill he subjec s o
deba es among ci y leade s and o he s akeholde s, as i is di icul o iden i y se s o pa ame e s
accep able among all ci ies assessed (Lu e ek, 2020).
One o he p ima y challenges o sma ci y benchma king is he di e si y o concep s ha a e di i-
cul o ansla e e ec i ely in o a single measu emen me hod. As a esul , many o hose ools do no
p og ess beyond he in ancy s age – hei publica ion s ops a e one- wo edi ions, and he discussion
on sma ci y assessmen ools and hei main gaps o imp o e u u e me hodologies and ools is s ill
ongoing (e.g., Pa ao e al., 2020). The mos equen ly indica ed sho comings o hese ools a e he
lack o ecogni ion o he comp ehensi e de e minan s o speci ic phenomena, he lack o anspa -
ency in he p ocess o da a collec ion, hei agg ega ion, and he assignmen o weigh s o indi idual
indica o s (Sáez e al., 2020)
S ill, he e is an ob ious need o hose benchma king e o s – hey can p o ide gene al guidance o
planning he ci y’s u he de elopmen in o "sma ness" and allow compa ison wi h o he s, which
can be an e ec i e ool o keep a ious s akeholde s in ol ed. Sha i i (2019) c i ically analyzed se-
lec ed sma ci y assessmen ools, highligh ing hei s eng hs and weaknesses and examining hei
po en ial con ibu ion o he de elopmen and e olu ion o a sma ci y concep . They a gue ha o
de elop be e s a egies, assessmen ools should be based on he ad ancemen s o sma solu ions
and big da a analy ics.
O he s emphasize he impo ance o he human dimension. Co és-Cediel e al. (2020) analyzed case
s udies epo ed by he EUROCITIES ne wo k ha ep esen s sma ini ia i es implemen ed in majo
Eu opean ci ies. They ound ha he op sma ci ies implemen ini ia i es o imp o e people’s well-
being and inc ease he ci izens’ oppo uni ies and pa icipa ion and a e complemen ed wi h ini ia i es
ha build and imp o e ci ies’ echnological and physical in as uc u es. The epo by Ca a a e al.
(2020) p esen ed 17 di e en opics, including a ound 100 indica o s o he s anda diza ion o ci y-
da a.
2.3 Sma ci ies and open da a – pe o mance measu emen and ma u i y
models
Va ious pe o mance measu emen and ma u i y models a e used o o e iew he sma ci y’s cu en
s a e, highligh s eng hs and weaknesses, and p o ide ci y leade s ecommenda ions and guidelines
owa ds i s de elopmen . Sma ci ies a e also compa ed and anked agains each o he based on hese
models. Each model consis s o di e en domains (dimensions), phases, and co esponding indica-
o (s) used o assess he ci y’s pe o mance and ma u i y. The main di e ence be ween hese models
and benchma ks, indices, and ankings discussed in he p e ious sec ion is hei heo e ical o ien a ion
and ocus on he selec ed domain(s) and a sample o ci ies. Global indices and ankings can be con-
side ed mo e es ablished and widely accep ed han hose models. Pe o mance measu emen and ma-
u i y models usually aim o in oduce, assess, and alida e new app oaches domains o delimi hem-
sel es om exis ing models. They also p o ide only limi ed indings, ecommenda ions, and guide-
lines o de eloping sma ci ies. They usually ocus on a small sample o ci ies and canno be gen-
e alized p ope ly o a la ge sample o ci ies.
Exis ing esea ch p esen s a ious models and assesses di e en domains o sma ci ies. S ill, he
cen al pilla o hese models is da a-cen ic. Many esea che s ecognize he impo ance o in o -
ma ion and da a lows, and he e icien managemen o his domain is c ucial o success ully imple-
men ing o he domains and sma ci ies’ s a egies. Thus, his is one o he main easons his pape
ocuses on he domain o he open da a ecosys em and i s ma u i y.
