A one-year follow-up of basic psychological need satisfactions in physical education and associated in-class and total physical activity

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ A one-yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and associa ed in-class and o al physical ac i i y © The Au ho (s) 2020 Accep ed e sion (Final d a ) G ås én, A o; Yli-Piipa i, Sami; Huh iniemi, Mikko; Salin, Kaspe ; Hakonen, Ha o; Jaakkola, Timo G ås én, A., Yli-Piipa i, S., Huh iniemi, M., Salin, K., Hakonen, H., & Jaakkola, T. (2021). A one- yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and associa ed in- class and o al physical ac i i y. Eu opean Physical Educa ion Re iew, 27(3), 436-454. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1356336X20957356 2021 Running head: BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A one-yea ollow-up o basic psychological need sa is ac ions in physical educa ion and 8 associa ed in-class and o al physical ac i i y 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 2 Abs ac 26 This s udy examined basic psychological need sa is ac ions o compe ence, au onomy, and social 27 ela edness in physical educa ion (PE) and hei con ibu ions o accele ome e -based in-class and 28 o al mode a e o igo ous physical ac i i y (MVPA) ac oss a one-yea ollow-up. Pa icipan s we e 29 523 s uden s (gi ls 280, boys 243; Mage = 11.26 ± .31) and he da a we e collec ed using sel - epo s 30 and wais -wo n accele ome e s. The key indings we e 1) compe ence and social ela edness need 31 sa is ac ion a baseline (T0) p edic ed o al MVPA a ollow-up (T1) ia o al MVPA a T0, 2) in- 32 class MVPA a T0 p edic ed o al MVPA a T1 ia o al MVPA a T0, 3) in-class MVPA was 33 di ec ly associa ed wi h o al MVPA a T0 and T1, and 4) boys sco ed highe han gi ls on 34 compe ence and ela edness need sa is ac ion a T0. These indings indica e ha he need 35 sa is ac ions o compe ence and social ela edness in PE a e cen al componen s acili a ing he 36 g ea es inc eases in o al MVPA pa icipa ion. To imp o e s uden ou comes, i is essen ial ha all 37 child en ecei e posi i e and sa is ying PE expe iences. Enhancing he eadiness and capabili y o 38 p e- and in-se ice eache s h ough eache aining p og ammes is i al o aising awa eness o he 39 basic psychological need sa is ac ions behind au onomous mo i a ion and g ea e MVPA 40 engagemen . 41 42 Keywo ds 43 compe ence, au onomy, social ela edness, school, c oss-lagged model 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 3 In oduc ion 51 Apa om many ad an ages, mode n li es yles ha e changed in less bene icial ways. Fo example, 52 only 30% o child en mee he cu en guidelines o 60 minu es o daily mode a e o igo ous 53 physical ac i i y (MVPA), wi h boys being mo e physically ac i e han gi ls (T emblay e al., 54 2016). MVPA is de ined as all physical ac i i ies, such as b isk walking, unning, o ac i e games, 55 ha inc ease he hea a e and cause apid b ea hing (Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, 2018). I has 56 been p oposed ha physical educa ion (PE) is he mos impo an cos -e ec i e way o inc easing 57 egula MVPA a he popula ion le el, as i eaches he majo i y o school-aged child en (Basse e 58 al., 2013). Howe e , achie ing he objec i es o PE, including li e-long engagemen in physical 59 ac i i y, is challenging i child en a e no mo i a ed o ac i ely pa icipa e du ing hei PE classes 60 (N oumanis, 2001). Despi e he g owing body o s udies on MVPA- ela ed mo i a ion (De Meye e 61 al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Wang e al., 2016), unde s anding o he associa ions be ween 62 psychological need sa is ac ions, as posi ed in he Sel -de e mina ion Theo y (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 63 1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017), and accele ome e -based MVPA sco es in PE o e a p olonged 64 pe iod, is lacking. This s udy examined hese associa ions ac oss one yea in a sample o school- 65 aged child en. 66 School PE is planned and p og essi e cu icula lea ning, which is deli e ed o all s uden s 67 and in ol es aspec s o “lea ning o mo e” (becoming mo e physically compe en ) and “mo ing o 68 lea n” (lea ning h ough