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Pa en al In ol emen in Ma h Homewo k : Links o Child en’s Pe o mance and
Mo i a ion
Silinskas, Gin au as; Kikas, E e
Silinskas, G., & Kikas, E. (2019). Pa en al In ol emen in Ma h Homewo k : Links o
Child en’s Pe o mance and Mo i a ion. Scandina ian Jou nal o Educa ional
Resea ch, 63(1), 17-37. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00313831.2017.1324901
2019
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Pa en al In ol emen in Ma h Homewo k: Links o
Child en’s Pe o mance and Mo i a ion
Gin au as Silinskas & E e Kikas
To ci e his a icle: Gin au as Silinskas & E e Kikas (2019) Pa en al In ol emen in Ma h
Homewo k: Links o Child en’s Pe o mance and Mo i a ion, Scandina ian Jou nal o Educa ional
Resea ch, 63:1, 17-37, DOI: 10.1080/00313831.2017.1324901
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00313831.2017.1324901
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Pa en al In ol emen in Ma h Homewo k: Links o Child en’s
Pe o mance and Mo i a ion
Gin au as Silinskas
a
and E e Kikas
b
a
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland;
b
Ins i u e o Na u al Sciences and Heal h,
Tallinn Uni e si y, Tallinn, Es onia
ABSTRACT
The p esen s udy examined he longi udinal associa ions be ween
child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al in ol emen in ma h homewo k
(con ol and suppo ) and hei ma h pe o mance and mo i a ion ( ask-
pe sis en homewo k beha io and ma h sel -concep ). Child en (n= 512)
epo ed hei pe cep ions conce ning pa en al in ol emen in six h-
g ade ma h homewo k. In g ades 3 and 6, child en comple ed ma h es s,
e alua ed own ma h sel -concep , and hei mo he s (n= 420) e alua ed
ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k. The esul s showed ha low sel -
concep in ma h p edic ed inc eased pa en al con ol, which in u n
ela ed o low ma h pe o mance, ask pe sis ence, and ma h sel -
concep . Second, pe cei ed pa en al suppo was ela ed o inc eased
ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k. Finally, pa en al con ol was especially
de imen al o boys’ ask pe sis ence and ma h sel -concep .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 1 Sep embe 2016
Accep ed 7 Ap il 2017
KEYWORDS
Pe cei ed pa en al con ol;
pe cei ed pa en al suppo ;
homewo k; ma h; ask
pe sis ence; ma h sel -
concep ; gende
Helping child en wi h homewo k is he mos ypical o m o pa en al in ol emen (e.g., 1.14 hou s
pe week in ou h h ough six h g ades o ma h in he USA [Pezdek, Be y, & Renno, 2002]), which
is assumed o con ibu e o child en’s success and mo i a ion in school subjec s. Howe e , esea ch
on he e iciency o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k on child en’s academic pe o mance has
shown mixed esul s ( o an o e iew, see Coope , Lindsay, & Nye, 2000; Hoo e -Dempsey e al.,
2001; Pa all, Coope , & Robinson, 2008; Pome an z, Moo man, & Li wack, 2007), and a much smal-
le numbe o s udies ha e in es iga ed he ela ions be ween pa en al in ol emen in homewo k
and child en’s mo i a ion (e.g., academic sel -concep and homewo k pe sis ence [Dumon , T au -
wein, Nagy, & Nagengas , 2014]). Se e al o he impo an issues also equi e u he a en ion. Fi s ,
oo ew longi udinal s udies ollow bo h child en’s pe o mance and mo i a ion (no only pe o m-
ance) ac oss ime in ela ion o pe cei ed pa en al assis ance wi h homewo k (Dumon e al., 2012,
2014). Second, p e ious esea ch ypically elied on pa en s’ epo s o he equency o homewo k
assis ance, making i impossible o de e mine child en’s pe cep ions and in e p e a ions o such
in ol emen . Thi d, mos s udies ha e analyzed homewo k in ol emen in gene al, wi hou ocusing
on a speci ic subjec (see Dumon e al., 2012; T au wein & Lüd ke, 2009, o excep ions). Howe e ,
pa en al assis ance wi h homewo k may a y depending on he subjec . Finally, o he bes o ou
knowledge, no s udies ha e examined i and how child en’s gende mode a es he associa ions
be ween he child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k and child en’s pe o m-
ance and mo i a ion.
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License (h p://
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o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way.
CONTACT Gin au as Silinskas [email p o ec ed] Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, P.O. Box 35,
40014 Jy äskylä, Finland
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
2019, VOL. 63, NO. 1, 17–37
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00313831.2017.1324901
Thus, he aim o he p esen s udy is o examine he longi udinal associa ions be ween child en’s
pe cep ions o pa en al in ol emen in ma h homewo k and child en’s ma h- ela ed pe o mance
and mo i a ion ( ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k and ma h sel -concep ; see Figu e 1) and he
di e ences in he longi udinal associa ions be ween boys and gi ls. Based on sociocul u al and social
cogni i e amewo ks ha emphasize ha people’s ac ions a e in luenced by hei in e p e a ions o
he si ua ions (e.g., Bandu a, 1993; Lu ia, 1976), we examined child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al
in ol emen in homewo k. D awing on sel -de e mina ion heo y (e.g., Ryan & Deci, 2000), we di -
e en ia ed be ween wo ypes o pa en al in ol emen : con olling and au onomous suppo i e
assis ance wi h homewo k (Dumon e al., 2012,2014; Núñez e al., 2015; Pome an z e al., 2007).
We chose ma h homewo k because child en o en s uggle wi h ma h asks; hus, ma h- ela ed
mo i a ion may play an impo an ole in ma h achie emen (Dumon e al., 2012,2014; Kikas &
Mägi, 2017; T au wein & Lüd ke, 2009).
Pe cei ed Pa en al In ol emen in Homewo k
Pa en al in ol emen in homewo k is a mul idimensional cons uc and o ms a pa o pa en ing.