Danneels e al. (2017) applied a se o OGD ecosys em dimensions o assess he deg ee o ecosys em
ma u i y. They conside ed h ee OGD pla o m ypes – cogni i is , connec ionis , and au opoie ic,
including in ol ed ac o s and hei in e ela ionships. Bonina and Ea on (2020) explo ed he man-
agemen o open da a ecosys em p ocesses. They ocused on he go e nance o he demand and he
supply side o open da a po als by hei owne s o os e ecosys em de elopmen . They e alua ed he
ma u i y o he ecosys em in ou dimensions: (1) enabling ac o s, (2) go e nance in e en ion, (3)
in e ac ions, and (4) dynamics o e ime. Lee and Kwak (2012) p oposed he Open Go e nmen Ma-
u i y Model o assessing and guiding go e nmen agencies ha aim o plan and implemen open
go e nmen enabled by social media and o he ele an echnologies. Fi e ma u i y le els ep esen
he model: ini ial condi ions (Le el 1), da a anspa ency (Le el 2), open pa icipa ion (Le el 3), open
collabo a ion (Le el 4), and ubiqui ous engagemen (Le el 5). I in o ms he go e nmen agencies o
each ma u i y le el's ocuses, capabili ies, p ocesses, ou comes, p oblems, bes p ac ices, and me ics.
To inha and Machado (2017) iden i ied sma ci y ma u i y models and assessed hem, conside ing
an app oach based on he design p inciples amewo k o de elop ma u i y models. They compa ed
each ma u i y model based on 1) desc ip ion (pu pose, scope, ocus), 2) domains, and 3) ma u i y
le els. Thei analysis also conside ed design p inciples when de eloping a new model di ided in o
basic p inciples, he desc ip i e pu pose o use, and he p esc ip i e pu pose o use. Ensu ing da a
quali y is an impo an s ep o ans o m a ci y in o a sma ci y. I is also one o he key ca ego ies o
da a anspa ency (Lněnička and Niki o o a, 2021). Ko achi and Bounaba (2018) p oposed a model
o e alua e he ma u i y o a sma ci y based on he quali y o p oduced and consumed da a. The
model consis s o hese domains: connec i i y, da a cen e , da a analy ics, applica ions, and end-use s.
Co êa e al. (2017) assessed selec ed local da a po als in B azil and how hey comply wi h he OGD
p inciples. They mapped i ems necessa y o he disclosu e o ac i e anspa ency and echnical e-
qui emen s o B azil’s access o in o ma ion legisla ion based on he p inciples o he OGD.
Wa necke e al. (2019) de eloped a web applica ion ha allows sel -assessmen o he ma u i y le el
o ci y au ho i ies in e ms o sma ci y pe o mance and de e mina ion o hei compe i i eness by
benchma king. I allows he exclusion o i ele an indica o s o a ci y’s de elopmen p io i ies wi h-
ou comp omising he benchma k unc ion.
3 Resea ch me hodology
This s udy is based on (1) he e iew o key concep s such as sma ci y, (open) da a po al/pla o m,
and ecosys em, sma ci ies benchma ks and pe o mance measu emen and ma u i y models o sma
ci ies and open da a po als, based on a desc ip i e li e a u e e iew, (2) de eloping an expe imen
design by adap ing he benchma king amewo k o assessing he compliance o open (go e nmen )
da a po als wi h he p inciples o anspa ency-by-design p oposed by Lněnička and Niki o o a
(2021), (3) applying he de eloped amewo k o 34 po als ha can be conside ed o be pa o open
da a ecosys ems in sma ci ies, he eby ca ying ou hei assessmen by expe s in 36 ea u es con-
ex , which allows us o ank hem and discuss hei ma u i y le els and (4) based on he esul s o he
assessmen , de ining he componen s and unique models ha o m he open da a ecosys em in he
sma ci y con ex .
This sec ion e e s o he esea ch me hodology gi en in Figu e 1, including me hods used in each
phase. The u he sec ions explain hese s eps in mo e de ail.
he applied amewo k. Finally, a anking o assessed ci ies was conduc ed, hus iden i ying po als
ha comply wi h he anspa ency-by-design p inciple he mos and should include some co ec i e
ac ions.
In p esen ing he esul s, he scale men ioned abo e was used, i.e., he le el o ag eemen wi h he
ollowing s a emen s: 1 (S ongly disag ee), 2 (Disag ee), 3 (Sligh ly disag ee), 4 (Sligh ly ag ee), 5
(Ag ee), and 6 (S ongly ag ee), whe e ag eemen (4.5...6 o 6 poin s) is isualized in blue and co -
esponds o ma u i y le el #4, disag eemen (0…1.5 poin s) – ed, co esponding o ma u i y le el
#1, while sligh disag eemen (1.5...3) – g ay, co esponding o ma u i y le el #2, and sligh ag ee-
men (3...4.5) – ligh g een, co esponding o ma u i y le el #3. The bes and wo s esul s a e depic ed
by dashed bo de s and esul in ei he blue o ed colo o he bes and he wo s esul s, espec i ely.
