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A one-yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and
associa ed in-class and o al physical ac i i y
© The Au ho (s) 2020
Accep ed e sion (Final d a )
G ås én, A o; Yli-Piipa i, Sami; Huh iniemi, Mikko; Salin, Kaspe ; Hakonen, Ha o;
Jaakkola, Timo
G ås én, A., Yli-Piipa i, S., Huh iniemi, M., Salin, K., Hakonen, H., & Jaakkola, T. (2021). A one-
yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and associa ed in-
class and o al physical ac i i y. Eu opean Physical Educa ion Re iew, 27(3), 436-454.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1356336X20957356
2021
Running head: BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1
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A one-yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and
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associa ed in-class and o al physical ac i i y
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 2
Abs ac
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This s udy examined basic psychological need sa is ac ions o compe ence, au onomy, and social
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ela edness in physical educa ion (PE) and hei con ibu ions o accele ome e -based in-class and
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o al mode a e o igo ous physical ac i i y (MVPA) ac oss a one-yea ollow-up. Pa icipan s we e
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523 s uden s (gi ls 280, boys 243; Mage = 11.26 ± .31) and he da a we e collec ed using sel - epo s
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and wais -wo n accele ome e s. The key indings we e 1) compe ence and social ela edness need
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sa is ac ion a baseline (T0) p edic ed o al MVPA a ollow-up (T1) ia o al MVPA a T0, 2) in-
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class MVPA a T0 p edic ed o al MVPA a T1 ia o al MVPA a T0, 3) in-class MVPA was
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di ec ly associa ed wi h o al MVPA a T0 and T1, and 4) boys sco ed highe han gi ls on
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compe ence and ela edness need sa is ac ion a T0. These indings indica e ha he need
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sa is ac ions o compe ence and social ela edness in PE a e cen al componen s acili a ing he
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g ea es inc eases in o al MVPA pa icipa ion. To imp o e s uden ou comes, i is essen ial ha all
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child en ecei e posi i e and sa is ying PE expe iences. Enhancing he eadiness and capabili y o
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p e- and in-se ice eache s h ough eache aining p og ammes is i al o aising awa eness o he
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basic psychological need sa is ac ions behind au onomous mo i a ion and g ea e MVPA
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engagemen .
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Keywo ds
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compe ence, au onomy, social ela edness, school, c oss-lagged model
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3
In oduc ion
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Apa om many ad an ages, mode n li es yles ha e changed in less bene icial ways. Fo example,
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only 30% o child en mee he cu en guidelines o 60 minu es o daily mode a e o igo ous
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physical ac i i y (MVPA), wi h boys being mo e physically ac i e han gi ls (T emblay e al.,
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2016). MVPA is de ined as all physical ac i i ies, such as b isk walking, unning, o ac i e games,
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ha inc ease he hea a e and cause apid b ea hing (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2018). I has
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been p oposed ha physical educa ion (PE) is he mos impo an cos -e ec i e way o inc easing
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egula MVPA a he popula ion le el, as i eaches he majo i y o school-aged child en (Basse e
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al., 2013). Howe e , achie ing he objec i es o PE, including li e-long engagemen in physical
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ac i i y, is challenging i child en a e no mo i a ed o ac i ely pa icipa e du ing hei PE classes
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(N oumanis, 2001). Despi e he g owing body o s udies on MVPA- ela ed mo i a ion (De Meye e
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al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Wang e al., 2016), unde s anding o he associa ions be ween
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psychological need sa is ac ions, as posi ed in he Sel -de e mina ion Theo y (SDT; Deci and Ryan,
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1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017), and accele ome e -based MVPA sco es in PE o e a p olonged
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pe iod, is lacking. This s udy examined hese associa ions ac oss one yea in a sample o school-
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aged child en.