mo emen ) (Ha is, 2015). One o he main objec i es o school PE is o 69 p o ide s uden s wi h an exposu e ha will build up hei in e es owa d in-class and ou -o -school 70 MVPA (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014). In Finland, whe e his s udy ook place, 71 schools, aking local condi ions in o accoun , design hei own cu icula wi hin he amewo k o 72 he na ional cu iculum. Typically, child en in g ades h ee o six ecei e 90 minu es o PE weekly 73 (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014). In many schools, gi ls and boys a e augh 74 sepa a ely in gende -speci ic PE g oups. Based on p e ious s udies, child en’s MVPA du ing PE 75 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 4 classes depends on many ac o s, such as skill le els (Fai clough and S a on, 2006), lesson hemes 76 (Slinge land, 2014), gende (Slinge land, 2014), he lesson enue (Me sh and Fai clough, 2010), 77 esou ces a ailable (Le in e al., 2001), eache specialisa ion (Sallis e al., 1997), and class size 78 (McKenzie e al., 2000). Since p e ious esea ch has shown mo i a ion o be an impo an 79 de e minan o in-class MVPA, inc easing a en ion has been paid o he ole o PE mo i a ion in 80 o al MVPA (N oumanis and S andage, 2009; Van aja e al., 2017). 81 SDT (Deci and Ryan, 1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017) has been ound ad an ageous as a 82 heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding beha iou al p ocesses in he PE con ex . Acco ding o 83 SDT, he basis o mo i a ional beha iou lies in he sa is ac ion o basic psychological needs o 84 compe ence, au onomy, and social ela edness (Deci and Ryan, 1985; 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2017). 85 Need o compe ence e e s o he need o be success ul in an ac i i y (Ryan and Deci, 2017). 86 Au onomy is he need o engage in ac i i ies o g ow h, oli ion, and willingness, and social 87 ela edness he need o eel connec ed and in e ac wi h o he s. I school PE helps s uden s o mee 88 o sa is y hese needs by inc easing hei pe cep ions o e icacy in gi en ac i i ies (compe ence), 89 inc easing hei oppo uni ies o de elop in e es o alue in ac i i ies (au onomy), and suppo ing 90 and encou aging hei ela ionships wi h hei eache s and pee s ( ela edness), s uden s a e likely o 91 be mo e au onomously mo i a ed (i.e. engage in ac i i ies o g ow h, s imula ion, and enjoymen ) 92 o pa icipa e in PE. In he PE con ex , some s udies ha e ound ha compe ence need sa is ac ion is 93 he s onges p edic o o highe au onomous mo i a ion (S andage e al., 2005; Taylo e al., 2010). 94 Despi e his, he cu en ocus in he esea ch li e a u e is he combina ion o need sa is ac ion wi h 95 need us a ion (Chen e al., 2015; Ryan e al., 2016; Wa bu on e al., 2020), as hey ha e been 96 shown o co-occu wi h di e en ial e ec s on he ou comes expe ienced by young people in 97 lea ning se ings such as school PE (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Sun e al., 98 2017; Wang e al., 2016). In line wi h he objec i es o he Finnish na ional PE cu iculum (Finnish 99 Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014), he p esen s udy ocused on need sa is ac ions o e 100 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 5 us a ions, as he sa is ac ions may ha e p o ec i e e ec s e en when need us a ion is 101 expe ienced (Wa bu on e al., 2020). Hence, o op imise au onomous mo i a ion in PE, posi i e 102 need sa is ac ions could be enhanced (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Sun e al., 103 2017; Wang e al., 2016). Empi ical e idence suppo s his assump ion as he need sa is ac ion o 104 compe ence (Cox e al., 2008; G ås én and Wa , 2017), au onomy (Cha zisa an is and Hagge , 105 2009; Lonsdale e al., 2009) and social ela edness (G ås én and Wa , 2017; Taylo e al., 2010) 106 ha e been shown o be associa ed wi h bo h o al MVPA engagemen and in-class MVPA. In 107 addi ion, associa ions be ween in-class and o al MVPA ha e been ound in school-based PE 108 s udies (Dale e al., 2000; G ås én e al., 2019). 