4.1 Resul s by ca ego ies
Rega ding he open da a po als, we ha e iden i ied ha he wo s esul is demons a ed by ea u es
ep esen ing he public engagemen , collabo a ion, and pa icipa ion dimensions. In con as , he bes
esul belongs o he da a indabili y dimension, ollowed by da a use ulness (see Figu e 3). Howe e ,
he di e ence be ween hese wo esul s is less han 1,5 poin s. The bes -demons a ed esul is 4.6
poin s ou o 6, i.e., ends o be assessed by expe s as be ween ag ee and sligh ly ag ee, i.e., he e has
been no s ong ag eemen on he ul illmen o hese assessed ea u es. As shown in Figu e 3, all open
da a po als assessed ha e signi ican oom o imp o emen since none o he ca ego ies has achie ed
a s ong posi i e esul . This, howe e , can also be said abou he nega i e end, i.e., none o he
ca ego ies ha e been assessed by less han 3 poin s.
Figu e 3. Mean alues o open da a po als (by ca ego y)
As ega ds geoda a po als, he esul s a e e en wo se o all ca ego ies assessed, while he ends o
bes and wo s esul s emain he same. Howe e , i we e e o poin s ha hese dimensions ha e
go en om expe s, hey a e 0.5 poin s and 0.3 poin s wo se o geoda a po als han open da a po -
als. As a esul , 2 o 8 dimensions we e assessed as poo ly implemen ed, i.e., below 3 poin s and
g ay ba s in Figu e 4. The mos signi ican di e ence be ween he esul s is he “da a quan i y, s uc-
u e and gene al ea u es o he po al,” which e e s o ea u es such as da a o ganiza ion ( he numbe
o da ase s and ca ego ies, i.e., an o e iew o he numbe o da ase s and ca ego ies, hus demon-
s a ing ha he da a a e o ganized and a ailable, p o ing ha he po al is ac i e), mul ilingualism,

dashboa ds, use o ocabula y, da a linkage and da a e sioning, ollowed by da a indabili y, which
e e s o da a sea ch, il e , and so , as well as da ase s ca ego ies and ca aloging. The hi d majo
di e ence be ween he esul s is he da a quali y dimension, which ocuses no only on he quali y o
da a, such as da a accu acy, bu also on assessing he da ase desc ip ion, a ibu e desc ip ion,
me ada a p esence, quali y, and da a imeliness equency upda es. This means ha geoda a po als
a e less o ganized han open da a po als. This, howe e , can be easily explained by he cu en pa -
adigm, when mos o he e o s and esou ces a e spen on he na ional OGD po al and local po als.
In con as , geoda a po als a e no mean o be p ima ily he sou ce o open da a. This is also seen in
he li e a u e and cu en benchma ks and ankings, whe e geoda a po als a e a ely an objec o
in e es .
Figu e 4. Mean alues o geoda a po als (by ca ego y)
Fo he las ca ego y ep esen ed by sma po als, he esul s a e sligh ly di e en om wha we ha e
seen be o e (Figu e 5) when e e ing o he bes esul now belonging o da a quali y. The wo s
esul emains alid, al hough i should be no ed ha i is e en lowe compa ed o he wo ca ego ies
men ioned abo e. Su p isingly, he da a quan i y, s uc u e, and gene al ea u es o he po al, which
we e e y challenging o he geoda a po al, ha e been assessed ela i ely high (3.8 compa ed o
3.1), exceeding he esul o he open da a po als. In addi ion, be e esul s we e achie ed by se ice
quali y dimension ( e e ing o con ac and echnical suppo , guidelines, u o ials, e c., as well as
moni o ing and acking ea u es), and da a use ulness dimension (which mainly e e s o ea u es
ha allow gaining insigh in o he esul o a se ice o p oduc c ea ion ( euse/showcase o co-c ea-
ion), mapping i o he da a used, and whe he he iden i ica ion o he mos up- o-da e ends such
as high- alue da ase s akes place and eques s o da ase o se ice o in e es o public).
