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The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600-1690)?
Haika i, Janne
Haika i, J. (2017). The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600-1690)?. In P.
Ka onen, & M. Hakanen (Eds.), Pe sonal Agency a he Swedish Age o G ea ness
1560-1720 (pp. 165-191). Suomalaisen Ki jallisuuden Seu a. S udia Fennica His o ica,
23. h ps://oa. inli . i/si e/books/10.21435/s h.23
2017
165
Janne Haika i
The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d
Place (1600–1690)?
B aili s we e one o he key g oups o con ibu e in he o ma ion p ocess
o he Swedish s a e in he ea ly mode n pe iod. Gus a us Vasa (1496–
1560) needed hem o p o ide he C own wi h access o local esou ces: axes
and mili a y ec ui men . Consequen ly c own baili s (be alningsman, c ono
ougde) became he lowes ung on he ladde o he eme ging adminis a i e
o ganisa ion. A baili could be de ined as he single mos p ominen pe son
wi hin ea ly mode n Swedish local communi ies in embodying he C own
and i s bu eauc acy, gi en ha ax collec ion is conside ed one o he key
symbols o legi imacy in socie y.1
The main ask o c own baili s was s ill basically qui e simple in he
se en een h cen u y. They we e supposed o ake ca e o he p ac ical
logis ics o ax collec ion. I was hei du y o aise he money o o he
paymen s due o he C own. Thei bailiwick, which was o en e e ed o
as a ‘hund ed’ (hä ad), could some imes co e mo e han one pa ish and
ha e been comp ised o se e al hund ed a ms. O e all, he inances o he
C own we e hea ily dependen on he pe o mance o he baili s, as i was
down o hei abili y o accumula e he C own’s asse s each yea . This mean
hey we e unde cons an p essu e om abo e, and ye emain sensi i e
o he p oblems o hose being axed, who o en wan ed concessions o
a a ie y o easons.2
Such an en i onmen aises in e es ing ques ions abou pe sonal agency.
Wha we e he ideal pe sonal cha ac e is ics equi ed o a baili o ul il
hese o en con lic ing demands? Wha ac o s limi ed his ac i i ies? Wha
was i like o be in a communi y ha was accus omed o cons an in e ac ion
wi h he au ho i ies? How did he communi y gene ally iew he ac ions o
he baili ?
In his chap e , he pe sonal agency o baili s will be ou lined om he
a ious pe spec i es o di e en sou ces. In he i s case, he pe spec i e
is om ha o adminis a i e o icials who wo ked in he Coun y o Po i,3
and his will p o ide he s a ing poin o a gene al model o agency. In he
second, Finnish local his o y s udies and biog aphical s udies and eco ds4
will p o ide mo e de ailed in o ma ion abou he pe sonal agency o baili s
in e ms o hei day- o-day local wo k, and he ca ee s o hose in he o ice.
The hi d pe spec i e will be in e ms o he o icial ins uc ions baili s
166
Janne Haika i
ecei ed om he C own. This will be analysed whils also bea ing in mind
o he laws and codes ha de ined he agency o hose in o ice. As we shall
see, he agency unde discussion is ac ually no jus he agency o c own
baili s bu also o hose o icials who ca ied ou simila du ies e en i hey
had a di e en i le.
The di icul posi ion o baili s s uck be ween he C own and he
common people has ce ainly been ecognised, bu only a ew esea che s
ha e ocused on he eali ies o hei wo k in de ail. Ma s Hallenbe g has
app oached he case o six een h cen u y baili s o he Swedish Realm om
he pe spec i e o o ganisa ional heo ies, especially New Ins i u ional
Economics heo y (NIE). In his ex ensi e s udy, Hallenbe g a gues ha
du ing he six een h and ea ly se en een h cen u ies, baili s essen ially
became b oke s in acili a ing he exploi a ion o esou ces o he C own
h ough hei pe sonal abili ies and a ious ies o he communi y, which
we e o cou se backed up by oyal au ho i y. Since people paid hei dues no
only in money, bu also in kind (wi h he a ious p oduc s hey p oduced),
he baili had o be able o gi e hese goods a alue, and i necessa y, o
nego ia e an adequa e amoun o hem and in a o m he C own could use.