While s udies examining gene al pa en ing ha e di e en ia ed ei he be ween pa en ing s yles
(au ho i a i e, au ho i a ian, pe missi e [see Baum ind, 1966]) o pa en ing dimensions (wa m h/
emo ional suppo , beha io al and psychological con ol [see Ba be , 1996; Skinne , Johnson, & Sny-
de , 2005]), esea ch on pa en ing in school con ex is o en based on he heo ies ha explain pa -
en al in ol emen in hei child en’s homewo k. One o he mos popula heo e ical amewo ks is
p oposed by sel -de e mina ion heo y (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Acco ding o he heo y, he eelings o
compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness a e essen ial o he de elopmen o a child’s mo i a ion and
skills (Ryan & Deci, 2000), and wo dis inc o ms o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k ha e been
examined (con ol and suppo ) ha di e en ially sa is y a child’s needs o compe ence, au onomy,
and ela edness. Pa en al con ol in homewo k si ua ions can be de ined as con ol and p essu e on
child en o comple e assignmen s (e.g., check i child en ha e comple ed hei homewo k assign-
men s; ge in ol ed in homewo k wi hou being asked by he child en; punish child en i homewo k
is no done), whe eas pa en al suppo can be de ined as he alue o pa en al assis ance as de e -
mined by hei child en (e.g., sensi i i y o child en’s need o suppo while doing homewo k;
Figu e 1. Theo e ical model o he ole o child-pe cei ed pa en al con ol and suppo in child en’s ma h pe o mance and
mo i a ion.
18 G. SILINSKAS AND E. KIKAS
a ailabili y in sol ing p oblems wi h homewo k when eques ed [Dumon e al., 2012,2014; Núñez
e al., 2015; Pome an z e al., 2007]). Au onomy suppo is ela ed o an au ho i a i e pa en ing s yle,
high emo ional suppo , and low psychological con ol, while con ol is ela ed o au ho i a ian pa -
en ing s yle, low emo ional suppo , and high psychological and beha io al con ol.
I has been shown ha pa en al con ol dec eases child en’s sense o au onomy, sense o compe-
ence, and e o in challenging lea ning si ua ions (Pome an z e al., 2007). In con as , allowing
child en o sol e p oblems by hemsel es and being a ailable o help i needed (i.e., p o iding chil-
d en wi h au onomy) inc ease child en’s sense o au onomy, sense o compe ence, and pe sis ence in
lea ning (Moo man & Pome an z, 2008). Thus, by unde mining eelings o au onomy, compe ence,
and ela edness, pa en al con ol can inhibi , whe eas pa en al suppo can enhance child en’s aca-
demics- ela ed mo i a ion and pe o mance. As i is possible ha child en and pa en s pe cei e
homewo k in ol emen di e en ly ( o a i udes, see Hen y, Mashbu n, & Konold, 2007), and chil-
d en’s in e p e a ions o he si ua ions guide hei own ac ions (Bandu a, 1993; Lu ia, 1976), i is
necessa y o ocus on child en’s pe cep ions o hei pa en s’in ol emen a he han pa en al
epo s o “objec i e”measu es o pa en al in ol emen .
Role o Pe cei ed Pa en al In ol emen in Child en’s Ma h Pe o mance and
Mo i a ion
P e ious esea ch indings on he associa ion be ween pa en al in ol emen in homewo k and chil-
d en’s pe o mance a e mixed ( o an o e iew, see Hill & Tyson, 2009; Pa all e al., 2008). In hei
me a-analysis, Pa all e al. (2008) examined h ee ypes o s udies on he equency o pa en al in ol-
emen —s udies wi h expe imen al manipula ions o pa en al in ol emen as well as na u alis ic
c oss-sec ional s udies ha did and did no con ol o con ounding a iables—and concluded
ha pa en al in ol emen in homewo k had “a bes a sligh ly posi i e o e all impac on achie e-
men ”(p. 1062). Recen heo e ical app oaches and empi ical s udies ha e emphasized ha i is
no quan i y bu quali y (i.e., how pa en s help) ha ma e s ( o a e iew, see Pome an z e al.,
2007). Empi ical s udies ha e shown a di ec link be ween he pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in
homewo k and child en’s achie emen : Pe cei ed pa en al homewo k con ol nega i ely ela es o
child en’s academic pe o mance (Dumon e al., 2012; Ka bach, Go schling, Spengle , Hegewald,
& Spina h, 2013; Le puscek & Zupancic, 2009; Núñez e al., 2015), whe eas pe cei ed pa en al home-
wo k suppo (e.g., a oiding di ec in ol emen when child en do no need help bu assis ing when
child en do need help) posi i ely ela es o academic pe o mance (e.g., Coope e al., 2000; Dumon
e al., 2012; Núñez e al., 2015; Pome an z e al., 2007).
I has also been sugges ed ha pa en al in ol emen in homewo k can be mo e ela ed o achie e-
men - ela ed mo i a ion han o academic pe o mance pe se (Pa all e al., 2008). The mo i a ion
li e a u e desc ibes a ew ypes o such achie emen - ela ed mo i a ion. One such mo i a ional con-
s uc is ask pe sis ence (as opposed o ask a oidance), which can be cha ac e ized as a ype o
beha io ha a child exhibi s when comple ing lea ning asks, such as by showing e o and s aying
de e mined when acing challenges (Ona su-A ilommi & Nu mi, 2000; Zhang, Nu mi, Kiu u, Le k-
kanen, & Aunola, 2011). Task pe sis ence in school asks is a o m o e o ul con ol (e.g., D ake,
Belsky, & Fea on, 2014) and has mainly been s udied as a gene al cons uc , no subjec -speci ic.