A he same ime, da a accessibili y, which e e s o open access, open license, download in bulk, API
and SPARQL endpoin s, p e iew and disco e abili y, da a isualiza ion, and da a analy ic ools, is
assessed wo se han he abo e dimensions. This may be pa ly because mos sma da a po als ocus
on he se ices and p o ide a e e ence om he se ice o he open da a po al. Un o una ely, his
is no always he case and some imes no a e e ence o he open da a po al o da ase , no a license
and p e iew and disco e abili y o da a analy ic ool ake place, which signi ican ly a ec s ac iona-
bili y and, consequen ly, use s’ in e es in bo h he se ice p esen ed and he po al as a whole. Also,
he se ice's anspa ency and i s c ea ion a e limi ed since he use s canno access he da a on which
he se ice was buil .
Figu e 5. Mean alues o sma da a po als (by ca ego y)
When combining he esul s on all he po als we ha e analyzed, he o e all end obse ed o he
open and geoda a po als is no longe alid, as he bes esul is demons a ed by da a quali y dimen-
sion wi h 4.1 poin s, ollowed by da a indabili y (4.0 poin s), as can be seen in Figu e 6. Howe e ,
he mos nega i e esul emains public engagemen , collabo a ion, and pa icipa ion wi h only 2.9
poin s, i.e., ending o disag ee sligh ly and can be seen as he mos c i ical. This is ollowed by da a
use ulness (3.2), da a quan i y, s uc u e, and gene al ea u es o he po al (3.5), se ice quali y (3.6),
da a unde s andabili y (3.7), and da a accessibili y (3.7), which al hough ha e been assessed as pa ly
ul illed, s ill ha e less han 4 poin s o 6.
This means ha changes and imp o emen s should be subjec o all dimensions and co esponding
ea u es, bu public engagemen , collabo a ion, and pa icipa ion should become cen al. This is due
o such low esul s and he impo ance o his ca ego y, conside ing da a po als o all ypes, i.e.,
open, geoda a, and especially sma da a po als. O he wise, i no ea u es suppo public engagemen ,
collabo a ion, and pa icipa ion o he espec i e ea u es a e no well implemen ed, he e a e mino
changes o any changes, alue c ea ion, and mee ing he objec i es o he ini ia i es conce ned.
Figu e 6. Mean alues o all po als (by ca ego y)
While in his sec ion we ha e co e ed he dimension-wise esul s, le us e e o he esul s by po al
and ci y.
4.2 Resul s by po als
Al hough mos dimensions wi h co esponding ea u es we e assessed as weakly implemen ed, i.e.,
below 4 poin s, his end is no alid o all sma ci ies. Mo e p ecisely, Figu es 7, 8, and 9 p o ide
a ci y-wise insigh on he esul s, om which we see ha he h ee sma ci ies, namely Helsinki,
Mad id, and Pa is, ha e demons a ed ela i ely high esul s wi h an a e age esul o 4.52 o Hel-
sinki and 4.49 o Mad id and Pa is. All po als belong o open da a po als. Al hough he esul s o
he open da a po als o Mad id and Pa is a e expec ed because he co esponding coun ies a e con-
s an leade s in he con ex o he ma u i y o open da a (po al), as demons a ed by he ecen Open
Da a Ma u i y Repo (Hes e en and an Knippenbe g, 2021), he ci y o Helsinki is some hing ha
is no so sel -e iden , pa icula ly gi en ha he epo men ioned abo e s a es ha Finland is among
six coun ies, which we e mo ed down om as - acke s o ollowe s his yea . Howe e , his shows
ha ci ies and sma ci ies can de elop mo e apidly han he whole coun y when human- and inan-
cial esou ces a e alloca ed wisely.
When di e en ca ego ies o po als a e compa ed, i can be no iced ha open da a po als end o
demons a e be e esul s, mos ly ep esen ing ma u i y le el #3 (Figu e 7), while geoda a po als
(Figu e 8) – he wo s , mos ly alling in ma u i y le el #2, wi h he bes esul o 3.9 poin s o B us-
sels. In compa ison, B ussels’ open da a po al gained 4.4 poin s, and he wo s assessmen was gained
by he geoda a po al o So ia and S ockholm wi h 2.9 poin s o 6. Open da a and geoda a po als
gene ally ha e h ee and wo "ou side s," espec i ely, ending o be poo ly implemen ed, i.e., gaining
below 3 poin s. In con as , open da a po als ha e one exp essed leade assessed a a li le mo e han
4.5 poin s and a u he h ee po als wi h almos simila poin s. Sma da a po als (Figu e 9), how-
e e , al hough no showing e y s ong posi i e esul s, we e assessed a 3.6 o 3.8 poin s, wi h Dublin
aking a leading posi ion among he inspec ed sma da a po als. This makes hei a e age esul s
sligh ly be e han he a e age geoda a po als’ esul s, ha ing 3.7 ou o 6 poin s o sma da a
po als, 3.7 o open da a po als, and 3.4 o geoda a po als.