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School PE is planned and p og essi e cu icula lea ning, which is deli e ed o all s uden s
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and in ol es aspec s o “lea ning o mo e” (becoming mo e physically compe en ) and “mo ing o
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lea n” (lea ning h ough mo emen ) (Ha is, 2015). One o he main objec i es o school PE is o
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p o ide s uden s wi h an exposu e ha will build up hei in e es owa d in-class and ou -o -school
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MVPA (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014). In Finland, whe e his s udy ook place,
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schools, aking local condi ions in o accoun , design hei own cu icula wi hin he amewo k o
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he na ional cu iculum. Typically, child en in g ades h ee o six ecei e 90 minu es o PE weekly
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(Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014). In many schools, gi ls and boys a e augh
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sepa a ely in gende -speci ic PE g oups. Based on p e ious s udies, child en’s MVPA du ing PE
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 4
classes depends on many ac o s, such as skill le els (Fai clough and S a on, 2006), lesson hemes
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(Slinge land, 2014), gende (Slinge land, 2014), he lesson enue (Me sh and Fai clough, 2010),
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esou ces a ailable (Le in e al., 2001), eache specialisa ion (Sallis e al., 1997), and class size
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(McKenzie e al., 2000). Since p e ious esea ch has shown mo i a ion o be an impo an
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de e minan o in-class MVPA, inc easing a en ion has been paid o he ole o PE mo i a ion in
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o al MVPA (N oumanis and S andage, 2009; Van aja e al., 2017).
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SDT (Deci and Ryan, 1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017) has been ound ad an ageous as a
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heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding beha iou al p ocesses in he PE con ex . Acco ding o
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SDT, he basis o mo i a ional beha iou lies in he sa is ac ion o basic psychological needs o
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compe ence, au onomy, and social ela edness (Deci and Ryan, 1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017).
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Need o compe ence e e s o he need o be success ul in an ac i i y (Ryan and Deci, 2017).
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Au onomy is he need o engage in ac i i ies o g ow h, oli ion, and willingness, and social
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ela edness he need o eel connec ed and in e ac wi h o he s. I school PE helps s uden s o mee
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o sa is y hese needs by inc easing hei pe cep ions o e icacy in gi en ac i i ies (compe ence),
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inc easing hei oppo uni ies o de elop in e es o alue in ac i i ies (au onomy), and suppo ing
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and encou aging hei ela ionships wi h hei eache s and pee s ( ela edness), s uden s a e likely o
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be mo e au onomously mo i a ed (i.e. engage in ac i i ies o g ow h, s imula ion, and enjoymen )
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o pa icipa e in PE. In he PE con ex , some s udies ha e ound ha compe ence need sa is ac ion is
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he s onges p edic o o highe au onomous mo i a ion (S andage e al., 2005; Taylo e al., 2010).
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Despi e his, he cu en ocus in he esea ch li e a u e is he combina ion o need sa is ac ion wi h
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need us a ion (Chen e al., 2015; Ryan e al., 2016; Wa bu on e al., 2020), as hey ha e been
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shown o co-occu wi h di e en ial e ec s on he ou comes expe ienced by young people in
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lea ning se ings such as school PE (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Sun e al.,
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2017; Wang e al., 2016). In line wi h he objec i es o he Finnish na ional PE cu iculum (Finnish
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Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014), he p esen s udy ocused on need sa is ac ions o e
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 5
us a ions, as he sa is ac ions may ha e p o ec i e e ec s e en when need us a ion is
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expe ienced (Wa bu on e al., 2020). Hence, o op imise au onomous mo i a ion in PE, posi i e
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need sa is ac ions could be enhanced (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Sun e al.,
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2017; Wang e al., 2016). Empi ical e idence suppo s his assump ion as he need sa is ac ion o
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compe ence (Cox e al., 2008; G ås én and Wa , 2017), au onomy (Cha zisa an is and Hagge ,
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2009; Lonsdale e al., 2009) and social ela edness (G ås én and Wa , 2017; Taylo e al., 2010)
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ha e been shown o be associa ed wi h bo h o al MVPA engagemen and in-class MVPA. In
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addi ion, associa ions be ween in-class and o al MVPA ha e been ound in school-based PE
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s udies (Dale e al., 2000; G ås én e al., 2019).
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Wi h espec o gende , gi ls ha e been ound o epo less compe ence (Mou a idis e al.,
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2015; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014) and au onomy need sa is ac ion (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Soini
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e al., 2007) bu mo e ela edness need sa is ac ion in PE han boys (G ås én and Wa , 2017). Some
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s udies ha e ound no gende di e ences in ela edness sa is ac ion among school s uden s
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(Mou a idis e al., 2015; Xiang e al., 2017) o ha boys epo ed highe ela edness need
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sa is ac ion han gi ls (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014).