The anspo a ion, s o age and sale o hese goods also demanded logis ical
skills om he baili . I he e had been a c op ailu e o any o he disas e ,
he baili had o also ake hese in o accoun . A imes some hing had o
be gi en in exchange, o example, pos ponemen s o paymen and ce ain
ax allowances. Consequen ly he ela ionship be ween he baili s and he
people being axed became mu ual and con iden ial.5
This b oke age seems o play a amilia ole h oughou Eu opean ea ly
mode n socie ies, and Hallenbe g shows ha i is a use ul concep in Swedish
his o y oo. Howe e , his pe spec i e comes mo e om he o icial hie a chy
abo e baili s, a he han om he baili s hemsel es. Indeed, he heo ies
behind Hallenbe g’s compelling o e iew seem o emphasise ha he chie
mo i e behind baili s’ exploi a ion o esou ces was he s a e o ma ion
p ocess; and while he does no o ally neglec he indi idual na u e o each
baili ’s agency, he is clea ly ocusing mo e on o ganisa ional logic a he
han on he pe sonal sphe e o he indi idual. Hallenbe g hus pays less
a en ion o he ac ual in e ac ion in ol ed in his b oke age, no o men ion
he dynamics o each local communi y ha he baili was esponsible o .
Ano he poin o bea in mind is ha Hallenbe g’s s udy discusses p ima ily
he six een h cen u y. Equally, many o he p e ious s udies on baili s ha e
also app oached he subjec om he iew o cen al adminis a ion and in
e ms o he long- e m his o ical de elopmen o he mode n s a e.6
This chap e ocuses solely on he se en een h cen u y baili s, because
du ing he six een h cen u y he agency o baili s was s ill in he making.
Thei posi ion was no cemen ed in he C own’s o ganisa ion despi e
hei ob ious con ibu ion o e ec i eness o axa ion sys em. I was
only in he nex cen u y when he o ice o baili became an es ablished
pa o adminis a i e o ganiza ion, al hough he posi ion and du ies o
c own baili s e ol ed e en hen. O e all, he his o y o c own baili s in
he se en een h cen u y is a wo old s o y o de elopmen and di ision.
The p o ession was consolida ed h ough he same majo e o ms ha
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The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600–1690)?
es uc u ed he adminis a ion as a whole, no leas by he econs uc ion
o p o incial adminis a ion in 1635. The posi ion o baili s became mo e
es ablished and dis inc , as gene al adminis a i e no ms became mo e
p ecise. A he same ime, howe e , hei sphe e o ope a ions became
subjec o cons an expe imen s and changes.7
In he 1620s and 1630s, he C own leased ou axa ion igh s o p i a e ax
collec o s (a enda o s), and al hough his sys em was abandoned, in 1640s
and 1650s he C own g an ed inc easing numbe s o landed p ope ies o
he nobili y. These ‘dona ions’ included axa ion igh s. Consequen ly, he
c own baili s had o en had o hand o e some o hei du ies o colleagues,
who wo ked o hose o he nobili y who had been gi en he igh o le y
axes. These ac o s agmen ed he wo k o baili s bu also expanded he
p o ession. Despi e he inc easing numbe o dona ions made, he C own
did no cu down i s own adminis a ion comple ely, because he C own did
s ill ha e some claims in he dona ed a eas. Consequen ly, he e could be
wo baili s wo king in he same a ea in many pa s o he coun y om he
1650s o 1680s, whose asks we e simila . Once hese we e p uned back in
he “G ea Reduc ion” in he 1680s, he axa ion igh s we e once mo e sold
o again o p i a e ax collec o s.8
In he 1650s he e we e 20 coun ies (g e skap) and 34 ba onies ( i he -
skap) in Sweden. They we e he mos ex ensi e o m o dona ions measu ed
in bo h numbe s o a ms and ans e ed powe , as he noble holde s o he
coun ies and ba onies ecei ed a ious adminis a i e igh s in addi ion o he
igh s o collec axes. The e o e hey usually se up hei own adminis a ion
ha ook ca e o ax collec ion. Howe e , hey we e s ill obliged o ollow he
same pa e ns o go e nance as he C own’s adminis a ion, and in many
cases he key igu e in he new coun y o ba ony adminis a ion was also
called ‘baili ’ whose job desc ip ion was simila o he c own baili ’s. In
some dona ions, he baili ac ed alone, while in o he s he had a supe io
who was expec ed o coo dina e he managemen o he dona ed a ea while
he baili concen a ed on ax collec ion. Ano he baili ca ego y consis ed
o hose se an s who we e hi ed o ake ca e o he mansions o he smalle
dona ions unde he nobili y’s ju isdic ion. They we e o en called baili s
oo, and al hough hei sphe e o adminis a ion was conside ably smalle
han ha o he colleagues in la ge uni s, hey we e p incipally in a simila
posi ion o hem.9
In he case o Bjö nebo g Coun y (Po i), wo o icials we e hi ed a he
beginning o 1651. Påwal Callia (d. 1692) was ins alled as a baili and Hans
Hansson Gode (c. 1620–1685), became his ‘inspec o ’ (inspek o ). Callia
ook ca e o he p ac ical asks, including ax collec ion, while Gode was
p ima ily esponsible o coo dina ion and he anspo a ion o goods om
Finland o S ockholm. Bo h Callia and Gode we e expec ed o co espond
wi h Coun Gus a Ho n ( he noble who had ecei ed he dona ion, 1592–
1657), and hen Coun ess Sig id Bielke (1620–1679) a e his dea h in 1657.