Figu e 7. Open da a po als’ anking
Figu e 8. Geoda a po als’ anking
Figu e 9. Sma da a po als’ anking
Figu e 10, howe e , p o ides an o e all anking o all inspec ed po als, whe e open da a po als a e
shown in blue, geoda a po als – in g een, and sma da a po als – in o ange. This anking p o es ha
open da a po als a e assessed bes , wi h a e age esul s demons a ed by sma da a po als and
mos ly weakes esul s compa ed o he gene al esul s o he abo e ca ego ies shown by geoda a
po als. None o he po als ha e gained mo e han 4.5 poin s; all ha e some oom o imp o emen s,
while i e po als ha e been assessed below 3 poin s wi h wo geoda a po als and h ee open da a
po als. Figu e 11 hen p o ides a mo e de ailed look a assessed ca ego ies o he h ee bes -pe -
o ming po als and espec i e sma ci ies.
Figu e 10. All assessed po als’ anking
Figu e 11. Leading po als’ esul s by ca ego y
Howe e , al hough we obse ed ha open da a po als a e gene ally assessed highe compa ed o
o he da a po als, i should be no ed ha he amewo k we ha e applied, i.e., dimensions and sub-
dimensions/ ea u es assessed, we e o iginally de ined o open da a po als speci ically, which could
lead o he abo e-discussed end.
4.3 De ini ion o he open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con ex
We can de i e he open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con ex om he abo e. Howe e , we should
i s se ou indings in o he exis ing body o knowledge on open da a ecosys ems. Van Loenen e al.
(2021) a gued ha he scale o hese ecosys ems migh a y: wi hin ins i u ions, coun ies, egions,
wo ldwide, and wi hin di e en disciplines and domains. Mos o he exis ing de ini ions a e based
on he global o coun y-le el iews o componen s and ela ionships be ween hem, which p e en

hem om conside ing o he egional and local componen s and cha ac e is ics ha can be use ul in
explo ing he dynamics and ma u i y o he ecosys em. Mo eo e , hey o en include a da a domain
as one o he componen s a he same le el o impo ance, despi e he componen s o da a in as uc-
u es and hei ull delimi a ion being he key ones a ound which o he p ocesses should be iden i ied
and o malized o achie e ecosys ems’ goals. Dawes e al. (2016) epo ed ha he componen s o he
ci y- and municipal-le el ecosys ems a e mo e e iden and easie o analyze compa ed o mo e di use
na ional sys ems.
In gene al, he open da a ecosys em, wi hou conside ing speci ic le els, disciplines, o domains, can
be de ined as a se o componen s ha cons i u e his ecosys em, a se o s akeholde s in ol ed and
in e ac ing wi h he sys em, which should be aken in o accoun and a ec hose componen s, and
exis ing en i onmen s (economic, social, echnical, en i onmen al, cul u al, and poli ical) ha shape
he ecosys em’s pu pose, goals, p ocesses occu ing in i ( anspa ency, pa icipa ion, collabo a ion,
and coope a ion), and se ices deli e ing in i .
Since he key asse o he open da a ecosys em is he da a, he i s s ep in he de ini ion’s o mula ion
is o in oduce he concep o he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e in he sma ci y con ex .
This in as uc u e can be de ined as "a collec ion o online da a sou ces p o iding ci y-le el da a o
ee in open o ma s and unde open licenses o e e yone o be eused.” I s main componen s a e
da a po als, pla o ms, and o he da a eposi o ies in he sma ci y and i s adminis a ion and o he
public au ho i ies, which ide OGD, OBD, OCD, and OSD, p o ided by o he s akeholde s and eely
a ailable o euse. The da a sou ces co e e e y da a p o ide who publishes da a unde open da a
p inciples. They do no include ins i u ions wi h sepa a e ools/policies/app oaches o p o iding da a.