Task pe sis ence has consis en ly been ound o be ela ed o child en’s ma h achie emen (Kikas,
Pee s, & Hodges, 2014; Kikas, Pee s, Palu, & A anasje , 2009). Rega ding he links be ween pa en al
in ol emen in homewo k and child en’s ask pe sis ence, i can be expec ed ha child en’s pe cep-
ions o suppo i e homewo k in ol emen may ela e o au onomous lea ning and highe ask pe -
sis ence, whe eas child en’s pe cep ions o con olling homewo k in ol emen may ela e o highe
ask a oidance (Dumon e al., 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Ano he achie emen - ela ed mo i a ional cons uc is academic sel -concep . Typically, aca-
demic sel -concep is subjec -speci ic (Ma sh e al., 2015; Valen ine, DuBois, & Coope , 2004);
hus, in his s udy, we use he e m ma h sel -concep o e e o a collec ion o sel -pe cei ed belie s
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 19

and a i udes abou one’s own abili ies and compe ences in ma h (Bong & Skaal ik, 2003; Chiu &
Klassen, 2010; Ma sh e al., 2015). Ma h sel -concep has been shown o be posi i ely ela ed o chil-
d en’s achie emen (Kikas & Mägi, 2017; Le puscek & Zupancic, 2009; Valen ine e al., 2004). The
links be ween child en’s ma h sel -concep and pa en al in ol emen ha e been documen ed o a
lesse deg ee han hose o ask pe sis ence. Howe e , some e idence sugges s ha pa en al con ol
may inhibi sel -concep o abili y (Dumon e al., 2012). I can also be assumed ha pa en al suppo
o child’s lea ning may enhance sel -concep , al hough empi ical e idence has hus a ailed o
demons a e his associa ion (Dumon e al., 2012; Le puscek & Zupancic, 2009).
Role o Ma h-Rela ed Pe o mance and Mo i a ion in Child en’s Pe cep ion o Thei
Pa en s’Homewo k In ol emen
Despi e he basic assump ion in he p e ious esea ch ha pa en al in ol emen in homewo k p e-
dic s child en’s ou comes, i is also possible ha child en’s cha ac e is ics (e.g., pe o mance and
mo i a ion) impac he ways pa en s a e in ol ed in hei child en’s homewo k (Le in e al.,
1997; Pome an z & Ea on, 2001; Silinskas, Kiu u, Aunola, Le kkanen, & Nu mi, 2015). This “e oca-
i e e ec ”o child en’s cha ac e is ics, no only he ac i e e o s o he child (e.g., speci ic in i a-
ions [G een, Walke , Hoo e -Dempsey, & Sandle , 2007]), can in luence he eac ion o
signi ican o he s (e.g., pa en s and eache s [Nu mi, 2012; Nu mi & Kiu u, 2015]). Thus, also
based on he p e ious esea ch (Le in e al., 1997; Pome an z & Ea on, 2001; Silinskas e al.,
2015), i can be assumed ha child en’s poo pe o mance makes pa en s apply mo e con olling
and less au onomy suppo i e s a egies when assis ing hei child en wi h homewo k.
Apa om nume ous s udies on he e oca i e e ec o child en’s pe o mance on pa en al in ol-
emen in homewo k, much less is known abou he e oca i e e ec o child en’s mo i a ion on he
ypes o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k. As an excep ion, a ew s udies ound ha low ask pe -
sis ence p edic ed highe ma e nal con olling help (Kikas & Silinskas, 2016). Rega ding he e oca-
i e e ec o sel -concep , Dumon e al. (2012) did no ind ha gene al academic sel -concep
would p edic pe cei ed pa en al suppo . In con as , sel -concep and homewo k pe sis ence in
F ench as a second language we e ound o p edic gene al pe cei ed pa en al suppo (posi i ely)
and gene al pe cei ed pa en al con ol/in e e ence (nega i ely) (Dumon e al., 2012). Thus, chil-
d en’s lea ning- ela ed mo i a ion is likely o e oke ce ain ypes o pa en al in ol emen in home-
wo k— ha is, child en’s low ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k and ma h sel -concep can be an
implici call o help, causing pa en s o eac by p o iding mo e con ol and g an ing less au onomy
o hei child en conce ning homewo k.
Mode a ing Role o Child en’s Gende
I has been sugges ed ha associa ions be ween pa en al in ol emen and child en’s pe o mance
and mo i a ion can be di e en o boys and gi ls (Ca e & Woj kiewicz, 2000; G olnick & Slowiac-
zek, 1994). Some esea ch has indica ed ha , o e all, pa en s a e mo e in ol ed in hei daugh e s’
educa ion ( e sus sons’educa ion [Kei h & Lich man, 1992,1994]). Mo eo e , he ype o in ol e-
men may also di e be ween boys and gi ls. Fo ins ance, pa en s end o help hei sons mo e han
daugh e s in comple ing homewo k assignmen s (Coope e al., 2000) and check hei sons’home-
wo k mo e equen ly han ha o hei daugh e s (Ca e & Woj kiewicz, 2000). Pa en al in ol e-
men in boys’homewo k, compa ed o gi ls’homewo k, has been shown o be mo e con olling and
in usi e (Bhano & Jo ano ic, 2005; Dumon e al., 2012), whe eas gi ls end o ecei e mo e pa -
en al suppo han boys (Dumon e al., 2012).
S udies examining gende di e ences in ma h ha e shown mixed esul s, due in pa o child en’s
age and speci ics o he ask (Else-Ques , Hyde, & Linn, 2010). In p ima y school, some s udies ha e
ound no gende di e ences in ma h (e.g., Kikas e al., 2009; Lachance & Mazzocco, 2006), whe eas
o he s ha e demons a ed a small di e ence a o ing gi ls (see Halpe n e al., 2007). Gende
20 G. SILINSKAS AND E. KIKAS
di e ences in ma h may become mo e e iden when child en ge olde ; o ins ance, Dumon e al.
(2012) ound ha boys ge highe g ades in ma h han gi ls in eigh h g ade. Conce ning gende
di e ences in academics- ela ed mo i a ion, boys end o ha e highe academic sel -concep
(Dumon e al., 2012), especially in ma h and science, whe eas gi ls ha e been ound o show
mo e ask-pe sis en lea ning beha io han boys (Ona su-A ilommi & Nu mi, 2000; Paja es,
2002).
