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Up wi h ecology, down wi h economy? The consolida ion o he idea o clima e change
mi iga ion in he global public sphe e
© The Au ho (s) 2018
Published e sion
Ylä-An ila, Tuomas; Vesa, Juho; E an i, Veikko; Kukkonen, Anna; Leh imäki, Tomi;
Lonkila, Ma kku; Luh akallio, Ee a
Ylä-An ila, T., Vesa, J., E an i, V., Kukkonen, A., Leh imäki, T., Lonkila, M., & Luh akallio, E.
(2018). Up wi h ecology, down wi h economy? The consolida ion o he idea o clima e change
mi iga ion in he global public sphe e. Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion, 33(6), 587-603.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0267323118790155
2018
h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/0267323118790155
Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion
2018, Vol. 33(6) 587 –603
© The Au ho (s) 2018
A icle euse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/0267323118790155
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Up wi h ecology, down wi h
economy? The consolida ion
o he idea o clima e change
mi iga ion in he global public
sphe e
Tuomas Ylä-An ila and Juho Vesa
Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland
Veikko E an i
Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland
Anna Kukkonen and Tomi Leh imäki
Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland
Ma kku Lonkila
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
Ee a Luh akallio
Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland
Abs ac
Building on heo ies o alua ion and e alua ion, we de elop an analy ical amewo k ha ou lines
six elemen s o he p ocess o consolida ion o an idea in he public sphe e. We hen use he
amewo k o analyse he p ocess o consolida ion o he idea o clima e change mi iga ion
be ween 1997 and 2013, ocusing on he in e play be ween ecological and economic e alua ions.
Ou con en analysis o 1274 a icles in leading newspape s in i e coun ies a ound he globe
shows ha (1) ecological a gumen s inc ease o e ime, (2) economic a gumen s dec ease o e
Co esponding au ho :
Tuomas Ylä-An ila, Poli ical Science and Communica ion, Facul y o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki,
P.O. Box 54, 00014 Helsinki, Finland.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
790155EJC0010.1177/0267323118790155Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ionYlä-An ila e al.
esea ch-a icle2018
Full Leng h A icle
588 Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion 33(6)
ime, (3) he isibili y o en i onmen al nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions as ca ie s o ecological
ideas inc eases o e ime, (4) he isibili y o business ac o s co espondingly dec eases, (5)
ecological ideas a e inc easingly adop ed by poli ical and business eli es and (6) a comp omise
eme ges be ween ecological and economic e alua ions, in he o m o he a gumen ha clima e
change mi iga ion boos s, a he han hinde s economic g ow h.
Keywo ds
Clima e change, ecology, economy, e alua ion, news media
In oduc ion
How a e ideas consolida ed in he public sphe e? How does some hing like he idea ha
na u e has a alue in i sel become gene ally accep ed, o he poin ha i becomes sen-
sible o a gue ha ecological alues ough o be p io i ized o e o he alues, such as
economic goods?
In his seminal 1972 pape Up and Down wi h Ecology, An hony Downs a gued ha
public a en ion o ecology had been on he ise since he 1960s, bu was likely o wane.
Downs’ a gumen was ha ecology, like o he issues, was o ollow wha he called he
‘issue a en ion cycle’, ine i ably leading o decline o public in e es once he cos s o
dealing wi h he p oblem ha e been disco e ed (e en hough o ecology, his migh ake
somewha longe han o some o he issues; Downs, 1972: 40, 50). In his a icle, we
a gue ha while public a en ion o ecology ce ainly has i s ups and downs, he long-
e m end is up. Recen s udies ha e shown ha public a en ion o clima e change
(Schmid e al., 2013) and en i onmen al issues in gene al (Dje -Pie e, 2011: 502) has
inc eased du ing he pas decades, e en hough he e ha e been sho - e m pe iodic luc-
ua ions. We a gue ha his long- e m inc ease in issue a en ion has been pa alleled by
discu si e changes whe e ecological alua ions ha e become mo e p ominen wi hin
en i onmen - ela ed public discou ses. Speci ically, we sugges ha ecology has become
consolida ed as an idea, as a p inciple o alua ion and e alua ion ha compe es wi h
o he simila p inciples, mos no ably wi h he p inciple o economic alua ion. We do
no claim ha ecology will ump o e economy in he long e m – me ely ha i has
become an idea ha can compe e wi h, o some imes complemen , economic e alua ions
in he public sphe e.