The key da a sou ces a he sma ci y le el we ound a e (1) open da a po al – publishes OGD and
euses, p o ides ea u es o wo k wi h hem, e c., (2) sma da a po al – publishes da a ele an o
sma se ices and sma p ojec s, (3) geoda a po al – publishes spa ial da a in open o ma s, p o ides
ea u es and se ices o wo k wi h hem, (4) IoT and big da a po al – p o ides aw da a and da a
s eams, and (5) domain-speci ic po als such as sma educa ion, sma anspo a ion, sma ene gy,
e c., usually co espond o domains lis ed by Gi inge e al. (2007). The las da a sou ce ype can
also be implemen ed as one pla o m, such as h ps://dublindashboa d.ie/. The in as uc u e dynam-
ics a e d i en by in o ma ion and da a low be ween hese componen s ep esen ed by da ase s’ e-
ques s, downloads, p ocessing, sha ing, e c. The in ensi y o hese ac ions limi s o enhances he lows
in he ecosys em.
The componen s and ela ionships can be desc ibed using a sys ems heo y app oach. This concep ual
iew enables us o ake a second s ep, in which s akeholde s a e in ol ed in he ecosys ems’ dynamics
o pe o m he ac ions de ined abo e. The da a po als a y conside ably ega ding hei o ien a ion
owa ds hei p ima y a ge g oups. Since di e en s akeholde s ha e di e en needs, goals, skills,
and o he cha ac e is ics, hei in e ac ions and ac i i ies esul in p io i izing he impo ance o di -
e en ac ions ha lead o he use o di e en online da a sou ces. Ou indings showed ha we need
o sepa a e use s om s akeholde s as consume s o his ecosys em. A use can be de ined as an
indi idual o g oup o indi iduals who may no ep esen any o ganiza ion, hose who ep esen i ,
go e nmen s o municipali ies, o go e nmen s o he coun y. Howe e , hei numbe and na u e
should no be limi ed. Acco ding o he concep o Socie y 5.0 o Supe Sma Socie y, each indi idual
o g oup o indi iduals can c ea e added alue by u ilizing da a and digi al ans o ma ions, he eby
applying c ea i e hinking. To e ec i ely and e icien ly manage and gain alue om he ecosys em,
he ecosys em o ches a o (ci y leade s) mus conside hese dynamics in hei decisions on de elop-
ing he open da a ecosys em.
Fu he , excep o he co e componen s ha o m he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e o
he open da a ecosys em, we can iden i y o he componen s ha o m he su ounding en i onmen
ou side he ecosys em bounda y bu s ill a ec he dynamics o he ecosys em. The i s ca ego y o
hese componen s consis s o websi es and pla o ms ha do no di ec ly p o ide open da a and ea-
u es o wo k wi h hem. S ill, suppo anspa ency, pa icipa ion, collabo a ion, and coope a ion
p ocesses o enable s akeholde s' communica ion, discussion, and in o ma ion sha ing. Fo example,
h ps:// anspa encia.mad id.es/, h ps://www.pa izipa ion.wien.a / o h ps://p ojek zukun .be -
lin.de/. We can also include o he digi al pla o ms and channels in his ca ego y, such as wikis, o-
ums, mic oblogging, ideo sha ing, communi y g oups, and o he ools o enable ci izens and o he
s akeholde s o sha e hei iews and opinions. The second ca ego y includes online da a sou ces ha
p o ide egional and na ional da a, such as he na ional OGD po al. These sou ces can also p o ide
ci y-le el da a and o he se ices. S ill, om he ci y’s poin o iew, hese sou ces a e no usually
ele an o he conside a ion ega ding he de elopmen o he open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y
con ex . We ound a speci ic ype o po al is, a sma ci ies’ pla o m, ha cen alizes da ase s om
mo e ci ies in one place and ca ego izes hem acco ding o p ojec s o a ge ed a eas. These compo-
nen s and hei ela ionships a e shown in Figu e 12.
Figu e 12. Componen s and ela ionships o he open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con ex
Finally, we ound ha concep s ha should be conside ed since hey a ec /shape he ecosys em a e:
1) s akeholde s and hei oles, 2) phases o he da a li ecycle, in which a s akeholde pa icipa es in
he ecosys em, 3) echnical and echnological in as uc u e, 4) gene ic se ices and pla o ms, 5)
human capaci ies and skills o bo h p o ide s and consume s, 6) sma ci y domains ( hema ic ca e-
go ies) as he a ge ed a eas o da a euse, 7) ex e nali ies a ec ing goals, policy, and esou ces, 8)
le el o (de)cen aliza ion o da a sou ces – de elopmen , es ic ions, 9) pe cep ion o impo ance
and suppo om public o icials, and 10) use in e ace, use expe ience, and usabili y.