109 Wi h espec o gende , gi ls ha e been ound o epo less compe ence (Mou a idis e al., 110 2015; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014) and au onomy need sa is ac ion (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Soini 111 e al., 2007) bu mo e ela edness need sa is ac ion in PE han boys (G ås én and Wa , 2017). Some 112 s udies ha e ound no gende di e ences in ela edness sa is ac ion among school s uden s 113 (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Xiang e al., 2017) o ha boys epo ed highe ela edness need 114 sa is ac ion han gi ls (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014). 115 To summa ise, he impac o SDT-based mo i a ion in he PE con ex has been widely 116 esea ched (De Meye e al., 2014; Hae ens e al., 2013; 2015; Wang e al., 2016). The mos 117 ele an applica ion o SDT in PE pedagogy is ha a eache can mo i a e s uden s o engage and 118 lea n in class h ough suppo ing need sa is ac ions (Chang e al., 2016). In e en ion s udies aimed 119 a inc easing s uden s’ sel -de e mined mo i a ion in PE a e well-documen ed in he li e a u e 120 (Ael e man e al., 2014; Cha zisa an is and Hagge , 2009; F anco and Co e ón, 2017). O he h ee 121 needs, mos p e ious in e en ion s udies ha e aimed a p o iding au onomy suppo in PE classes 122 as a way o s imula ing s uden s’ mo i a ion (Chang e al., 2016). I has also been ound ha 123 class oom expe iences o au onomy and compe ence in PE a e in luenced mo e by eache s han 124 pee s, whe eas ela edness is in luenced by bo h pee s and eache s (Vasconcellos e al., 2019). 125 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 6 Despi e he la ge body o p e ious SDT-based s udies on he opic o PE, se e al impo an issues 126 emain unclea . Fo example, i is la gely unknown how changes in all h ee basic psychological 127 need sa is ac ions in school PE con ibu e o MVPA in PE and, mo e impo an ly, o o al MVPA 128 o e ime. A ecen e iew by Vans eenkis e e al. (2020) and a need p o ile s udy by Wa bu on e 129 al. (2020) concluded ha mo e longi udinal wo k on need sa is ac ions o e ime is needed. 130 P e ious s udies conduc ed among elemen a y school child en (Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014), 131 seconda y school (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ra elle and Duchesne, 2014) and uni e si y s uden s 132 (Gille e al., 2019) ha e e ealed conside able he e ogenei y in need sa is ac ion ajec o ies. 133 This ollow-up s udy ex ends p e ious esea ch on he opic by in es iga ing he longi udinal 134 ela ionships be ween he h ee psychological need sa is ac ions in PE and in-class and o al MVPA. 135 In addi ion o need sa is ac ion s udies wi h adolescen s (N oumanis e al., 2009; Ra elle and 136 Duchesne, 2014), i would be also impo an o examine he longi udinal associa ions be ween need 137 sa is ac ions and MVPA sco es o e ime in elemen a y school child en, as i is a his s age ha he 138 decline in physical ac i i y usually begins (Slinge land, 2014; Telama e al., 2005; T emblay e al, 139 2016). Since boys ha e been ound o be mo e physically ac i e (T emblay e al., 2016; Yli-Piipa i 140 e al., 2012) and sco e highe on compe ence (Fai clough, 2003; Yli-Piipa i e al., 2012) and 141 au onomy needs (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Soini e al., 2007) han gi ls, and con lic ing indings ha e 142 been epo ed o social ela edness need sa is ac ion be ween gi ls and boys (G ås én and Wa , 143 2017; Mou a idis e al., 2015; N oumanis e al., 2009; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014; Xiang e al., 144 2017), gende di e ences we e also examined o e ime. The p esen indings may be u ilised o 145 de elop mo e e ec i e PE eaching p ac ices o ul il basic need sa is ac ions, especially in younge 146 child en, as i is c ucial ha child en ha e posi i e physical ac i i y expe iences in PE du ing hei 147 elemen a y school yea s (Jaakkola e al., 2019). 