This line o hinking ollows he a gumen laid ou by La aye and Thé eno (1993)
conce ning he ise o he ecological p inciple o alua ion. The a gumen d aws on he
mo e gene al amewo k o heo ies o alua ion and e alua ion, based on he g ound-
b eaking wo k by Luc Bol anski and Lau en Thé eno (2006/1991) and u he de el-
oped by Lamon (2012) and Fou cade (2011).
Based on his heo e ical app oach, we ske ch ou a model ou lining six elemen s o
he p ocess h ough which ideas become consolida ed in he public sphe e: (1) he
inc ease in he equency o e e ences o he eme ging idea, (2) a co esponding dec ease
in he equency o e e ences o opposing ideas, (3) he ise o a new g oup o ac o s as
ins i u ional ca ie s o he new idea, (4) a co esponding decline in he p esence o
ac o s opposed o he idea, (5) he adop ion o he idea by ins i u ionally es ablished
Ylä-An ila e al. 589
ac o s such as poli ical eli es and (6) he eme gence o a comp omise be ween he new
idea and old ideas opposed o i , whe eby he wo become accep ed as complemen a y
a he han opposing p inciples o e alua ion. We hen use he model o de elop hypo h-
eses conce ning he changes in wha is pe haps he mos cen al ecological deba e o he
ecen decades, namely, he deba e on clima e change mi iga ion. To es he hypo heses,
we use a da ase on clima e change media co e age in he news media in i e coun ies
o e almos wo decades, 1997–2013.
Ou wo k adds o he exis ing esea ch on media co e age o clima e change in se -
e al ways. Fi s , mos s udies ha e been single-coun y cases o wo-coun y compa i-
sons (Ca alho and Bu gess, 2005; Di ikx and Gelde s, 2010; Sheha a and Hoppman,
2012; Wagne and Payne, 2015), o in he cases whe e se e al coun ies a e compa ed,
he ocus is mos o en on simple indica o s such as he olume o co e age o s udies
only co e a sho ime pe iod (e.g. B oadben e al., 2016; Kunelius and Eide, 2012;
Pain e and Ashe, 2012; Schmid e al., 2013; Schmid and Schä e , 2015). We a e in e -
es ed in a mo e in-dep h analysis o global ends, so ou sample includes ma e ial in ou
languages om i e coun ies. The coun ies a e he Uni ed S a es, Finland, F ance,
Russia and India, anging om majo playe s o mino ones, de eloped o de eloping
coun ies and co e ing much poli ical, geog aphical and jou nalis ic di e si y. Second,
we a e in e es ed in changes o e ime, so ou sample co e s a pe iod s a ing om he
ea ly days o global clima e change poli ics, he Kyo o COP in 1997, and ends in 2013.
No many ea lie s udies on media co e age o clima e change ha e been bo h b oadly
compa a i e and longi udinal (Schä e and Schmid , 2014).
Thi d, and mos impo an , we de elop a model ha ocusses on he consolida ion o
he idea o clima e change mi iga ion as a pa o a mo e gene al con lic o ecological
and economic e alua ions. Mos s udies on media co e age o clima e change ha e
ocused on he po ayal o clima e science in he media, he dicho omy be ween ‘denie s’
and ‘belie e s’ and on how he well-o ganized and unded denie coali ion and he logic
o media epo ing has p oduced he alse pic u e in which a scien i ic con o e sy exis s
o e whe he clima e change is eal and caused by human ac i i ies (e.g. Boyko and
Boyko , 2007; Pain e and Ashe, 2012). The ideological unde pinnings o he clima e
change deba e and he alues ha pa icipan s p omo e in i ha e ecei ed much less
a en ion (Co y and Jø gensen, 2015). Some impo an s udies ha e analysed he mo al
dimension o he deba e (Ca alho, 2007; Di ikx and Gelde s, 2010; Laksa, 2014;
Maeseele and Pepe mans, 2017), bu so a , hese s udies ha e ocussed on only one o
wo coun ies o sho pe iods o ime.