Ou de ini ion is es ablished based on he knowledge and expe ience o he expe s in ol ed and
obse a ions made du ing he abo e-desc ibed s udy. The open da a ecosys em in he sma ci y con-
ex can be de ined as "sys ema ic e o s o in eg a e ICT and echnologies in o ci y li e o deli e
ci izen-cen ic, be e -quali y se ices, solu ions o ci y p oblems wi h open da a published h ough
he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e." I can also be iewed as a pa o he ansi ion o
he knowledge economy. I is also a pa o a local e-go e nmen sys em, and i is usually conside ed
one o he e-go e nmen se ices. Gene ally, all hese app oaches o sma ness and sma open da a
se ices e ol ed om he concep o e-go e nmen and espec i e websi es ha ha e been upg aded
o mee he needs o sma ci ies.
The de ini ion o he open da a ecosys em and i s desc ip ion aims o be gene al and include all com-
ponen s we ound. Howe e , some a ia ions o his ecosys em can be iden i ied based on he p e-
dominan componen s o he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e. Ou s udy has iden i ied he
ollowing ypes o ecosys ems:
● Type 1: The ci y’s OGD po al is he cen e o he da a in as uc u e, and all OGD, including
hose labeled as sma , a e published and cen alized h ough i . Fo his ype o open da a
ecosys em, o he websi es ha had p e iously p o ided open da a o o he se ices o access
public sec o in o ma ion ha e been eplaced by he OGD po al. The ocus is on da ase s,
p o iding ea u es o wo k wi h hem, euse hem, and make all da a eques s anspa en in
one place.
● Type 2: This ecosys em also usually has he OGD po al as he cen al poin , bu o he po als
and pla o ms publish open da a. The sma da a po al and online ci y dashboa ds ocusing
on di e en dimensions such as anspo , heal h, ai quali y, e c., a e impo an componen s
o his ecosys em.
● Type 3: A decen alized ype o ecosys em ha includes many componen s such as OGD
po al, sma da a po al, geoda a po al, e c. Howe e , i inc eases he ecosys em’s complex-
i y, which is mo e di icul o manage and less usable o s akeholde s.
● Type 4: The sma ci y po al ocused on p ojec s and se ices is usually he cen e o his
ecosys em, bu i is no he p io i y o p o ide da a and app op ia e ea u es o euse hem.
Mos se ices a e de eloped by public sec o o ganiza ions, esea ch ins i u ions, o busi-
nesses and p o ided o ci izens.
● Type 5: Apa om he ci y’s OGD po al, he e a e addi ional anspa ency-, pa icipa ion-,
collabo a ion-, and coope a ion-o ien ed websi es and po als o suppo he o ma ion and
imp o emen o ela ions be ween s akeholde s. This ype o ecosys em is ocused on p o-
cesses o imp o e open da a euse.
4.4 Recommenda ions and bes p ac ices
Based on he po als’ assessmen s, we can assign each ci y a ma u i y le el ( ollowing he sco e scale
p esen ed abo e) and sugges ecommenda ions and bes p ac ices o mo e om he cu en ma u i y
le el o he aimed (highe ) one. Ou s udy makes i possible o d aw gene al conclusions and de ine
speci ic, case-by-case ecommenda ions. The sel -de e mina ion o ecommenda ions based on he
esul s ob ained may be done in a leas wo ways: (1) he sub-dimensional o dimensional, o (2)
po al-wised. The i s app oach supposes he iden i ica ion o speci ic sub-dimensions ha ha e been
assessed as poo ly implemen ed and which should be a subjec o imp o emen s, hei u he in-
spec ion, and imp o emen . The la e e e s o he iden i ica ion o be e po als, gene ally o in
e ms o a speci ic (sub-)dimension, which can be used by he holde s o he ele an sma ci y po als
as an example o be examined, and which bes p ac ices o be adop ed on he po al conce ned. This
may include passi e and isola ed in es iga ion o he po al conce ned and he leading one(s) and
es ablishing coope a ion wi h hem, whe e his seems possible, e.g., neighbo ing ci ies o coun ies.