148 Mind ul o hese conside a ions, he speci ic aims o his s udy we e 1) o examine he 149 associa ions be ween he need sa is ac ion o compe ence, au onomy, social ela edness, in-class 150 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 7 MVPA, and o al MVPA ac oss a pe iod o one yea (Figu e 1) and 2) o analyse gende di e ences 151 in hese associa ions, means, and a iances o e ime. Based on he cu en li e a u e e iew, highe 152 sa is ac ion o he needs o compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness was expec ed o be posi i ely 153 linked wi h highe in-class MVPA and o al MVPA a baseline and also a ollow-up, al hough 154 hese associa ions ha e no been p e iously in es iga ed in a ollow-up design. Posi i e associa ions 155 be ween in-class and o al MVPA we e also expec ed. Gi ls we e expec ed o epo highe social 156 ela edness need sa is ac ion, while boys we e belie ed o sco e highe on compe ence and 157 au onomy need sa is ac ion. 158 159 [Figu e 1 he e] 160 161 Me hods 162 Pa icipan s and p ocedu e 163 Pa icipan s we e 523 (gi ls 280, boys 243) Finnish g ade i e child en aged 11 o 13 wi h a mean 164 age o 11.26 ± .31 yea s a he beginning o he da a collec ion. Child en we e ec ui ed om 18 165 andomly selec ed public-sec o schools in Sou he n (26% o s uden s) and Cen al (74%) Finland. 166 The sample dis ibu ion e lec s he basic cha ac e is ics o Finnish schools (i.e. Finnish-speaking, 167 middle-size schools wi h app ox. 500 s uden s pe school wi h no ankings, compa isons o 168 compe i ion be ween s uden s, schools o egions, and e e y school se ing he same na ional goals 169 and d awing om he same pool o uni e si y- ained eache s). Th ough di ec con ac wi h he 170 schools’ p incipals, all g ade i e s uden s we e in i ed o pa icipa e. Child en ep esen ed 38 s udy 171 g oups augh by class oom eache s, who we e he same a bo h T0 and T1. The o al numbe o 172 child en comple ing he su ey was 510 (T0) and 473 (T1) and wi h accele ome e da a 415 (T0) 173 and 274 (T1). All s uden s pa icipa ed in egula PE classes ( wo x 45 minu es o PE pe week), no 174 s uden s wi h special needs pa icipa ed in he s udy, al hough he oppo uni y was gi en o all 175 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 8 s uden s equally. Class sizes a ied be ween schools, s uden s ypically being augh PE in g oups 176 o 16 o 28 s uden s. All eache s we e specialised in elemen a y school educa ion, bu had been 177 ained o each PE as well. The con en o all PE classes ocused p ima ily on de eloping 178 undamen al mo emen skills, i.e. unning, jumping, and h owing in socce and ack and ield 179 ac i i ies (Finnish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, 2014). 180 The i s measu emen phase was conduc ed in Augus -Sep embe 2017 (T0) and he second 181 du ing he same mon hs in 2018 (T1). Bo h measu emen s we e implemen ed using he same 182 p ocedu es. S uden s answe ed o he ques ionnai es in he schools’ compu e labs o class ooms 183 unde he supe ision o eache s and esea che s. S uden s we e encou aged o answe hones ly, 184 and hey we e assu ed ha hei esponses we e con iden ial. Child en we e ad ised ask o help i 185 needed and old ha hei pa icipa ion was op ional and ha hey could wi hd aw a any ime 186 wi hou any consequences. To implemen he objec i e MVPA measu emen s, esea che s en e ed 187 he s uden s’ demog aphic de ails and ga e hem ins uc ions on how o use he ac i i y moni o s. 188 Teache s collec ed he accele ome e s and he esea che s downloaded he da a using he 189 manu ac u e ’s so wa e (Ac ili e 3.6.0, Ac iG aph). Pa icipa ion was olun a y and was no 190 ewa ded wi h ex a c edi s. S uden s who e u ned signed pa en al consen s we e pe mi ed o 191 pa icipa e in he s udy. S uden s who had a medical condi ion o physical inju ies epo ed by 192 pa en s be o e he commencemen o he s udy we e excluded. The e hical commi ee o he local 193 uni e si y app o ed he s udy. 194 195 Measu es 196 Demog aphic in o ma ion was collec ed du ing PE classes in he same weeks as he MVPA 197 measu emen s. Heigh (130 o 172 cm, M = 148 ± 7 cm) and weigh (26 o 76 kg, M = 41.5 ± 8.5 198 kg) we e measu ed. Body mass index (14 o 33, M = 19 ± 2.9) was calcula ed (kg/m2) using he cu - 199 o poin s o 12 o 16 yea s old gi ls (22.14 o 24.54) and boys (21.56 o 24.19) p esen ed by Cole 200 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 15 likely o be simila ac oss cul u es (Chen e al., 2015), s a egies in oduced o suppo compe ence 349 sa is ac ion in PE classes may bes wo k in Finnish o o he less au ho i a ian school sys ems. In he 350 Finnish school sys em, ela ionships be ween eache s and s uden s ends owa ds in o mali y, 351 meaning ha s uden s ind i easy o app oach hei eache s (Kauppi and Pö hölä, 2012). In school 352 cul u es wi h mo e o mal eache -s uden ela ionships, such me hods may need some 353 modi ica ion. As suppo ing compe ence need sa is ac ion in PE classes appea s o be impo an in 354 ensu ing posi i e MVPA engagemen o e ime, i would be c ucial o iden i y s uden s, whose 355 le el o compe ence sa is ac ion is low. This may be e en mo e aluable han iewing he ansi ion 356 o e ime i sel as a isk o poo s uden ou comes (Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014). 