Theo e ical amewo k and hypo heses
In his a icle, we analyse he consolida ion in he public sphe e o a pa icula ype o
idea: a mo al p inciple o e alua ion, namely, he p inciple o ecological e alua ion.
Such p inciples a e based on compe ing concep ions o he common good (Bol anski and
Thé eno , 2006/1991; La aye and Thé eno , 1993). F om his pe spec i e, poli ical
deba e is essen ially abou deciding which kinds o common good ough o be empha-
sized when making decisions. In he case o clima e change poli ics, he mos impo an
compe ing concep ions o he common good a e economic good and ecological good. A
590 Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion 33(6)
he co e o his deba e is he ques ion: How much ecological good a e we willing o sac-
i ice o p oduce mo e economic good? O , a e hese wo goods pe haps no compe ing
bu complemen a y? Pe haps we can keep up economic g ow h o e en accele a e i and
sa e he ecosys em om des uc i e wa ming o he clima e a he same ime?
P inciples o e alua ion coalesce in o epe oi es. This means ha he e is a ela i ely
s able se – a epe oi e – o consolida ed e alua i e p inciples. P inciples o e alua ion
a e consolida ed when hey a e accep ed, o a leas unde s ood, ela i ely widely by
membe s o a socie y – indeed, c ea i e use o he consolida ed p inciples can be seen as
a p e equisi e o success in poli ical deba es (Bol anski and Thé eno , 2006/1991; Ylä-
An ila and Luh akallio, 2016).
The e is an eme ging li e a u e on he na u e o epe oi es o e alua ion and hei use
in a ious social se ings, om en i onmen al con lic s (Thé eno e al., 2000) o poli i-
cal con lic s in ci ies (Luh akallio, 2012), au omobile associa ions (Lonkila, 2011),
media deba es on globaliza ion (Ylä-An ila, 2016) and he No in My Backya d
(NIMBY) phenomenon (E an i, 2017). One hing ha his li e a u e has ba ely ouched
upon is he ques ion o how new p inciples o e alua ion become consolida ed.
We a gue ha he p ocess o consolida ion o an idea in he public sphe e consis s o
a leas six elemen s (Figu e 1). In he ollowing, we g ound each o he six elemen s in
he heo e ical li e a u e on alua ion and e alua ion and he empi ical li e a u e on
media co e age and poli ics o clima e change. As a esul , we p esen a co esponding
se o six hypo heses conce ning he changes o e ime in he media deba e on clima e
change.
We hypo hesize ha he i s elemen o he consolida ion o an idea is, qui e simply,
he inc ease in he equency o e e ences o i in he public sphe e. Thus, we expec he
use o ecological e alua ions o inc ease o e ime. Ea lie empi ical esea ch also sug-
ges s ha his may be he case. The o e all le el o media a en ion o clima e change has
inc eased sha ply o e he yea s (Schmid e al., 2013). One d i e o his inc ease may
be he wide use o ecological a gumen a ion. Resea ch has also shown ha scien i ic
consensus on clima e change and i s an h opocen ic causes has s eng hened (e.g.
O eskes, 2004), and he publica ion o he ou h epo o he In e go e nmen al Panel
Figu e 1. Analy ical amewo k – consolida ion o an idea in he public sphe e.

Ylä-An ila e al. 591
on Clima e Change (IPCC) in 2007 was an impo an u ning poin in aising public
awa eness o his consensus (Schmid e al., 2013). A ound ha ime, a new discou se
eme ged globally, s essing he scope and se e i y o he p oblem (Risbey, 2008). Thus,
ou i s hypo hesis is
H1: The sha e o ecological e alua ions has inc eased o e ime.