This changed, howe e , in 1671 when Bielke suspended Gode o alleged
malp ac ices and o de ed Callia o ake o e all adminis a i e asks in he
coun y. Po i Coun y had c own baili s ope a ing alongside coun y o icials in
he same pa ishes oo, because some o he axes we e s ill due o he C own
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Janne Haika i
despi e he dona ion; while some imes in o he coun ies and ba onies, bo h
C own and coun y migh e en be se ed by he same o icial.10
Ano he change ha occu ed du ing he se en een h cen u y was ha
c own baili s, al hough o icially on he lowes ung o he adminis a i e
ladde , began o delega e he p ac icali ies o ax collec ion o lowe
adminis a i e o icials, such as he u al police chie (länsman).11 Indeed,
s udies o Finnish local his o y show ha , a he s a o he se en een h
cen u y, he u al police chie was he pe son mos in ol ed wi h ax
collec ion in hose pa ishes ha we e no al eady pa o coun ies o ba onies.
As his supe io , he c own baili mainly moni o ed his collec ion p ocess
and only in e ened i he e was some issue ha needed o be esol ed.12
The e ha e been p e ious s udies on Swedish local communi ies, which
ha e been desc ibed as ei he ‘poli ical’ o ‘in e ac ional’, because he e we e
o icial and legi ima e channels o common people o ha e an in luence on
ma e s such as axa ion o mili a y ec ui men . Bu in mos cases he main
ocus o hese s udies has been on he ins i u ions and s uc u es hemsel es,
a he han he baili s.13 Gene ally speaking, he only ime he ole o baili s
has come o he o e is when he e we e epo s o con lic wi hin local
communi ies. In such con lic s o e axa ion o mili a y ec ui men , he
baili would be he one o bea he b un o opposi ion, as hose being axed
o en suspec ed he o icials nea es hem as being he ones esponsible
o any pe cei ed injus ices, lea ing hem exposed o accusa ions and
suspicions.14 Such indings a e signi ican , bu because hey only c op up in
imes o c isis, so hey pe haps do no adequa ely po ay he no mal s a e
o a ai s.
The no ion o baili s being s uck be ween a ock and a ha d place in his
manne , is no exac ly new, as he wo ding o he 1688 ins uc ions o c own
baili s e eal. The o mula o he oa h o o ice equi ed he baili o pledge
himsel accoun able o all his du ies “in on o God, his Royal Majes y,
his Chambe Collegium, and e e y hones man”.15 This same s a emen
desc ibes he s a ing poin o agency o baili s, which is examined in his
chap e oo. Demands we e posed on baili s om a numbe o di e en
di ec ions, some o which ela ed o his p ac ical asks while o he s u ged
him o conside his ac ions in mo al o cul u al e ms.