Thus a , esea ch on how gende mode a es he associa ion be ween pa en al in ol emen in
homewo k and child en’s mo i a ion is sca ce, and indings a e inconsis en . Some esea ch sugges s
ha he o e all e ec o pa en al in ol emen on s uden s’academic achie emen is simila o bo h
boys and gi ls (Hong, Yoo, You, & Wu, 2010; Silinskas, Niemi, Le kkanen, & Nu mi, 2013), while
o he s udies ha e shown ha he associa ions be ween pa en al assis ance on homewo k and chil-
d en’s ou comes a e s onge o boys han o gi ls (Pome an z e al., 2007; Silinskas e al., 2012).
Finally, i has been sugges ed ha he associa ions be ween pa en al in ol emen in homewo k
and child en’s pe o mance a e mo e nega i e o gi ls because gi ls a e mo e a ec ed by nega i e
eedback ha diminishes pe cei ed au onomy (e.g., Kas & Conno , 1988; Koes ne , Zucke man,
& Koes ne , 1989).
The Es onian Educa ional Sys em
Es onia, whe e he s udy was ca ied ou , is a good coun y o s udying he ela ions be ween pa -
en al in ol emen and achie emen as a g ea a ie y exis s in pa en al alue sys ems and p ac ices
(Tul is e & Kikas, 2010). Es onia’s social sys em has changed om au ho i a ian o democ a ic since
egaining independence om he So ie Union in 1991. Howe e , as social changes ake ime,
pa en s s ill hold alues and belie s mo e cha ac e is ic o he au ho i a ian socie y (see Tul is e &
Kikas, 2010), which may ha e an e ec on pa en al p ac ices in homewo k in ol emen and hei
associa ions wi h child en’s ma h pe o mance and mo i a ion as well. In Es onia, child en en e p i-
ma y school ( i s h ough six h g ades) a he age o 7. Typically, child en a e equi ed o comple e
homewo k om he beginning o hei school ca ee , and eache s usually exp ess s ong
expec a ions ha pa en s should ge in ol ed in hei child en’s homewo k. One class oom eache
eaches almos all he main subjec s (including ma h) du ing he i s h ee o ou yea s, while s a -
ing om i h g ade subjec eache s each sepa a e subjec s. The con en o ma h becomes mo e
demanding, wi h new opics added be ween hi d and six h g ades. Es onian child en ha e shown
good esul s in ma h in in e na ional compa a i e s udies (e.g., O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope -
a ion and De elopmen , 2012), bu hei es sco es on na ional-le el es s a y a lo (INNOVE, n.d.).
Mo eo e , in one Es onian s udy on homewo k p oblems in second and se en h g ades, pa en s
men ioned ma h as he main subjec in which child en needed help wi h homewo k (unpublished
da a).
The P esen S udy
The pu pose o his s udy is o examine he links be ween pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in home-
wo k and child en’s ma h pe o mance and mo i a ion ac oss hi d and six h g ades, and o unde -
s and how child en’s gende mode a es hese associa ions. The ollowing esea ch ques ions and
hypo heses we e in es iga ed.
(1) To wha ex en is pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in homewo k ela ed o child en’s ma h pe -
o mance and mo i a ion? Based on p e ious esea ch, we expec ed pe cei ed pa en al con ol o be
nega i ely ela ed o child en’s pe o mance and mo i a ion (Hill & Tyson, 2009; Silinskas e al.,
2015), whe eas pe cei ed pa en al suppo is posi i ely ela ed o he child en’s pe o mance and
mo i a ion (Coope e al., 2000; Pome an z e al., 2007) in six h g ade. Mo eo e , we expec ed
low pe o mance and low mo i a ion in hi d g ade o ha e a posi i e e ec on pe cei ed pa en al
con ol and a nega i e e ec on pe cei ed pa en al suppo in six h g ade (Le in e al., 1997; Silinskas
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 21
e al., 2015). We also examined o wha ex en he de elopmen o child en’s ma h skills and mo i -
a ion ac oss hi d o six h g ades a e media ed by pe cei ed pa en al con ol and suppo .
(2) To wha ex en a e he associa ions be ween pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in homewo k
and ma h- ela ed pe o mance and mo i a ion mode a ed by child en’s gende ? Based on he
mixed p e ious indings and lack o e idence on gende mode a ion in he ma h domain, we
did no de elop speci ic hypo heses, bu , a he , conside ed h ee possibili ies: (2a) no di e ences
exis be ween boys and gi ls (Hong e al., 2010), (2b) s onge associa ions exis be ween pe -
cei ed pa en al in ol emen and child en’s ou comes o boys ( e sus gi ls [Pome an z e al.,
2007; Silinskas e al., 2012]), and (2c) s onge associa ions exis o gi ls ( e sus boys [Kas &
Conno , 1988]).
We also con olled o he possible in luence o child en’s cogni i e abili y and ma e nal edu-
ca ion on child en’s ma h achie emen , mo i a ion, and pe cei ed pa en al assis ance wi h home-
wo k. I has been shown ha child en’s highe gene al abili y ela es o highe ma h skills
(Ka bach e al., 2013; Silinskas e al., 2013; Su, Doe , Johnson, Shi, & Spina h, 2015) and less e-
quen con olling help wi h homewo k (Silinskas e al., 2013; Su e al., 2015). Simila ly, highe pa -
en al educa ion p edic s be e ma h pe o mance (Ka bach e al., 2013; Su e al., 2015), less equen
help wi h homewo k (Silinskas e al., 2013), and highe homewo k suppo (Mo oni, Dumon ,
T au wein, Niggli, & Bae iswyl, 2015; Su e al., 2015).
Me hods
Pa icipan s and P ocedu e
This s udy is a pa o a la ge-scale longi udinal s udy ( he Kinde ga en-School S udy) ollowing
child en om kinde ga en o nin h g ade. Pa icipan s we e selec ed om kinde ga ens om
di e en pa s o Es onia, bo h he coun yside and owns. In school, hei classma es we e also
included. The pa icipa ing 28 schools (53 class ooms) we e om di e en pa s o Es onia. The
sample was highly homogeneous in e ms o hei e hnic and cul u al backg ound (e.g., Es onian-
speaking schools and s uden s). Mo he s we e asked o gi e hei w i en consen o hei child en’s
pa icipa ion in he s udy. Only child en whose pa en s ga e hei w i en consen o pa icipa e
(93%) we e included.