Second, p inciples o e alua ion a e o en pi ed agains one ano he (Bol anski and
Thé eno , 2006/1991: 223). In he case o en i onmen al deba es, he ecological is o en
opposed o he economic. As a new p inciple is e oked mo e o en, old opposing ideas
may be c owded ou and consequen ly a e e e ed o less o en. Indeed, an ea lie s udy
ound a decline o ‘economic coun e ames’ in he US media om he Kyo o COP in
1997 o he Bali COP in 2007 (Sheha a and Hoppman, 2012). In a pa allel ein, while
economic aming was ela i ely impo an in he side e en s o ea ly COPs, o he ames
ha e o e shadowed i in la e yea s (Hje pe and Buh , 2014: 118). Thus, ou second
hypo hesis is:
H2: The sha e o economic e alua ions has dec eased o e ime.
Thi d, we posi ha new ideas a e o en ca ied by new g oups o ac o s. In he case
o en i onmen alis ideas, esea ch has documen ed he impo an ole o en i onmen al
nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions, especially in e na ional ones, in his espec (Hi onaka,
2014). As ega ds clima e change mi iga ion in pa icula , s udies ha e de ec ed an
inc ease in he numbe o en i onmen al nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions (ENGOs)
o ganizing a ound he clima e issue and a ending he UN summi s du ing pas decades
(Haneg aa , 2015; Muñoz Cab é, 2011; Ylä-An ila and Swa naka , 2017). ENGOs ha e
also been success ul in u ilizing ‘PR s a egies and ac ics o in luence he di ec ion and
one o he media and policy discussion’ (G eenbe g e al., 2011: 77). They inc easingly
‘co-p oduce’ news wi h jou nalis s a he COPs, and his can esul in media ou le s
adop ing simila ames as he NGOs (Lück e al., 2016). The ac i i ies o in e na ional
NGOs, especially, ha e been shown o be ‘impo an d i e s o media a en ion o cli-
ma e change’ (Schä e e al., 2014). Thus, ou hi d hypo hesis is
H3: The sha e o claims made by NGOs has inc eased o e ime.
Fou h, we hypo hesize ha as a new idea becomes inc easingly consolida ed and
o ganiza ions p omo ing i inc easingly isible, he isibili y o hose o ganiza ions ha
oppose he new idea co espondingly dec eases. In he case o he idea o clima e change
mi iga ion, he s onges opponen s ha e been business o ganiza ions. Indeed, esea ch
has sugges ed ha in he ecen yea s, businesses ha e a leas in some coun ies aken an
app oach o ‘s a egic in isibili y’ (Les e and Hu chins, 2012), wi hd awing om main-
s eam media discou se and ins ead unding hink anks who ocus on denying he scien-
i ic consensus on clima e change (Dunlap and McC igh , 2015). Thus, we hypo hesize
592 Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion 33(6)
H4: The sha e o claims made by business o ganiza ions has dec eased o e ime.
A i h elemen in he consolida ion p ocess, we posi , is ha he idea sp eads ou om
i s o iginal g oup o p omo e s and becomes adop ed by es ablished ac o s (c . Ylä-
An ila, 2016: 252–253). Pa icula ly impo an he e is accep ance among hose who
ha e he powe o make decisions ha ha e di ec consequences on le els o g eenhouse
gas emissions, ha is, poli icians and business o ganiza ions. Thus, we hypo hesize:
H5: The sha e o ecological e alua ions has inc eased o e ime mo e among es ab-
lished ac o s (go e nmen s, businesses) han among NGOs.
Six h, one o he mos impo an elemen s o he heo ies o alua ion and e alua ion
is he no ion o a comp omise be ween wo e alua i e p inciples (Bol anski and Thé eno ,
2006/1991: 277). Ac o s who disag ee can always s ick o hei p e e ed p inciple o
e alua ion and jus keep on ying o ou -a gue each o he . Al e na i ely, hey may
a emp o o ge a comp omise be ween wo p inciples, a guing ha hey a e comple-
men a y ins ead o con lic ing. Fo ging such a comp omise is a u he s ep in he p ocess
o consolida ion o an idea. Comp omises s eng hen consolida ion because hey a ac
wide accep ance, new allies and weaken c i iques based on o he e alua i e p inciples.