De ining agency – he egula ions and no ms ha applied o baili s
In he se en een h cen u y, c own baili s we e obliged o ollow w i en
ins uc ions. They we e usually d a ed indi idually, bu hey all ollowed
oughly he same pa e n. Duke Cha les (1550–1611) had published
common ins uc ions o all baili s in Finland back in 1602, bu i was no
un il 1688 ha he i s gene al di ec i e o c own baili s ac oss he whole
coun y was published. O he baili s se ing dona ion-holde s usually
ecei ed simila w i en ins uc ions om hei espec i e mas e s, bu
hese ob iously a ied a lo .16
The c own baili ins uc ions o 1688 con ain a leng hy lis o asks
di ided in o 25 chap e s. The main ole o he baili emained he same,

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The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600–1690)?
e en hough poli ical powe became mo e cen alized in he 1670s and
1680s wi h he accession Cha les XI (1655–1697) o he Swedish h one.
The o e all p io i y was s ill o collec all he a ious axes and o deli e
hem o he C own’s depo s on ime. The ins uc ions p o ided s ep-by-s ep
guidelines on he bes way o ca y his ou . They speci ied he documen s
equi ed o he di e en phases o ax collec ion; he co ec p ocedu es
o secu ing he legi imacy o all ac i i ies; he dec ees and oyal o de s
ha had o be aken in o accoun in he p ocess; and how he baili was
supposed o coope a e wi h o he c own o icials.17 Mos impo an ly o all,
he c own baili s had o ake an oa h o ca y ou hei du ies in on o he
local cou , which made people awa e o bo h he baili ’s au ho i y and his
obliga ions. As hey hea d him ake his oa h, he common people we e bo h
symbolically and li e ally g an ed he posi ion o supe ising he ac ions o
he baili .18
The ins uc ions o 1688 a e signi ican ly longe han, o example, he
ins uc ions o Duke Cha les om 1602, and hey show a shi owa ds
sys ema izing he bu eauc acy. Ye hey a e a om comp ehensi e, and
emain a he abs ac . Ins ead o de ailing he wo k mo e ho oughly, he
1688 ins uc ions nebulously demand ha he baili should pe sonally
acqui e he knowledge o how o ake ca e o he ask. One s ipula ed
equi emen , o example, is simply o ha e a “pene a ing insigh ” in o
adminis a i e ma e s; ano he is o keep a “wa ch ul eye” o e hem; and
ano he is o “be in o med” o c ucial “ ac o s” wha e e hey migh be. In
his espec , he ins uc ions place expec a ions mo e on he pe sonali y o
he baili a he han on he p ecise na u e o he asks hemsel es. In mos
cases his mean o he baili was expec ed o ac “diligen ly” o “wi h all his
migh ” o ul il his du ies (in o he wo ds, o be loyal).19
These gene alised guidelines sugges ha , in p ac ice, baili s o en had
o ake he ini ia i e and be pe sonally esponsible o hei ac ions, as i
seemed clea o mos o he ime ha he baili would ace un o eseen
ci cums ances. Thus he exac de ails o each baili ’s agency we e de ined
mo e by his indi idual skills, and he demands speci ic o his su oundings,
han he guidelines. Wha he oa h o o ice om 1688 did, was pu in o
wo ds he al eady commonly accep ed belie ha baili s should ha e
as ong mo al conscience and commi men , no only o he C own, bu
also o God.
This wo ding was e iden ly amilia o he o icials o Po i Coun y,
o example when, in 1672, bo h Påwal Callia and Hans Hansson Gode
de ended hei ac ions in co espondence by insis ing ha hei conscience
was pu e and ha , i necessa y, hey would be willing o s and in on o
God o answe any accusa ions. This is also appa en in Coun ess Bielke
asking hem i he e was any hing “on hei conscience”. Pa adoxically, he
undamen al law which p esupposed any membe o socie y aking an oa h
in public, was ha he was clea ing his name o any suspicious c iminal
ac i i y. Ano he ac o o bea in mind, was ha Lu he anism was a he
hea o s a e-building in se en een h cen u y Sweden. No only did i s
eachings se e he in e es s o he C own in e ms o how esou ces we e
exploi ed, bu pas o s could also u ge hei cong ega ion o also keep an eye
170
Janne Haika i
on whe he he e we e any co up o icials (as well as pay hei axes on
ime). The ole o pas o s in local communi y is discussed in ano he chap e
o his book.20
Adminis a i e wo k’s mo al co e e lec ed he commonly accep ed
no ion ha God was a bi a ing o e wha was good and bad; and his
na u ally inc eased he p essu e o wo k on baili s and o he s a e o icials.