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To summa ise, he impac o SDT-based mo i a ion in he PE con ex has been widely
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esea ched (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Wang e al., 2016). The mos
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ele an applica ion o SDT in PE pedagogy is ha a eache can mo i a e s uden s o engage and
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lea n in class h ough suppo ing need sa is ac ions (Chang e al., 2016). In e en ion s udies aimed
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a inc easing s uden s’ sel -de e mined mo i a ion in PE a e well-documen ed in he li e a u e
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(Ael e man e al., 2014; Cha zisa an is and Hagge , 2009; F anco and Co e ón, 2017). O he h ee
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needs, mos p e ious in e en ion s udies ha e aimed a p o iding au onomy suppo in PE classes
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as a way o s imula ing s uden s’ mo i a ion (Chang e al., 2016). I has also been ound ha
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class oom expe iences o au onomy and compe ence in PE a e in luenced mo e by eache s han
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pee s, whe eas ela edness is in luenced by bo h pee s and eache s (Vasconcellos e al., 2019).
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 6
Despi e he la ge body o p e ious SDT-based s udies on he opic o PE, se e al impo an issues
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emain unclea . Fo example, i is la gely unknown how changes in all h ee basic psychological
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need sa is ac ions in school PE con ibu e o MVPA in PE and, mo e impo an ly, o o al MVPA
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o e ime. A ecen e iew by Vans eenkis e e al. (2020) and a need p o ile s udy by Wa bu on e
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al. (2020) concluded ha mo e longi udinal wo k on need sa is ac ions o e ime is needed.
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P e ious s udies conduc ed among elemen a y school child en (Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014),
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seconda y school (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ra elle and Duchesne, 2014) and uni e si y s uden s
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(Gille e al., 2019) ha e e ealed conside able he e ogenei y in need sa is ac ion ajec o ies.
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This ollow-up s udy ex ends p e ious esea ch on he opic by in es iga ing he longi udinal
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ela ionships be ween he h ee psychological need sa is ac ions in PE and in-class and o al MVPA.
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In addi ion o need sa is ac ion s udies wi h adolescen s (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ra elle and
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Duchesne, 2014), i would be also impo an o examine he longi udinal associa ions be ween need
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sa is ac ions and MVPA sco es o e ime in elemen a y school child en, as i is a his s age ha he
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decline in physical ac i i y usually begins (Slinge land, 2014; Telama e al., 2005; T emblay e al,
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2016). Since boys ha e been ound o be mo e physically ac i e (T emblay e al., 2016; Yli-Piipa i
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e al., 2012) and sco e highe on compe ence (Fai clough, 2003; Yli-Piipa i e al., 2012) and
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au onomy needs (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Soini e al., 2007) han gi ls, and con lic ing indings ha e
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been epo ed o social ela edness need sa is ac ion be ween gi ls and boys (G ås én and Wa ,
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2017; Mou a idis e al., 2015; N oumanis e al., 2009; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014; Xiang e al.,
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2017), gende di e ences we e also examined o e ime. The p esen indings may be u ilised o
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de elop mo e e ec i e PE eaching p ac ices o ul il basic need sa is ac ions, especially in younge
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child en, as i is c ucial ha child en ha e posi i e physical ac i i y expe iences in PE du ing hei
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elemen a y school yea s (Jaakkola e al., 2019).
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Mind ul o hese conside a ions, he speci ic aims o his s udy we e 1) o examine he
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associa ions be ween he need sa is ac ion o compe ence, au onomy, social ela edness, in-class
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 7
MVPA, and o al MVPA ac oss a pe iod o one yea (Figu e 1) and 2) o analyse gende di e ences
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in hese associa ions, means, and a iances o e ime. Based on he cu en li e a u e e iew, highe
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sa is ac ion o he needs o compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness was expec ed o be posi i ely
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linked wi h highe in-class MVPA and o al MVPA a baseline and also a ollow-up, al hough
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hese associa ions ha e no been p e iously in es iga ed in a ollow-up design. Posi i e associa ions
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be ween in-class and o al MVPA we e also expec ed. Gi ls we e expec ed o epo highe social
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ela edness need sa is ac ion, while boys we e belie ed o sco e highe on compe ence and
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au onomy need sa is ac ion.