In he case o clima e change mi iga ion, he idea ha ecological and economic objec-
i es a e compa ible may ind accep ance o he gene al public ha wan s o a oid guil
when d i ing a ca o wo k, a ac allies o m business co po a ions making money o
sola panels and elec ic ca s and weaken c i iques om hose who s ill insis ha g ow h
mus ely on ossil uels.
In he en i onmen al social sciences, he comp omise be ween ecological and eco-
nomic e alua i e p inciples has long been p omo ed by he ecological mode niza ion
school (Jänicke, 2008; Mol, 2002). We expec his kind o hinking o ha e inc eased in
he clima e change deba e as he idea o mi iga ion has become mo e s ongly consoli-
da ed o e ime, a he same ime as hose economic e alua ions ha a e explici ly opposed
o ecology ha e declined. A u he eason o expec such change in he media deba e is
ha ea lie s udies ha e de ec ed a simila de elopmen in policy discou ses (Bäcks and
and Lö b and, 2016: 8; Isaksen and S okke, 2014). Thus, we hypo hesize he ollowing
H6: The sha e o eco-mode n e alua ions o all economic e alua ions has inc eased
o e ime.
Da a and me hod
Ou sample includes ma e ial om i e coun ies: he Uni ed S a es, Finland, F ance,
Russia and India. We began by selec ing one leading quali y newspape om each coun-
y (Table 1). These a e The New Yo k Times (Uni ed S a es), Le Monde (F ance),
Helsingin Sanoma (Finland), The Hindu (India) and Komme san (Russia). Due o he
labou -in ensi e na u e o manual coding, we we e aced wi h he choice o ei he selec -
ing wo newspape s om each coun y o including as many coun ies as code esou ces
Ylä-An ila e al. 593
allowed. We chose he la e , because we a e in e es ed in global ends, no in di e -
ences be ween coun ies. The wo excep ions o his ule we e India and Russia. Because
da a om The Hindu was no a ailable elec onically o 1997, we used da a om he
coun y’s o he wo majo newspape s in English, The Times o India and The Economic
Times o ha yea . A e disco e ing ha he le el o co e age in Russia was so low ha
no meaning ul esul s could ha e been p oduced by using jus one newspape , we added
wo o he s, Iz es ya and T ud.
F om each newspape , we sea ched a icles on clima e change du ing he ollowing
Uni ed Na ions Clima e Con e ences: Kyo o 1997, Copenhagen 2009 and Du ban 2011
( o F ance and he Uni ed S a es) and Wa saw 2013 ( o Finland, India and Russia).1
These da a poin s we e chosen wi h he aim o looking a long- e m ends in mind. We
sampled a pe iod beginning 7 days be o e each con e ence and ending 7 days a e .
Elec onic a chi es we e used o sea ch o a icles ha men ioned ‘clima e change’ o
‘global wa ming’ o ‘g eenhouse e ec ’ o he name o he ci y whe e he cu en COP
was aking place. F om he sea ch esul s, we emo ed duplica es and a icles ha did no
deal wi h clima e change. This esul ed in a o al o 1274 a icles. The e a e ma ked di -
e ences in he numbe o a icles published in di e en coun ies: o ins ance, we ound
523 a icles in India bu only 30 in Russia (see Table 1). The low numbe o a icles in
Russia is in line wi h ea lie esea ch showing ha he Russian media has paid li le
a en ion o clima e change (Pobe ezhskaya, 2015).
Ou uni o analysis is a claim, de ined as a ‘uni o ac ion in he public sphe e’
(Koopmans and S a ham, 1999; Ylä-An ila and Luh akallio, 2016). I can be, o
ins ance, a s a emen made in an in e iew, an op-ed, o he publica ion o a s udy ha is
epo ed in he media. One newspape a icle may, he e o e, con ain se e al claims o
none a all. In o al, we ound 1196 claims ha included e alua ions, and hese claims
cons i u e ou inal sample.