People we e always accoun able o God in he end. In ac , his idea ha
“you only eap wha you sow” was e e ed o on se e al di e en occasions
by people in Po i Coun y. Fo example, Sig id Bielke e e ed o i when
she i ed Gode in 1672. Pe haps hese kinds o s a emen s we e simply
he o ical o mulas epea ed as a ma e o ou ine, and i is indeed di icul
o know jus how eligious hese people we e being, seeing as none o hem
con empla es his in de ail; bu neglec ing hese s a emen s al oge he would
be equally w ong, as hey a leas ep esen ed he ideals o good go e nance.
Chu ch and God was he e o e disciplining no jus he common people, bu
he adminis a ion oo.21
In Po i Coun y, o icials willingly de ended and explained hei ac ions
using biblical a gumen s. Fo example, Påwal Callia was a baili who ough
wi h his b o he Hen ich Callia (d. 1675) o decades. Du ing his ime and
o complica e ma e s, Hen ich himsel had wo c own baili appoin men s,
so he amily eud soon u ned in o a la ge adminis a i e issue a imes
( ising o a head in he 1670s). Bo h b o he s ied o ha m each o he ’s
epu a ion by accusing he o he o all kinds o misconduc , and hen
when suddenly Hen ich Callia died om a disease in he sp ing o 1675,
his b o he el i was he ul ima e sign o God’s blessing. Påwal Callia had
p e iously asked God me e ou “ he punishmen and shame” he el ha his
b o he dese ed. “Please God, don’ le him go unpunished,” he had u ged,
and when his b o he died, he explained in a le e ha God “in his amazing
wisdom, has punished my b o he ’s house wi h a black c oss”. Be o e his
dea h, Hen ich Callia had o eseen simila a e o his b o he . Hen ich had
pledged his innocence o his supe io go e no (landshö ding) Ha ald Oxe
(1628–1689) and swo n ha he was eady o s and in on o God wi h
aclea conscience, eassu ing his supe io ha i was Påwal Callia who was
des ined o he ul ima e penal y o dea h. Hen ich p edic ed ha “[ ]he head
o he ins iga o will all”.
The e was always a mo al dimension o he baili ’s agency, wi h he
ques ion looming o e him o whe he his conduc was jus in he eyes bo h o
he C own and he people he collec ed axes om. Ano he ‘unw i en’ code
(a leas o he mos pa ), was ela ed o domes ic household con en ions
o he ime. Being in on o he king, o nobili y esponsible o axa ion in
an a ea, was in many ways he same as a se an p esen ing himsel be o e
his mas e , and i mean ollowing he ules o pa ia chal hie a chy. Tax
adminis a ion he e o e ollowed he p inciples ha de e mined nea ly all
o he social in e ac ion, i.e., he ules o a domes ic household, whe e amily
was he mos impo an ideal. Acco dingly, his ela ionship was no based
on a sala y, bu mo e like a amilial connec ion whe e he baili had he
‘junio ’ ole.22
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The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600–1690)?
Loyal y and de o ion we e expec ed om junio s in a socie y whe e he
no ms o pa ia chal amily li e we e amilia o e e yone. Indeed, he ules
o beha iou inside a amily we e no jus biblically de ined, bu also ound in
he so-called ‘oeconomic’ li e a u e. These books aimed a educa ing nobili y
in becoming good mas e s and manage s o p ope y. Essen ially, he main
message was ha he e we e no sho cu s o achie ing his. The nobili y
had o de o e hemsel es o ag icul u e and in so doing, would con ibu e
o he undamen al eo ganisa ion o socie y along he lines o asmoo h-
unning household. Oeconomics championed he noble household (o
es a e doc ine), a he han ha o he C own o lowe es a es, o such
apoin ha he agency o i s o icials we e i ually synonymous wi h he
ideals and i ues o a good nobleman. This pe sonal de o ion was enough
o endo se he o ice-holde .23
Oeconomic li e a u e also con ained in o ma ion on how o manage he
landed p ope ies, hus p o iding guidelines o o icials who managed he
dona ions, e en hough hey we e no usually o noble o igin. Baili s we e
expec ed o dedica e hemsel es in ensi ely o all he de ails o managemen .