In his s udy, we included only he child en who pa icipa ed in hi d and six h g ades and
epo ed ha hei pa en s a leas some imes assis wi h ma h homewo k in six h g ade (n=
512). Then, he s udy pa icipan s (n= 512) we e compa ed o he child en who epo ed no
pa en al homewo k in ol emen a all (n= 115). The esul s showed ha ac oss bo h g ades
(g ade 3 and g ade 6) he s udy pa icipan s we e lowe in ma h pe o mance (p< .001), ma h
sel -concep (p< .001), and ma e nal a ings o ask pe sis ence (p< .01), sugges ing ha highe
achie ing and mo e mo i a ed s uden s epo ed hei pa en s no o be in ol ed wi h hei ma h
homewo k a all.
Child en
In he p esen s udy, child en’s da a (249 boys, 263 gi ls) om wo measu emen poin s we e
selec ed: he end o hi d g ade (9–10-yea -olds; Ap il 2010 and 2011; n= 379) and he end o
six h g ade (12–13-yea -olds; Ap il 2013 and 2014; n= 512). In Es onia, he composi ion o classes
s ays simila ac oss he beginning o p ima y school ( i s o hi d g ades) bu ends o change la e in
p ima y school ( ou h o six h g ades). In six h g ade, we included also new classma es o ea lie
pa icipan s, he e o e, he sample size in he six h g ade inc eased compa ed o he sample size
in he hi d g ade. T ained esea ch assis an s adminis e ed ques ionnai es in class oom se ings.
Ma h es s we e adminis e ed ei he by class eache s ( hi d g ade) o esea ch assis an s (six h
g ade).
22 G. SILINSKAS AND E. KIKAS
Mo he s
The mo he s o he child en we e asked o ill ou ques ionnai es a home a he same ime in hi d
and six h g ades. Ques ionnai es we e ecei ed om 473 hi d g ade mo he s and 338 six h g ade
mo he s. A o al o 34 o he mo he s had a basic educa ion (9 yea s o less o o mal educa ion),
270 had comple ed seconda y educa ion (10–12 yea s), and 169 ei he s udied in o had comple ed
a college o uni e si y.
Measu es
The psychome ic p ope ies o he mo he s’ques ionnai e and he child en’s measu es (i.e., alid
numbe o cases, means, s anda d de ia ions, eliabili ies [C onbach’sα], po en ial and ac ual anges
o he alues, and skewness) a e p esen ed in Table 1. The i ems o he ques ionnai es a e p esen ed
in Table 2.
Child en’s ques ionnai e
Pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in homewo k (six h g ade). Fi s , child en we e asked o epo how
o en hei pa en s help hem wi h ma h homewo k. Child en had o ma k one o he ollowing six
possibili ies: each day,once pe week,a couple o imes pe mon h,once pe mon h,less equen ly,o
no a all. Those who esponded no a all we e asked o skip he es o he ques ions conce ning
hei pe cep ions o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k.
Second, child en we e asked abou he ways pa en s help wi h ma h homewo k (see Table 2 o
exac i ems). The ques ionnai e was de eloped based on ea lie ques ionnai es (Dumon e al., 2012,
2014), bu o mula ed o be ma h-speci ic. The ques ionnai e assessed wo dimensions o in ol e-
men : (1) pe cei ed pa en al con ol and (2) pe cei ed pa en al suppo . Pe cei ed pa en al con ol
co esponded o he scale o “con ol”(Dumon e al., 2014) and pe cei ed pa en al suppo co e-
sponded o he scale o “suppo ”(Dumon e al., 2012) and “ esponsi eness”(Dumon e al., 2014),
which we e c ea ed and based on sel -de e mina ion heo y (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Ou ques ions we e
discussed wi hin a g oup o esea che s wi h educa ional and psychological educa ional back-
g ounds. The ques ionnai e was pilo ed in wo class ooms including child en o he same age. As
his was he i s ime ha he ques ionnai e was used in he Es onian con ex , we conduc ed an
Table 1. Psychome ic p ope ies o all s udy a iables.
Range
Va iable NMSD
Reliabili y
(C onbach’sα) Po en ial Ac ual Skewness
Pe cei ed pa en al homewo k in ol emen du ing ma h homewo k
Con ol (G ade 6) 509 2.09 .79 .79 1–41–4 .35
Suppo (G ade 6) 510 3.54 .51 .74 1–4 1.25–4–.1.22
Child ou comes
Ma h pe o mance (G ade 3) 379 16.98 4.34 .92 0–26 0–26 –.55
Ma h pe o mance (G ade 6) 510 8.92 2.48 .53 0–14 0–14 –.55
Task pe sis ence (G ade 3) 338 3.31 .78 .88 1–51–5–.07
Task pe sis ence (G ade 6) 420 3.56 .83 .89 1–51–5–.28
Ma h sel -concep (G ade 3) 369 3.78 .85 .85 1–51–5–.59
Ma h sel -concep (G ade 6) 511 3.26 1.01 .87 1–51–5–.28
Con ol a iables/ Mode a o s
Gende : 512 1.51 .50 1–21–2–.05
Boys 249
Gi ls 263
Ma e nal educa ion: 473 2.28 .59 1–31–3–.17
Low 34
Medium 270
High 169
Gene al abili y (G ade 3) 367 7.41 2.63 .90 0–12 0–12 –.87
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 23
achie emen i sel . Ou esul s also con i med he conclusion o o he s udies ha no all kinds o
pa en al in ol emen a e bene icial o child en’s ou comes (Coope e al., 2000; Mo oni e al.,
2015; Silinskas e al., 2015). Fo ins ance, i has ecen ly been emphasized ha i is no how o en
pa en s help, bu a he in wha ways pa en s help ha ma e s (Mo oni e al., 2015 [see Pome an z
e al., 2007, o a e iew]). Tha is, homewo k assis ance is bene icial o child en’s lea ning i i sup-
po s au onomy, suppo s compe ence, is well s uc u ed, and is emo ionally esponsi e o child en’s
needs; al e na i ely, i pa en al homewo k assis ance is con olling, in usi e, o in e e ing,
accompanied by nega i e pa en al emo ions and he equen aking o e o child en’s esponsibil-
i ies, hen i may ha e pa adoxically nega i e links o child en’s lea ning ou comes (Coope e al.,
2000; Dumon e al., 2012,2014; Hill & Tyson, 2009; G olnick & Pome an z, 2009; Silinskas
e al., 2015).