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[Figu e 1 he e]
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Me hods
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Pa icipan s and p ocedu e
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Pa icipan s we e 523 (gi ls 280, boys 243) Finnish g ade i e child en aged 11 o 13 wi h a mean
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age o 11.26 ± .31 yea s a he beginning o he da a collec ion. Child en we e ec ui ed om 18
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andomly selec ed public-sec o schools in Sou he n (26% o s uden s) and Cen al (74%) Finland.
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The sample dis ibu ion e lec s he basic cha ac e is ics o Finnish schools (i.e. Finnish-speaking,
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middle-size schools wi h app ox. 500 s uden s pe school wi h no ankings, compa isons o
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compe i ion be ween s uden s, schools o egions, and e e y school se ing he same na ional goals
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and d awing om he same pool o uni e si y- ained eache s). Th ough di ec con ac wi h he
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schools’ p incipals, all g ade i e s uden s we e in i ed o pa icipa e. Child en ep esen ed 38 s udy
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g oups augh by class oom eache s, who we e he same a bo h T0 and T1. The o al numbe o
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child en comple ing he su ey was 510 (T0) and 473 (T1) and wi h accele ome e da a 415 (T0)
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and 274 (T1). All s uden s pa icipa ed in egula PE classes ( wo x 45 minu es o PE pe week), no
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s uden s wi h special needs pa icipa ed in he s udy, al hough he oppo uni y was gi en o all
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 8
s uden s equally. Class sizes a ied be ween schools, s uden s ypically being augh PE in g oups
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o 16 o 28 s uden s. All eache s we e specialised in elemen a y school educa ion, bu had been
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ained o each PE as well. The con en o all PE classes ocused p ima ily on de eloping
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undamen al mo emen skills, i.e. unning, jumping, and h owing in socce and ack and ield
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ac i i ies (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014).
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The i s measu emen phase was conduc ed in Augus -Sep embe 2017 (T0) and he second
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du ing he same mon hs in 2018 (T1). Bo h measu emen s we e implemen ed using he same
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p ocedu es. S uden s answe ed o he ques ionnai es in he schools’ compu e labs o class ooms
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unde he supe ision o eache s and esea che s. S uden s we e encou aged o answe hones ly,
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and hey we e assu ed ha hei esponses we e con iden ial. Child en we e ad ised ask o help i
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needed and old ha hei pa icipa ion was op ional and ha hey could wi hd aw a any ime
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wi hou any consequences. To implemen he objec i e MVPA measu emen s, esea che s en e ed
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he s uden s’ demog aphic de ails and ga e hem ins uc ions on how o use he ac i i y moni o s.
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Teache s collec ed he accele ome e s and he esea che s downloaded he da a using he
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manu ac u e ’s so wa e (Ac ili e 3.6.0, Ac iG aph). Pa icipa ion was olun a y and was no
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ewa ded wi h ex a c edi s. S uden s who e u ned signed pa en al consen s we e pe mi ed o
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pa icipa e in he s udy. S uden s who had a medical condi ion o physical inju ies epo ed by
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pa en s be o e he commencemen o he s udy we e excluded. The e hical commi ee o he local
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uni e si y app o ed he s udy.
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Measu es
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Demog aphic in o ma ion was collec ed du ing PE classes in he same weeks as he MVPA
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measu emen s. Heigh (130 o 172 cm, M = 148 ± 7 cm) and weigh (26 o 76 kg, M = 41.5 ± 8.5
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kg) we e measu ed. Body mass index (14 o 33, M = 19 ± 2.9) was calcula ed (kg/m2) using he cu -
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o poin s o 12 o 16 yea s old gi ls (22.14 o 24.54) and boys (21.56 o 24.19) p esen ed by Cole
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 15
likely o be simila ac oss cul u es (Chen e al., 2015), s a egies in oduced o suppo compe ence
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sa is ac ion in PE classes may bes wo k in Finnish o o he less au ho i a ian school sys ems. In he
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Finnish school sys em, ela ionships be ween eache s and s uden s ends owa ds in o mali y,
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meaning ha s uden s ind i easy o app oach hei eache s (Kauppi and Pö hölä, 2012). In school
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cul u es wi h mo e o mal eache -s uden ela ionships, such me hods may need some
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modi ica ion. As suppo ing compe ence need sa is ac ion in PE classes appea s o be impo an in
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ensu ing posi i e MVPA engagemen o e ime, i would be c ucial o iden i y s uden s, whose
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le el o compe ence sa is ac ion is low. This may be e en mo e aluable han iewing he ansi ion
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o e ime i sel as a isk o poo s uden ou comes (Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014).