The ideals we e p esen ed in he con ex o a single mano economy, bu again
hey we e expandable o la ge se ings. Conc e e examples o good conduc
could be applied o any scale o managemen . The guides ins uc ed how
he baili should beha e in e e yday li e. Fo example, i was ecommended
ha he baili enjoy his meals among he se an s so ha he e would be no
eason o hem o belie e ha he baili was ha ing he bes pieces o mea .
T anspa ency was needed, because he baili had o be mo ally supe io
o he se an s below him, and honou able conduc would help him gain
espec and loyal y om his subo dina es.24
E en ually oeconomic hough p omo ed he idea ha baili s should be
like a he s o a amily, who should ea hei ‘es a e’ in he same way as
hey would aise hei own child en. The baili ’s agency was he e o e no
simply ocused on he p ac icali ies o secu ing he bes possible e enue.
Ul ima ely, hey also had o be sensi i e o p omo ing he igh men ali y
and mo ali y among he people hey wo ked wi h. Baili s hus no only had
o show obedience, bu also o b eed i in hose a ound hem.
The p ocess o collec ing axes
The Swedish axa ion sys em in he se en een h cen u y consis ed o
anumbe o axes ha all we e ela ed o he capaci y o each a m. The size
and quali y o landed p ope ies de ined he ax a es; and he manpowe
in each a m also coun ed o a ce ain deg ee. The ax a es we e eco ded
in he C own’s accoun books, and al hough ax collec o s a he local le el
egula ly assessed he condi ions in which hei axpaye s li ed, he key
igu es ma ked in he Land Cha ge Regis e (jo debok) we e a ely changed
du ing he se en een h cen u y; and his p o ided a solid ounda ion o
axa ion. And ye , al hough he basics o he sys em did no change adically,
he e we e se e al new axes ha we e in oduced in he i s decades o
172
Janne Haika i
he se en een h cen u y. As a whole, he axa ion sys em was now he e o e
acomplex se o di e en con ibu ions, which we e deli e able o a numbe
o pa ies: he C own, he nobili y, local us ees and he Chu ch.
The axes we e collec ed acco ding o an es ablished schedule. In mos
egions hey we e adi ionally paid on ce ain days, which we e usually in
he au umn a e he c op had been ha es ed. Once collec ed, he axes
we e ho oughly e i ied on hei way o he C own’s wa ehouses o make
su e hey go he e. The c own baili s kep accoun s o all he ax e enue
collec ed, and i i had no been paid in ull, hey had o p o ide a e i iable
explana ion o he amoun missing. Wi hou an accep able excuse hey
we e conside ed pe sonally esponsible o he loss, and i shows jus how
much p essu e hey we e unde om he hie a chical c own adminis a ion.
A con i ma ion o he easons as o why an amoun was missing would
ha e o be ob ained om he local cou , and he baili s wo king o he
nobili y usually ollowed a simila p ocedu e oo, i hey had an amoun
missing om hei co e s and needed o accoun o i .25
In no mal local ci cums ances, he es ablished sys em le li le oom
o nego ia ion be ween he ax collec o and axed. Howe e , i was ai ly
common o hese ci cums ances o no be no mal. In ac , he clima e in
Sweden became colde in he se en een h cen u y and c op ailu es o en
hampe ed ag icul u e h oughou he cen u y, culmina ing in a g ea amine
in he 1690s. In Finland alone, he popula ion dec eased by 30%, wi h mo e
han 100,000 people dying h ough amine and disease.26
I was no unusual ha he baili s ailed o secu e he ax elie s om
he au ho i ies ha hey had p omised he po e y-s icken a me . In hese
cases he c own baili was usually suspended om his posi ion and had o
pay he missing amoun om his own pocke . The al e na i e was o he
baili o y and ge he money om he a me a e all. I he was a weal hy
man, he could su i e his dismissal om o ice bu i could also mean a loss
o s able income. G els Eskilsson wo ked as he c own baili o he a ea
o Ylä-Sa akun a (1639–1640) and accumula ed a deb o 800 iksdale o
uncollec ed axes. E en ually, he C own decided o con isca e all his landed
p ope ies – a leas wo a ms – o eco e he deb . G els Eskilsson did no
deny he deb as such, bu he el injus ice a he con isca ion p ocess and
e en ually bu ned his a ms ou o ange and despe a ion.27
E en in he mids o a amine i could be di icul o baili s o con ince
hose highe in he adminis a ion ha i would be di icul o collec axes
in ull. Pe haps one o he mos ex eme examples o his, is he case o
Jacob Sa ingius (d. 1714). He wo ked as a mano baili in he 1690s unde
Coun Axel Julius De la Ga die (1637–1710) and ba oness So ia Juliana
Fo bus (1649–1701), nobili y who had los much o hei ax income in he
G ea Reduc ion. They we e eluc an o accep any ax elie s he baili was
sugges ing despi e he g ea amine o 1696–1697 ha had s icken hei
mano s and hose wo king in hem. The baili hoped ha he nobili y in
cha ge migh ins ead send g ain o ease he pligh o he people, as one
could expec honou able mas e o do, bu he coun ess mos ly neglec ed
his epo s and ins ead blamed Sa ingius o w i ing oo a ely.28
179
The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600–1690)?