Ou esul s a e also in line wi h sel -de e mina ion heo y (Ryan & Deci, 2000), acco ding o
which pa en al assis ance wi h homewo k i s a ec s child en’s in insic mo i a ion by sa is ying
o no sa is ying child en’s psychological needs o compe ence, au onomy, and ela edness. As
such, in insic mo i a ion a ec s child en’s pe o mance. The esul s o he p esen s udy con i m
ha , indeed, pe cei ed pa en al con ol may educe child en’s in insic mo i a ion (e.g., eeling o
compe ence, abili y o lea n and o pe o m ce ain asks). Howe e , we ound only limi ed suppo
o he enhancing ole o suppo in achie emen and mo i a ion. Se e al easons o hese di e en-
ial indings o con olling and suppo i e help may exis . One possibili y is ha pa en al con ol is
gene ally inhibi ing whe eas he enhancing e ec o suppo is mo e sub le and may depend on a
numbe o child and pa en cha ac e is ics. Tha is, i is qui e easy o engage in con olling beha io
conce ning homewo k (e.g., demand ha he homewo k be comple ed; check i homewo k is co -
ec ). S udies ha e shown ha i is mo e common among pa en s wi h lowe educa ion (Silinskas
e al., 2013; Su e al., 2015). In con as , suppo beha io is mo e nuanced: One should ca e ully
obse e he needs and skills o he child in o de o p o ide as much suppo as needed. Suppo i e
beha io is augh o eache s o apply i e ec i ely in class oom se ings (Ho ns a, Mans ield, an
de Veen, Pee sma, & Volman, 2015; Ree e, Jang, Ca ell, Jeon, & Ba ch, 2004). Ye , unlike eache s,
no all pa en s may be skill ul in applying suppo , as i equi es conside ing child en’s pe spec i e
when esponding o hei needs.
Role o Ma h-Rela ed Pe o mance and Mo i a ion in Child en’s Pe cep ion o Thei
Pa en s’Homewo k In ol emen
We also in es iga ed he ex en o which child en’s cha ac e is ics (e.g., ma h- ela ed pe o mance
and mo i a ion) p edic pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in homewo k. We expec ed low pe o m-
ance and low mo i a ion o inc ease he pe cep ion o pa en al con ol and dec ease pe cei ed pa -
en al suppo (Le in e al., 1997; Silinskas e al., 2015). Con a y o ou expec a ions, ma h
pe o mance—al hough signi ican ly co ela ed wi h pe cei ed pa en al con ol (Table 3)—did
no ha e a signi ican e ec on pe cei ed pa en al con ol a e conside ing child en’s gene al abili y
and ma e nal educa ion. This inding is su p ising because p e ious li e a u e has been consis en in
in e p e ing ha pa en s p o ide mo e help by moni o ing and eaching i hei child en’spe o m-
ance is poo (Pome an z & Ea on, 2001; Silinskas e al., 2015). The e migh be a ew explana ions o
his inding. Fi s , p e ious s udies mos ly asked pa en s o epo on hei own in ol emen in chil-
d en’s homewo k, whe eas in his s udy we used child en’s epo s. Thus, i seems ha child en’s
mo i a ion ( e sus pe o mance) plays a la ge ole in hei own a ings abou how con olling
hei pa en s a e conce ning ma h homewo k. Second, in his s udy, he associa ions we e con olled
o in e ms o child en’s gene al abili y in hi d g ade and ma e nal educa ion, which migh ha e
educed he s eng h o associa ion o ma h pe o mance in hi d g ade on pe cei ed pa en al in ol-
emen in six h g ade. A close in es iga ion o he ze o-o de co ela ions p o ided suppo o his
no ion. Fo ins ance, high gene al abili y and high ma e nal educa ion signi ican ly ela ed o high
ma h pe o mance. Also, as in p e ious s udies (Mo oni e al., 2015; Silinskas e al., 2013;Su
30 G. SILINSKAS AND E. KIKAS

e al., 2015), child en wi h lowe cogni i e abili y ended o epo mo e pa en al con ol in six h
g ade.
In line wi h ou expec a ions, highe ma h sel -concep in hi d g ade was ela ed o lowe pe -
cei ed pa en al con ol in six h g ade. This esul aligns well wi h some p e ious esul s ha s uden s
less con iden in academic subjec s epo ed mo e con lic and mo e pa en al in e e ence du ing
homewo k (Dumon e al., 2012). Low academic sel -concep is e iden in unce ain lea ning beha-
io s, such as hesi a ing when sol ing asks o ha ing doub s abou he co ec answe . These beha-
io s may e oke con olling beha io s om pa en s. In addi ion, i is possible ha child en wi h low
sel -concep in ma h ha e a endency o pe cei e hei pa en s’in ol emen as con olling.
Pe cei ed pa en al suppo was no p edic ed by child en’s ma h pe o mance o mo i a ion. This
esul is in line wi h he p e ious indings by Dumon e al. (2012), who ound ha pa en al suppo
in homewo k in eigh h g ade was no ela ed o ma h g ades in i h g ade o academic sel -concep
in i h g ade. Thus, child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al suppo conce ning ma h homewo k may be
ela ed o some o he pa en al beha io s o s able cha ac e is ics, such as sel -e icacy, pa en ing
s ess, wa m h, and beha io al and psychological con ol (Bandu a, 1993; Da ling & S einbe g,
1993) a he han hei eac ion o child en’s ma h- ela ed ou comes. Almos 40% o child en’s
epo s (n= 203) eached he ceiling in pe cei ed pa en al suppo , sugges ing es ic ions in ob ain-
ing signi ican associa ions wi h child en’s ou comes. Fu he mo e, i is possible ha six h g ade s,
speci ically hose wi h lowe abili ies, may ha e di icul ies answe ing ques ionnai es; hus, hei
e alua ions o ma e nal help— ha is, di e en ia ions be ween con ol and suppo —may be inac-
cu a e. Fo ins ance, Ge man 12-yea -olds we e no able o dis inguish be ween suppo i e s uc u e
and con olling beha io (Ka bach e al., 2013), sugges ing he possibili y ha highly suppo i e
pa en s can also be pe cei ed as o e p o ec i e and in e e ing wi h s uden s’au onomy (Ka bach
e al., 2013; Le puscek & Zupancic, 2009). Age-speci ic es ic ions and capabili ies when answe ing
ques ionnai es and dis inguishing be ween pa en al beha io s should be aken in o accoun when
in e p e ing ou esul s.