357 Second, in line wi h p e iously es ablished associa ions (G ås én and Wa , 2017; Taylo e 358 al., 2010) social ela edness sa is ac ion a baseline was ela ed wi h o al MVPA a ollow-up ia 359 baseline MVPA. Child en who epo ed posi i e ela edness need sa is ac ion when engaged in PE 360 ac i i ies we e gene ally mo e physically ac i e. This inding unde lines he impo ance o he 361 social aspec s o PE lessons o o al MVPA engagemen . To suppo social ela edness need 362 sa is ac ion ac oss PE lessons, s uden s could be gi en oppo uni ies in hei lea ning eams o 363 de elop hei con en knowledge and e ine hei pe o mance h ough pee eaching ins uc ional 364 asks (S andage and Ryan, 2012; Wallhead e al., 2013). Fu he mo e, s uden s could be p o ided 365 wi h a well-s uc u ed en i onmen ha gi es clea guidelines (open eache -s uden 366 communica ion) and oppo uni ies o social lea ning (coope a ion be ween s uden s), p o ides 367 op imal challenges, and o e s de ailed eedback on how o achie e desi ed ou comes (Taylo and 368 N oumanis, 2007). Gi en ha some p e ious s udies ha e e ealed di ec associa ions be ween 369 la ge class sizes and highe le els o an isocial beha iou (Ree es, 2010), class sizes should be 370 judiciously conside ed, when g ouping PE s uden s. I classes a e oo la ge, he PE eache does no 371 ha e enough ime o gi e de ailed s uden eedback as a way o op imising lea ning ou comes. All 372 such imp o emen s ely on good coope a i e wo king a angemen s be ween eache s, s uden s, and 373 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 16 o he school pe sonnel, including school p incipals, who play impo an oles in suppo ing clea 374 and consis en communica ion ia he c ea ion o a posi i e school clima e (Smi h e al., 2014). 375 F om pe spec i e o PE eache s, a emp s o implemen espec ul coope a ion be ween schools and 376 amilies could suppo social ela edness need sa is ac ion and he posi i e de elopmen o he 377 s uden -s uden as well as eache -s uden ela ionship (Ald up e al., 2018). S uden s in u n could 378 make a conscious e o o be posi i e ole models o o he s and demons a e good spo smanship 379 wi hin he bounda ies se in coope a ion by eache s and s uden s (Smi h e al., 2014). 380 An opposi e and unexpec ed inding o he p e ious esul s in he ield (Cha zisa an is and 381 Hagge , 2009; Lonsdale e al., 2009) was he nega i e ela ionship be ween au onomy and o al 382 MVPA. In o he wo ds, s uden s wi h highe o al MVPA sco es epo ed lowe au onomy 383 sa is ac ion in PE classes. Based on he cu en da a, i is di icul o d aw clea easons behind his 384 nega i e associa ion. One possible explana ion may be ha PE lessons du ing he measu emen 385 pe iod did no suppo s uden s’ au onomy need sa is ac ion, al hough s uden s we e physically 386 ac i e ou side PE lessons, o ins ance when pa icipa ing in leisu e spo s. This could be he case, 387 o ins ance, when s uden s a e p o ided wi h ac i i ies ha hey dislike o ind less in e es ing 388 (Dooli le and Ruka ina, 2014). I is possible ha he lesson hemes (Slinge land, 2014) o 389 esou ces a ailable (Le in e al., 2001) du ing he measu emen pe iod did no suppo he need o 390 au onomy, leading s uden s o epo low au onomy sco es. I should be men ioned ha Finnish 391 school PE is no an elec i e subjec bu compulso y o all g ade 1 o 9 s uden s. Hence, i canno be 392 assumed ha s uden s´ au onomy need sa is ac ion is ully me in all PE lessons. The associa ions 393 could ha e been posi i e i he measu emen pe iod had co e ed se e al PE lessons. Fo example, 394 Cha zisa an is and Hagge (2009) collec ed