by no only dic a ing he igh s and limi s o his p ope y, bu also ac i ely
ensu ing he land was used p ope ly. Such a sys em p esupposed ha he
baili would ac quickly and decisi ely, and his was also a he oo o all
o he social and adminis a i e ac i i ies. Honou , o example, had o be
de ended wi h he same decisi eness and igou oo.43
The dual na u e o he baili ’s exis ence was such ha he needed o be
bo h a good pe son in he eyes o his ellow men, and a he same ime
a de ende o his mas e ’s igh s. Wha e e ac ions we e aken, i was
impo an o baili s o empe hei asse i eness and igou so ha hey
would no c oss he line and u n in o c imes. Agg essi ely des oying
a ecalci an axpaye ’s epu a ion could back i e and become de ama ion;
and while i was impo an o de end he in e es s o you supe io s a
e e y oppo uni y, i was also essen ial ha a ha monious way was ound o
conclude he collec ion o axes. In a ious adminis a ional p ocedu es, he
ph asing was such ha axes should be paid “bene olen ly”. In o he wo ds,
he e needed o be an o e all ag eemen be ween he axpaye and collec o
as o he legi imacy o he ansac ion. Ul ima ely, i was compassion ha
was expec ed o p e ail inside he pa ia chal socie y.44
In he case o Påwal Callia, his balancing ac p o ed o be di icul o
ollow h ough. His ca ee ended when he go in o a se ious con lic wi h
he ica o Hui inen, Johannes Keckonius (1643–1719), a he same ime
as his epu a ion as an o ice-holde was a s ake. Callia and Keckonius i s
disag eed o e whe he he ica was en i led o some concessions o no ,
bu i soon u ned in o a ma e o pe sonal dislike. Bo h men accused each
o he o malp ac ice, bu mo e han any hing hey a acked each o he wi h
e bal de ama ions and d agging each o he ’s name in he di . Ul ima ely
he suppo e s o Keckonius succeeded in sp eading gossip abou he baili
being co up ; and al hough Påwal Callia ecei ed a o e o con idence om
he common people o he local cou s o being a ai baili , he con lic
be ween him and Keckonius ne e heless ook i s oll on his epu a ion
among he local eli e, and in he eco ds he s a s o be e e ed o as an “old
dog”.
Påwal Callia was suspended om his du ies as baili in 1678 and was
accused o co up ion, bu i p o ed o be di icul o ind conc e e e idence
agains him, e en a e yea s o in es iga ions. Bu his case demons a es
ha co up ion was no always necessa y o b ing an end o a local o icial’s
ca ee . Agency could be dic a ed by in o mal ac o s ha we e beyond he
con ol o he C own, because local communi ies had hei own hie a chies
and mechanisms o de ining au ho i y. I is possible ha Påwal Callia’s
p oblems wi h his b o he Hen ich had damaged his epu a ion, and when
Påwal Callia go in o ano he con lic , he al eady had a name o himsel .
The e was hus al eady plen y o di o Keckonius o smea Callia wi h, and
as he c i icism wen on, i began o unde mine he posi ion o Callia in he
eyes o Coun ess Bielke oo, whose la en suspicions we e now gi en u he
uel despi e he lack o any conc e e e idence o malp ac ice.