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Second, in line wi h p e iously es ablished associa ions (G ås én and Wa , 2017; Taylo e
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al., 2010) social ela edness sa is ac ion a baseline was ela ed wi h o al MVPA a ollow-up ia
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baseline MVPA. Child en who epo ed posi i e ela edness need sa is ac ion when engaged in PE
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ac i i ies we e gene ally mo e physically ac i e. This inding unde lines he impo ance o he
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social aspec s o PE lessons o o al MVPA engagemen . To suppo social ela edness need
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sa is ac ion ac oss PE lessons, s uden s could be gi en oppo uni ies in hei lea ning eams o
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de elop hei con en knowledge and e ine hei pe o mance h ough pee eaching ins uc ional
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asks (S andage and Ryan, 2012; Wallhead e al., 2013). Fu he mo e, s uden s could be p o ided
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wi h a well-s uc u ed en i onmen ha gi es clea guidelines (open eache -s uden
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communica ion) and oppo uni ies o social lea ning (coope a ion be ween s uden s), p o ides
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op imal challenges, and o e s de ailed eedback on how o achie e desi ed ou comes (Taylo and
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N oumanis, 2007). Gi en ha some p e ious s udies ha e e ealed di ec associa ions be ween
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la ge class sizes and highe le els o an isocial beha iou (Ree es, 2010), class sizes should be
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judiciously conside ed, when g ouping PE s uden s. I classes a e oo la ge, he PE eache does no
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ha e enough ime o gi e de ailed s uden eedback as a way o op imising lea ning ou comes. All
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such imp o emen s ely on good coope a i e wo king a angemen s be ween eache s, s uden s, and
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 16
o he school pe sonnel, including school p incipals, who play impo an oles in suppo ing clea
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and consis en communica ion ia he c ea ion o a posi i e school clima e (Smi h e al., 2014).
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F om pe spec i e o PE eache s, a emp s o implemen espec ul coope a ion be ween schools and
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amilies could suppo social ela edness need sa is ac ion and he posi i e de elopmen o he
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s uden -s uden as well as eache -s uden ela ionship (Ald up e al., 2018). S uden s in u n could
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make a conscious e o o be posi i e ole models o o he s and demons a e good spo smanship
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wi hin he bounda ies se in coope a ion by eache s and s uden s (Smi h e al., 2014).
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An opposi e and unexpec ed inding o he p e ious esul s in he ield (Cha zisa an is and
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Hagge , 2009; Lonsdale e al., 2009) was he nega i e ela ionship be ween au onomy and o al
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MVPA. In o he wo ds, s uden s wi h highe o al MVPA sco es epo ed lowe au onomy
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sa is ac ion in PE classes. Based on he cu en da a, i is di icul o d aw clea easons behind his
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nega i e associa ion. One possible explana ion may be ha PE lessons du ing he measu emen
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pe iod did no suppo s uden s’ au onomy need sa is ac ion, al hough s uden s we e physically
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ac i e ou side PE lessons, o ins ance when pa icipa ing in leisu e spo s. This could be he case,
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o ins ance, when s uden s a e p o ided wi h ac i i ies ha hey dislike o ind less in e es ing
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(Dooli le and Ruka ina, 2014). I is possible ha he lesson hemes (Slinge land, 2014) o
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esou ces a ailable (Le in e al., 2001) du ing he measu emen pe iod did no suppo he need o
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au onomy, leading s uden s o epo low au onomy sco es. I should be men ioned ha Finnish
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school PE is no an elec i e subjec bu compulso y o all g ade 1 o 9 s uden s. Hence, i canno be
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assumed ha s uden s´ au onomy need sa is ac ion is ully me in all PE lessons. The associa ions
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could ha e been posi i e i he measu emen pe iod had co e ed se e al PE lessons. Fo example,
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Cha zisa an is and Hagge (2009) collec ed PE da a du ing a 5-week in e en ion. Ree e (2009)
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sugges s se e al s a egies o acili a e posi i e au onomy need sa is ac ion in PE classes. Fo
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ins ance, eache s could p o ide explana o y a ionales (a icula e he some imes unmen ioned use
397
unde lying a eache ’s eques ), ely on non-con olling language (in o ma ional communica ion
398
BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 17
o en helps s uden s o diagnose and sol e hei mo i a ional p oblems), display pa ience by
399
allowing s uden s he ime hey need o sel -paced lea ning o occu (gi e s uden s ime o wo k in
400
hei own way), and acknowledge and accep s uden s’ exp essions o nega i e a ec ( ea
401
s uden s’ complain s as alid eac ions o imposed demands and s uc u es). Al hough i is di icul
402
o explain he cu en nega i e associa ion, i migh , based on p e ious esea ch indings, be ui ul
403
o p omo e au onomy in cu iculum-based ac i i ies in PE classes. I success ul, his is likely o
404
ansla e in o highe o al MVPA sco es, which is needed ac oss he li e-span (T emblay e al.,
405
2016).