Fo each claim, we coded he ype o he o ganiza ion p esen ing he claim (see ca e-
go ies in Table 3) and he ype o e alua ion (ecological, economic, eco-mode n and
Table 1. O e iew o empi ical da a.
Coun y Newspape COPs A icles Claims wi h
e alua ions
Finland Helsingin Sanoma Kyo o, Copenhagen,
Wa saw
263 172
F ance Le Monde Kyo o, Copenhagen,
Du ban
363 316
India The Economic Times, The
Times o India (1997),
The Hindu (2009; 2013)
Kyo o, Copenhagen,
Wa saw
523 354
Russia Komme san , Iz es ya,
T ud
Kyo o, Copenhagen,
Wa saw
30 63
Uni ed S a es The New Yo k Times Kyo o, Copenhagen,
Du ban
95 291
To al N 1274 1196
594 Eu opean Jou nal o Communica ion 33(6)
Table 2. Coding examples: ecological, economic and eco-mode n e alua ions.
Who: Speake Wha : Con en Why: E alua ion
NGO (Yuyun Ind adi,
G eenpeace Sou heas
Asia)
‘We a e heading owa ds ecological disas e
… Kampa is one o he mos impo an
ca bon sinks on he plane . I s pea lands,
15 me es deep, can s o e up o 2 billion onnes
o g eenhouse gases. I hey we e bu ned,
he en i onmen al consequences would be
d ama ic’. (Le Monde, 3 Decembe 2009)
Ecological
Poli ician (New Ging ich,
US House Speake )
‘The House Speake , New Ging ich, said
he Uni ed S a es “su ende ed” o p essu e
in Kyo o and called he p oposed ea y “an
ou age.” He said he acco d would c ipple he
Ame ican economy’. (The New Yo k Times, 12
Decembe 1997)
Economic
(‘economy o e
ecology’)
Poli ician (And us Ansip,
Es onian P ime Minis e )
‘We a e con inced ha he igh agains global
wa ming could e en con ain he solu ion o
he cu en economic c isis’. (Le Monde, 7
Decembe 2009)
Eco-Mode n
o he ). Wi hin he ca ego y o economic e alua ions, hus, we sepa a ed be ween hose
ha esis ed clima e change mi iga ion on economic g ounds (‘economy o e ecology’)
and hose ha saw clima e change mi iga ion and economic g ow h as mu ually suppo -
i e, a he han compe ing goals (‘eco-mode n’ e alua ions).2 The e alua i e componen
o he claim usually answe s he ques ion why some hing should o should no be done
o cu b clima e change. Table 2 p esen s an example o each o he h ee main ypes o
e alua ions analysed in his a icle.
Fo he iden i ica ion o claims, we used he codebook de eloped by Koopmans
(2002). Fo iden i ica ion o e alua ions, we ained ou code s and de eloped ou own
codebook h ough coding a sample o 71 a icles epo ing on he COP 14, ha is,
Table 3. Use o ecological a gumen s by di e en ypes o ac o s in 1997–2013 (pe cen o
claims wi h e alua ions).
Kyo o
1997
Copenhagen
2009
Du ban 2011/
Wa saw 2013
To al (%) N
Poli icians/go e nmen agencies 12.7 14.9 19.7 15.4 59
In e na ional o ganiza ions 13.3 15.0 9.7 13.7 22
Business ac o s 5.0 24.3 25.0 18.0 11
Ci ic o ganiza ions 55.6 54.7 57.6 55.4 87
Resea ch o ganiza ion 23.7 23.5 21.8 23.1 45
Jou nalis s 26.8 20.5 26.3 23.2 32
O he /N.A. 66.7 33.3 66.7 39.4 39
To al 295
Ylä-An ila e al. 601
Bol anski L and Thé eno L (2006/1991) On Jus i ica ion: Economies o Wo h, new edn.
P ince on, NJ: P ince on Uni e si y P ess.
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