Finally, we expec ed he de elopmen o child en’s ma h skills and mo i a ion ac oss hi d and
six h g ades o be media ed by pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen . O e all, we ound suppo o his
expec a ion, as a low ma h sel -concep ela ed o inc eased child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al con-
ol, which hen dec eased child en’s ma h pe o mance, ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k, and
ma h sel -concep . These indi ec associa ions we e ma ginally signi ican . Howe e , such a inding
is no su p ising because ma h achie emen , ma h sel -concep , and ask pe sis ence in homewo k
a e ela i ely s able cons uc s and de e mined by a g ea a ie y o ac o s no assessed in ou
s udy (Ahadi & Diene , 1989).
Mode a ing Role o Child en’s Gende
Child en’s gende mode a ed associa ions be ween hei mo i a ional ou comes in hi d g ade and
pe cei ed pa en al con ol in six h g ade. In boys, ask pe sis ence p edic ed pe cei ed pa en al con-
ol, whe eas in gi ls, ma h sel -concep p edic ed pe cei ed pa en al con ol. The e migh be se e al
easons o such indings. Fo ins ance, boys who gi e up easily o lose ocus and in e es in com-
ple ing homewo k assignmen s when he asks a e di icul pe cei e hei pa en s o be con olling
du ing homewo k si ua ions. This is no su p ising gi en he indings o he p e ious esea ch ha
gi ls display signi ican ly be e sel - egula ion han boys (Paja es, 2002; Zimme man & Ma inez-
Pons, 1990). This is also ue in he domain o ma h, whe e boys ypically show highe sel -e icacy
and in e es (Meece & Pain e , 2008). Thus, pa en s may p o ide mo e un eques ed help wi h home-
wo k o ask-a oidan boys and hose low in sel - egula ion du ing homewo k ( e sus gi ls) as well as
o boys who lack pe sis ence in homewo k may pe cei e hei pa en s’in ol emen as es ic ing
hei au onomy. In con as , consis en wi h p e ious esea ch, gi ls we e ound o be mo e ask pe -
sis en han boys, bu ha ing a lowe sel -concep han boys (Eccles e al., 1993; Paja es, 2002), which
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 31
may explain why pa en s o gi ls wi h a low sel -concep in ma h become in ol ed by p o iding
un eques ed help wi h homewo k.
Mo eo e , gende di e ences eme ged in he associa ions be ween pe cei ed pa en al con ol and
mo i a ion in six h g ade: Highe pe cei ed pa en al con ol was ela ed o lowe ask pe sis ence
and lowe ma h sel -concep o boys, bu no o gi ls. These esul s a e in e es ing as hey show
a endency o boys o be especially sensi i e o he e ec o pe cei ed pa en al con ol. A simila
esul was ob ained in he s udy o somewha smalle child en in he domain o eading (Silinskas
e al., 2012), whe e he de imen al e ec o pa en al eaching in i s g ade was also mo e e iden
o boys han gi ls. This esul migh be due o he ac ha , consis en wi h he p e ious li e a u e,
boys ge mo e di ec homewo k help, which is o en mo e con olling and in usi e (Bhano & Jo a-
no ic, 2005; Coope e al., 2000; Dumon e al., 2012,2014), han gi ls. Thus, his inc eased un e-
ques ed pa en al con ol unde mines eelings o au onomy, compe ence, and ela edness, he eby
inhibi ing boys’lea ning- ela ed mo i a ion o a g ea e deg ee han ha o he gi ls.
Limi a ions and Fu u e Di ec ions
Some limi a ions need o be aken in o accoun be o e gene alizing he esul s o he p esen s udy.
Fi s o all, mos o he da a we e collec ed om child en. Ideally, in u u e esea ch, empi ical s udies
should measu e bo h ac ual pa en beha io and s uden pe cep ions (see, e.g., Gonida & Co ina,
2014). Howe e , we did ou bes o jus i y ou choice o child en’s epo s on hei pa en s’in ol e-
men by highligh ing he ocus o ou s udy—i is no an objec i e measu e o in ol emen , bu
a he child en’s in e p e a ion o in ol emen ha ma e s (Bandu a, 1993; Lu ia, 1976). In
addi ion, i has been shown ha child en’s epo s may be less a ec ed by social desi abili y bias
han pa en al epo s (Sessa, A ene oli, S ainbe g, & Mo is, 2001). Mo eo e , 9–10-yea -old chil-
d en’s epo s on pa en al homewo k con ol co ela ed s ongly wi h pa en s’pe cei ed homewo k
con ol ( = .67 [Su e al., 2015]), sugges ing an ag eemen in pe cei ing pa en al con ol conce ning
homewo k.