PE da a du ing a 5-week in e en ion. Ree e (2009) 395 sugges s se e al s a egies o acili a e posi i e au onomy need sa is ac ion in PE classes. Fo 396 ins ance, eache s could p o ide explana o y a ionales (a icula e he some imes unmen ioned use 397 unde lying a eache ’s eques ), ely on non-con olling language (in o ma ional communica ion 398 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 17 o en helps s uden s o diagnose and sol e hei mo i a ional p oblems), display pa ience by 399 allowing s uden s he ime hey need o sel -paced lea ning o occu (gi e s uden s ime o wo k in 400 hei own way), and acknowledge and accep s uden s’ exp essions o nega i e a ec ( ea 401 s uden s’ complain s as alid eac ions o imposed demands and s uc u es). Al hough i is di icul 402 o explain he cu en nega i e associa ion, i migh , based on p e ious esea ch indings, be ui ul 403 o p omo e au onomy in cu iculum-based ac i i ies in PE classes. I success ul, his is likely o 404 ansla e in o highe o al MVPA sco es, which is needed ac oss he li e-span (T emblay e al., 405 2016). 406 The esul s also showed he impo ance o MVPA in PE classes and i s con ibu ion o o al 407 MVPA engagemen . As expec ed, baseline MVPA in PE classes p edic ed o al MVPA a ollow- 408 up. Speci ically, in-class MVPA accoun ed, on a e age, o 37% o o al MVPA in all s uden s o e 409 he s udy pe iod. This esul suppo s p e ious Finnish (G ås én e al., 2015; 2019) and in e na ional 410 (Bailey e al., 2012) indings. The p esen o al MVPA sco es indica ed ha child en’s MVPA 411 le els we e insu icien , which is a ma e o g ea conce n. Many po en ial s a egies can be 412 deployed o inc ease he amoun o MVPA ime in PE classes. Schools could, o ins ance, e iew 413 class sizes, educe ime spen in locke ooms, and implemen ins an ac i i ies ins ead o si ing and 414 wai ing o ins uc ions a he beginning and end o he class (McKenzie e al. 2000), es ablish 415 ou ines o he mo e e icien supply o equipmen by le ing s uden s assis wi h he ca e and 416 p ope s o age o PE eaching ma e ials (G ås én e al., 2017), in eg a e objec i e de ices in o PE 417 classes o moni o MVPA beha iou (S and and Reede , 2013), and eassess MVPA ime and use 418 he esul s o e ine and imp o e p ac ice (F eedson e al., 2012; McKenzie e al. 2000). I is clea 419 ha s uden s need mo e MVPA han schools alone can p o ide. Hence, ensu ing ha hey ha e 420 sa is ying and posi i e PE expe iences may acili a e he adop ion o a mo e ac i e li es yle ou side 421 o PE. 422 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 18 Finally, in line wi h p e ious s udies (Mou a idis e al., 2015; Ull ich-F ench and Cox, 2014), 423 boys had highe baseline compe ence need sa is ac ion. Con a y o some p e ious e idence, boys 424 also had highe baseline social ela edness need sa is ac ion han gi ls. Compa ed o an ea lie 425 Finnish s udy epo ing opposi e esul s (G ås én and Wa , 2017), i is possible ha he boys in he 426 p esen sample expe ienced mo e oppo uni ies o in e ac wi h pee s in ou -o -school ac i i ies. I 427 so, hey may also mani es as highe social ela edness sa is ac ion sco es in PE classes. Howe e , 428 Howie e al. (2010) epo ed ha child en who pa icipa ed mo e equen ly in spo s had highe 429 social skill sco es han hose who pa icipa ed less equen ly in spo s. This may also explain he 430 di e ences be ween g oups in he cu en s udy. Many p e ious s udies ha e epo ed ha 431 in e ac ion wi h pee s plays a c i ical ole in he de elopmen o child en’s social compe ence 432 (B anchi e al., 2013; Gi o d-Smi h and B ownell, 2003) which, al hough no he same, is closely 433 associa ed wi h SDT-based social ela edness. I is also impo an o emembe ha physical 434 appea ance, physical de elopmen , and bodily changes in ea ly adolescen gi ls appea o be 435 associa ed wi h nega i e pe cep ions o social ela edness (C a e al., 2003). I so, his may be 436 e lec ed in he p esen lowe sco es in gi ls. I has been sugges ed ha pe cep ions o social 437 ela edness among adolescen gi ls may be enhanced by emphasizing iendship and social 438 in e ac ion in PE classes and minimising social compa isons (C a e al., 2003). Acco ding o 439 Gibbons (2014), a socially suppo i e