406
The esul s also showed he impo ance o MVPA in PE classes and i s con ibu ion o o al
407
MVPA engagemen . As expec ed, baseline MVPA in PE classes p edic ed o al MVPA a ollow-
408
up. Speci ically, in-class MVPA accoun ed, on a e age, o 37% o o al MVPA in all s uden s o e
409
he s udy pe iod. This esul suppo s p e ious Finnish (G ås én e al., 2015; 2019) and in e na ional
410
(Bailey e al., 2012) indings. The p esen o al MVPA sco es indica ed ha child en’s MVPA
411
le els we e insu icien , which is a ma e o g ea conce n. Many po en ial s a egies can be
412
deployed o inc ease he amoun o MVPA ime in PE classes. Schools could, o ins ance, e iew
413
class sizes, educe ime spen in locke ooms, and implemen ins an ac i i ies ins ead o si ing and
414
wai ing o ins uc ions a he beginning and end o he class (McKenzie e al. 2000), es ablish
415
ou ines o he mo e e icien supply o equipmen by le ing s uden s assis wi h he ca e and
416
p ope s o age o PE eaching ma e ials (G ås én e al., 2017), in eg a e objec i e de ices in o PE
417
classes o moni o MVPA beha iou (S and and Reede , 2013), and eassess MVPA ime and use
418
he esul s o e ine and imp o e p ac ice (F eedson e al., 2012; McKenzie e al. 2000). I is clea
419
ha s uden s need mo e MVPA han schools alone can p o ide. Hence, ensu ing ha hey ha e
420
sa is ying and posi i e PE expe iences may acili a e he adop ion o a mo e ac i e li es yle ou side
421
o PE.
422
BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 18
Finally, in line wi h p e ious s udies (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014),
423
boys had highe baseline compe ence need sa is ac ion. Con a y o some p e ious e idence, boys
424
also had highe baseline social ela edness need sa is ac ion han gi ls. Compa ed o an ea lie
425
Finnish s udy epo ing opposi e esul s (G ås én and Wa , 2017), i is possible ha he boys in he
426
p esen sample expe ienced mo e oppo uni ies o in e ac wi h pee s in ou -o -school ac i i ies. I
427
so, hey may also mani es as highe social ela edness sa is ac ion sco es in PE classes. Howe e ,
428
Howie e al. (2010) epo ed ha child en who pa icipa ed mo e equen ly in spo s had highe
429
social skill sco es han hose who pa icipa ed less equen ly in spo s. This may also explain he
430
di e ences be ween g oups in he cu en s udy. Many p e ious s udies ha e epo ed ha
431
in e ac ion wi h pee s plays a c i ical ole in he de elopmen o child en’s social compe ence
432
(B anchi e al., 2013; Gi o d-Smi h and B ownell, 2003) which, al hough no he same, is closely
433
associa ed wi h SDT-based social ela edness. I is also impo an o emembe ha physical
434
appea ance, physical de elopmen , and bodily changes in ea ly adolescen gi ls appea o be
435
associa ed wi h nega i e pe cep ions o social ela edness (C a e al., 2003). I so, his may be
436
e lec ed in he p esen lowe sco es in gi ls. I has been sugges ed ha pe cep ions o social
437
ela edness among adolescen gi ls may be enhanced by emphasizing iendship and social
438
in e ac ion in PE classes and minimising social compa isons (C a e al., 2003). Acco ding o
439
Gibbons (2014), a socially suppo i e lea ning en i onmen in PE could be c ea ed by including
440
coope a i e games and eam-building ac i i ies, helping s uden s o de elop connec ions wi h
441
eache s and pee s (lea n he names o you s uden s, use iceb eake s), using g oup o a ion (by he
442
end o he semes e e e yone has wo ked wi h e e yone else), ein o cing posi i e beha iou ,
443
a oiding s e eo ypical language (“gi ls’ push-ups”), asking s uden s how o c ea e a sa e
444
en i onmen , and implemen ing a espec ul p ocess o choosing eamma es (you mus accep he
445
i s pe son who esponds, i someone does no ha e a g oup in i e hem in o you g oup). Thus,
446
he e a e many p ac ical ways o enhancing social in e ac ion in PE lessons.