The second limi a ion o he p esen s udy conce ns he speci ics o he scale o pa en al con ol
and suppo . Ou scale o pa en al suppo cap u ed he cons uc o pa en al suppo as a con en -
o ien ed a he han au onomy-o ien ed suppo (Xu, Fan, Du, & He, 2017). The choice o he scale
may explain why he e we e oo ew signi ican posi i e associa ions o child en’s pe cep ions o pa -
en al suppo on hei mo i a ion and pe o mance (as compa ed wi h he inhibi ing e ec s o hei
pe cei ed con ol). The e o e, u u e s udies should di e en ia e be ween con en -o ien ed and he
au onomy-o ien ed suppo in an a emp o ela e pa en al suppo o child en’s ou comes. Rela -
edly, i should be acknowledged ha al hough we ope a ionalized ou measu es o pa en al in ol e-
men as ype o in ol emen wi h homewo k, child-pe cei ed pa en al con ol and suppo ep esen
pa en al s yles o pa en -child in e ac ion du ing homewo k a he han ins uc ional quali y o such
in ol emen . Tha is, di e en ins uc ional- ype p ac ices du ing homewo k may be p o ided in an
in e e ing way (e.g., he pa en does he homewo k, and he child simply lis ens [see Pa all e al.,
2008]) o in an au onomy suppo i e way (e.g., he pa en gi es acili a ing cues o me acogni i e
p obes). Howe e , al hough i seems easonable o assume ha in e e ence is associa ed wi h he
con olling s yle (Gonida & Co ina, 2014), he ins uc ional quali y o homewo k in ol emen
and i s ela ion o he s yles o pa en –child in e ac ion du ing homewo k emain he a ge o
he u u e s udies.
Thi d, all a iables we e ma h- ela ed, bu ask pe sis ence was no . Al hough we assume ha
pa en s also ake ma h- ela ed ask pe sis ence in o accoun when e alua ing child en’s o e all
ask pe sis ence du ing homewo k si ua ions, ask pe sis ence can indeed be subjec speci ic. The e-
o e, in ou s udy, es ima ing o e all ask pe sis ence could ha e educed he chances o inding sig-
ni ican associa ions wi h ma h speci ic-cons uc s. Fu u e s udies could ake his in o accoun and
es ima e all cons uc s as one-subjec speci ic.
32 G. SILINSKAS AND E. KIKAS
Fou h, al hough his s udy p esen s p edic i e ela ions, ou longi udinal da a canno imply any
in e ence on causali y. In pa icula , cau ion should be aken when in e p e ing ela ions be ween
pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen and child en’s ou comes in six h g ade, because hese measu es
we e adminis e ed a he end o six h g ade. Howe e , we did ou bes in ph asing he ques ions
abou hei pa en s’in ol emen in such a way so as o cap u e he ime span om be o e he ac ual
da a collec ions we e implemen ed.
Finally, he speci ics o he cul u al en i onmen o Es onia— he coun y in which he da a we e
collec ed—should be no ed. Child en a e expec ed o do homewo k om he beginning o hei
school ca ee , and he e migh be s ong expec a ions o pa en s o become in ol ed in child en’s
homewo k. S ill, pa en s a y a lo in hei alue sys ems and p ac ices (Tul is e & Kikas, 2010), and
he high le el o ma h con en in he cu iculum may be incomp ehensible o some pa en s who,
hus, a e no capable o suppo ing hei child en wi h ma h homewo k. I emains a challenge
o he u u e esea ch o in es iga e he ex en o which cul u al di e ences may shape he ole
o pe cei ed pa en al in ol emen in ma h. Howe e , ou esul s and conclusions a e simila o
hose made in di e en cul u al con ex s (Ge many: Dumon e al., 2012; Ka bach e al., 2013; he
USA: Coope e al., 2000).
Conclusion and Educa ional Implica ions
The esul s o he p esen s udy add o he exis ing li e a u e in se e al ways. Fi s o all, he esul s
highligh he impo ance o he di e en ial e ec o wo ypes o pa en al in ol emen in homewo k
(i.e., child en’s pe cep ions o pa en al con ol suppo ) on child en’s mo i a ion (no only pe o m-
ance, as i has been consis en ly shown in he p e ious esea ch). The esul s also highligh ed a
g ea impo ance o pa en s o conside how hei sons in pa icula ( e sus daugh e s) in e p e
pa en al e o s o help wi h homewo k. Fo ins ance, boys’mo i a ion (i.e., ask pe sis ence du ing
homewo k and ma h sel -concep ) is educed i boys pe cei e hei pa en s o be con olling hei
homewo k e o s. Fu he mo e, we ound some en a i e gende di e ences in pe cei ing
pa en al con ol: Gi ls who did no eel con iden in hei ma h abili ies and boys who did no
show pe sis ence du ing homewo k a ed hei pa en s as being con olling du ing homewo k
h ee yea s la e .
In six h g ade, ma h opics become mo e demanding, child en s a ge ing mo e ma h homewo k
han be o e, and mo e ime is needed o comple e homewo k asks. The e o e, mo e pa en al help
migh also be needed o succeed in acqui ing new ma h skills. Thus, based on he esul s o he p esen
s udy, pa en s should be ad ised o pay a special a en ion o how hei child en pe cei e and in e p e
pa en al help wi h homewo k. This is c ucially impo an because i is nei he pa en al in en ions no
he equency o ac ual in ol emen , bu a he child en’s pe cep ions o such in ol emen , ha
ma e o he subsequen de elopmen o ma h pe o mance, homewo k ask pe sis ence, and
ma h sel -concep . Ano he educa ional implica ion ha ollows he esul s o he p esen s udy
sugges s ha quali y o pa en al in ol emen wi h homewo k ma e s. The g owing body o li e a u e
sugges s ha he quali y o pa en al homewo k assis ance can be imp o ed by pa en aining
p og ams (e.g., Chang, Pa k, Singh, & Sung, 2009). Finally, s ong school- amily pa ne ships and
coope a ion is an impo an ac o imp o ing he quali y o pa en al in ol emen in child en’s
homewo k (Ha is & Goodall, 2008). This way, h ough coope a ing wi h amilies, eache s can
guide pa en s on how o assis hei child en wi h homewo k so ha i does no igge nega i i y
in homewo k si ua ions.
Funding
This s udy was suppo ed by ins i u ional esea ch unding om he Es onian Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch
[g an numbe IUT (03-03)] and by he Academy o Finland [g an numbe 296082, 2016–2019] Resea ch Council
o Cul u e and Socie y.
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 33
ORCID
Gin au as Silinskas h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5116-6877
E e Kikas h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-2337-8930
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