Howe e , i is possible o p o ide mo e gene al ecommenda ions, a he han he po al-wised, con-
side ing he p e-de ined anspa ency ma u i y le els and open da a ecosys ems and he cu en body
o knowledge.
In addi ion o he (sub-)dimension-wised assessmen o po als, he app op ia e ma u i y le el can be
iden i ied. Depending on he ma u i y le el o he po al, he gene al ecommenda ions can be de ined.
They a e p o ided in Table 3. In o he wo ds, e y poo ly pe o ming po als alling a Le el #1 o
ma u i y should es ablish o mal p ocedu es o publishing da a. In his case, he anspa ency e o s
a e likely alling o each da a p o ide , which should be changed by es ablishing ela ionships be-
ween he componen s o he ecosys em and by es ablishing o imp o ing he engagemen o s ake-
holde s. In his way, he cu en gaps and he way o make imp o emen s can be de e mined, which
can and should hen be accompanied by ea u e-wised imp o emen s based on he esul s o he ex-
pe s’ assessmen , as well as iden i ying ac ions o be made, e.g., wha ea u es a ec he engagemen
o s akeholde s.
Table 3. Recommenda ions o imp o ing he ma u i y le el
Cu en and a ge ed
le els
Recommenda ions
Le el #1 o Le el #2
● de ine o mal p ocedu es o publishing open (go e nmen ) da a,
● documen and communica e hese p ocedu es wi h s akeholde s,
● es ablish ela ionships be ween he componen s o he ecosys em,
● es ablish o imp o e engagemen o s akeholde s.
Le el #2 o Le el #3
● iden i y and implemen ac ions and ac i i ies o in ol e s akeholde s and
encou age hem o euse da a,
● ensu e he possibili y o p o ide eedback, collec i and use o de ining
agenda,
● de e mine he cu en and imp o e he le el o au oma ion o he open
da a ecosys em and i s componen s.
Le el #3 o Le el #4
● ensu e ha p ocedu es a e based on he bes p ac ices,
● cons an ly iden i y and moni o s akeholde s and hei needs,
● op imize componen s and ela ionships be ween hem o he ci y's en i-
onmen and he equi emen s and needs o in ol ed s akeholde s.
Be ends e al. (2020) epo ed ha sma ci y s a egies a e impo an d i e s o open da a, as a mo e
c osslinked ci y and he use o in elligen de ices lead o many use ul da a ha can be used o imp o e
he quali y o li e in he ci y. This equi es solid da a managemen sys ems and emphasis on p omo ing
he e-use o hese da a o elease he alue hey con ain. This is impo an because i acili a es he
in e ope abili y be ween di e en sys ems, and da a po als can mo e easily o e come ce ain ba ie s
by sha ing and exchanging bes p ac ices and expe iences. Thus, he mos impo an s ep in de elop-
ing he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e in which all componen s a e p o ided o he des-
igna ed pu pose (da a se ice), and all a e well in e aced wi h each o he .
Ou s udy e inces c i ical compliance issues wi h anspa ency equi emen s o open go e nmen
da a. O he eigh dimensions, public engagemen , collabo a ion, and pa icipa ion ecei ed he lowes
● an open da a ecosys em in he con ex o a sma ci y has been concep ualized, and i s key
componen s we e de e mined conside ing he da a-cen ic and da a-d i en in as uc u e and
o he componen s and ela ionships, using he sys em heo y app oach;
● i e ypes o cu en open da a ecosys ems ha e been de ined based on he dominan compo-
nen s o da a in as uc u e.
The la e opens a new ho izon o esea ch in sus ainable and socially esilien sma ci ies h ough
open da a and ci izen-cen e ed anspa en sma ci y go e nance. This should con ibu e o imp o -
ing cu en da a ecosys ems and building sus ainable, anspa en , ci izen-cen e ed, and socially e-
silien open da a-d i en sma ci ies. I also makes a call o u he s udies in his a ea. Ou o he
pape s will in oduce a mo e de ailed classi ica ion and desc ip ion o a ious ypes o open da a
ecosys ems, hei componen s, and ecommenda ions o hei imp o emen s. Also, ega ding he
weigh ing o (sub-)dimensions, we plan o explo e di e en weigh ing schemes and how hey could
a ec he anspa ency ma u i y and de elopmen o open da a ecosys ems.
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