447
BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 19
448
Limi a ions and u u e esea ch di ec ions
449
The s eng hs o he p esen s udy we e he ela i ely la ge and na ionally ep esen a i e sample
450
size, ollow-up design, and he use o objec i e MVPA measu es. The s udy ne e heless has i s
451
limi a ions. Fi s , sel - epo ed need sa is ac ions o compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness may
452
a y in accu acy mo e han objec i e measu emen p o ocols, such as obse a ion ools. Second,
453
school-based “ eal-li e” ollow-up s udies a e always ulne able in ha i is no possible o con ol
454
o all he ac o s unde lying physical ac i i y beha iou . Finally, his s udy ocused on need
455
sa is ac ions ha acco ded wi h he objec i es o he na ional PE cu iculum, and hus need
456
us a ions we e no included in he measu emen s. Fu u e s udies could in es iga e eaching
457
s a egies ha could help s anda dise p ac ices in PE ha suppo au onomy, compe ence, and
458
ela edness. As his s udy ocused on s uden -s uden ela ionships in espec o social ela edness
459
need sa is ac ion, i would also be in e es ing o look mo e closely a s uden - eache in e ac ions. In
460
addi ion, he associa ions be ween psychological need sa is ac ions, us a ions, and ac ual MVPA
461
beha iou could be examined using ollow-up designs wi h child en and adolescen s a di e en
462
ages.
463
464
Conclusion
465
The p esen esul s showed he impo ance o in-class MVPA and i s con ibu ion o o al MVPA
466
engagemen . To inc ease he amoun o daily MVPA ime, i would seem o be c ucial o suppo
467
he need sa is ac ions o compe ence and social ela edness in PE classes. This is especially
468
impo an among gi ls, as hey no mally acc ue ewe daily MVPA minu es han boys. An inc eased
469
use o need-cen ed eaching s a egies could p omo e s uden engagemen in he PE con ex .
470
Child en could also be mo e hea ily in ol ed in he planning p ocess and implemen a ion o hei
471
BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 20
PE lessons. Such ac ions could enhance child en’s sense o au onomy, compe ence, social
472
ela edness, in-class MVPA and, mos impo an ly, o al MVPA engagemen o e he long e m
473
Conce ns a ising om hese indings we e ha o al MVPA declined o e ime in bo h gi ls
474
and boys, and a smalle p opo ion o child en me he cu en MVPA guidelines a ollow-up.
475
Schools alone canno p o ide all he MVPA child en need. To help child en achie e a physically
476
ac i e li es yle la e in hei li es, i is essen ial o ensu e ha all s uden s enjoy posi i e and
477
sa is ying PE expe iences. To aise awa eness o he basic psychological need sa is ac ions and
478
imp o e s uden ou comes, i would be i al, h ough eache aining p og ammes, o enhance he
479
eadiness and capabili y o p e-se ice eache s, as hey will play a c ucial ole in s imula ing
480
au onomous mo i a ion and g ea e MVPA engagemen .
481
482
Acknowledgemen s
483
Au ho s wan o hank P o esso Richa d Ryan (Ins i u e o Posi i e Psychology and Educa ion,
484
Aus alian Ca holic Uni e si y) o p e- e iewing he i s e sion o his manusc ip .
485
486
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
487
The au ho s decla e no po en ial con lic s o in e es s wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship,
488
and/o publica ion o his a icle.
489
490
Funding
491
This s udy was inancially suppo ed by he Finnish Minis y o Educa ion and Cul u e and he O o
492
A. Malm Founda ion, Finland.
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BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 21
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