lea ning en i onmen in PE could be c ea ed by including 440 coope a i e games and eam-building ac i i ies, helping s uden s o de elop connec ions wi h 441 eache s and pee s (lea n he names o you s uden s, use iceb eake s), using g oup o a ion (by he 442 end o he semes e e e yone has wo ked wi h e e yone else), ein o cing posi i e beha iou , 443 a oiding s e eo ypical language (“gi ls’ push-ups”), asking s uden s how o c ea e a sa e 444 en i onmen , and implemen ing a espec ul p ocess o choosing eamma es (you mus accep he 445 i s pe son who esponds, i someone does no ha e a g oup in i e hem in o you g oup). Thus, 446 he e a e many p ac ical ways o enhancing social in e ac ion in PE lessons. 447 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 19 448 Limi a ions and u u e esea ch di ec ions 449 The s eng hs o he p esen s udy we e he ela i ely la ge and na ionally ep esen a i e sample 450 size, ollow-up design, and he use o objec i e MVPA measu es. The s udy ne e heless has i s 451 limi a ions. Fi s , sel - epo ed need sa is ac ions o compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness may 452 a y in accu acy mo e han objec i e measu emen p o ocols, such as obse a ion ools. Second, 453 school-based “ eal-li e” ollow-up s udies a e always ulne able in ha i is no possible o con ol 454 o all he ac o s unde lying physical ac i i y beha iou . Finally, his s udy ocused on need 455 sa is ac ions ha acco ded wi h he objec i es o he na ional PE cu iculum, and hus need 456 us a ions we e no included in he measu emen s. Fu u e s udies could in es iga e eaching 457 s a egies ha could help s anda dise p ac ices in PE ha suppo au onomy, compe ence, and 458 ela edness. As his s udy ocused on s uden -s uden ela ionships in espec o social ela edness 459 need sa is ac ion, i would also be in e es ing o look mo e closely a s uden - eache in e ac ions. In 460 addi ion, he associa ions be ween psychological need sa is ac ions, us a ions, and ac ual MVPA 461 beha iou could be examined using ollow-up designs wi h child en and adolescen s a di e en 462 ages. 463 464 Conclusion 465 The p esen esul s showed he impo ance o in-class MVPA and i s con ibu ion o o al MVPA 466 engagemen . To inc ease he amoun o daily MVPA ime, i would seem o be c ucial o suppo 467 he need sa is ac ions o compe ence and social ela edness in PE classes. This is especially 468 impo an among gi ls, as hey no mally acc ue ewe daily MVPA minu es han boys. An inc eased 469 use o need-cen ed eaching s a egies could p omo e s uden engagemen in he PE con ex . 470 Child en could also be mo e hea ily in ol ed in he planning p ocess and implemen a ion o hei 471 BASIC NEED SATISFACTION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 20 PE lessons. Such ac ions could enhance child en’s sense o au onomy, compe ence, social 472 ela edness, in-class MVPA and, mos impo an ly, o al MVPA engagemen o e he long e m 473 Conce ns a ising om hese indings we e ha o al MVPA declined o e ime in bo h gi ls 474 and boys, and a smalle p opo ion o child en me he cu en MVPA guidelines a ollow-up. 475 Schools alone canno p o ide all he MVPA child en need. To help child en achie e a physically 476 ac i e li es yle la e in hei li es, i is essen ial o ensu e ha all s uden s enjoy posi i e and 477 sa is ying PE expe iences. To aise awa eness o he basic psychological need sa is ac ions and 478 imp o e s uden ou comes, i would be i al, h ough eache aining p og ammes, o enhance he 479 eadiness and capabili y o p e-se ice eache s, as hey will play a c ucial ole in s imula ing 480 au onomous mo i a ion and g ea e MVPA engagemen . 481 482 Acknowledgemen s 483 Au ho s wan o hank P o esso Richa d Ryan (Ins i u e o Posi i e Psychology and Educa ion, 484 Aus alian Ca holic Uni e si y) o p e- e iewing he i s e sion o his manusc ip . 485 486 Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s 487 The au ho s decla e no po en ial con lic s o in e es s wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, 488 and/o publica ion o his a icle. 489 490 Funding 491 This s udy was inancially suppo ed by he Finnish Minis y o Educa ion and Cul u e and he O o 492 A. 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