Thus he agency o a local o icial co e ed a g ey a ea be ween ollowing
o icial ins uc ions and commanding espec among he local popula ion,
which was dependen on in o mal ac o s in e e yday li e. Ideally, he e o e,

180
Janne Haika i
a baili knew he communi y he was wo king in, bu he ies he had wi h i
we e no s ong. Bu e e yone knew ha his was equen ly impossible and
he baili was usually mo e inclined one way o he o he . The C own and
nobili y looked o men who commanded in o mal au ho i y among locals,
and ye a he same ime, o hose same easons, hey would cons an ly
ha bou suspicions abou he baili ’s abili y o emain loyal o he highe
au ho i ies i all o his iend and ela i es we e li ing in his ju isdic ion.
This con adic ion may ha e been he eason behind why many baili s’
ca ee s we e o en cu sho .
In he six een h cen u y, he baili s a ely se ed in he same loca ion
o long pe iods, and his con inued on in o he se en een h cen u y. Y jö
Bloms ed ’s lis o c own baili s sugges s ha each held his pos o usually
a pe iod o only be ween 1–3 yea s. In o he pa s o he coun y he e we e
a hand ul o pos s ha we e held by he same o icial o 5–10 yea s in he
la e 1650s and 1660s (and a couple o e en longe ), bu gene ally speaking i
seems ha hey we e an excep ion. Those baili s who wo ked o nobili y in
he dona ions had ca ee s ha las ed sligh ly longe han hose who se ed
he C own, bu he a ia ion was no huge. In Jokipii’s ca alogue, he e a e
mo e baili s se ing longe pe iods unde he nobili y han he C own, bu
he e a e also hose who se ed only 1–3 yea s. Again, he e we e se e al
easons o he as u no e . As he cases p esen ed abo e show, he e
we e no only cases whe e he abuse o powe and co up ion could lead
o a baili ’s dismissal, bu also o he s whe e he was ei he simply unable o
collec he axes, o else mo ing on o a be e assignmen .
Biog aphical s udies demons a e ha he posi ion o baili was
aco ne s one in he ca ee s o many social climbe s. Fo example, Ch is ie
Månsson (1595–1659), who wo ked as a dona ion baili o Coun s Magnus
B ahe (1564–1633) and Jakob De la Ga die (1583–1652) pu sued his own
business alongside his baili du ies, o e en ually become an i on o ge y
indus ialis and a me chan . Meanwhile, Nils Bö jesson (1580–1655), who
was he c own baili o Väs e gö land in he 1610s, wen on o become
he Mayo o Gö ebo g and a majo p i a e landlo d (a enda o ) he e. In
1630, he Ge man me chan Johan Bochmölle mo ed o Oulu o become
abu ghe o he own, and wen on o become he c own baili in a numbe
o bailiwicks om he end o ha decade o almos ano he wen y yea s.45
As o Hen ik Co e (d. 1680), who was a baili in he 1650s and 1660s o
he ba ony o Kajaani dona ed o Pe B ahe (1602–1680), and wen on o
become a bu ghe and e en ually Mayo o Raahe; he managed o un his
own business success ully a he same ime as aking ca e o ex ensi e du ies
in B ahe’s se ice. Behind his adminis a i e i les, Co e was essen ially
aclien o Coun B ahe, and a membe o an in o mal ne wo k ha se ed he
in e es s o he coun inside he adminis a ion. As such, Co e was ha dly
an excep ion, and while he signi icance o pa on-clien ne wo ks canno
be discussed he e in any g ea e de ail, su ice i o say, he ba gaining skills
o a baili we e also he same skills needed a he hea o hose ne wo ks.46
I seems e iden hen ha baili s could in many cases ex end hei
ac i i ies wi hou neglec ing hei basic du ies o o ice. I he e was no
nea by own o he baili o became a bu ghe o , he could y o ocus
181
The Baili : Be ween a Rock and a Ha d Place (1600–1690)?
ins ead on in ensi e a ming o o add ess o he u al asse s. Zacha ias
Willandh (d. 1667), o ins ance, who was he c own baili o he hund ed
o Sa olax was unning a ishe y in addi ion o his adminis a i e du ies. On
op o his, he acqui ed land and p ope ies, e en ually ending up wi h one
mano and wo a ms in he pa ish o Ran asalmi. Meanwhile Daniel Tolle
(d.1699), C own Baili o he hund ed o Ha ula (1665–1685) became a
majo a me , and wen on o become Mayo o Hämeenlinna; while Påwal
Callia was also a a me while a baili , as was his b o he Hen ich as C own
Baili o he hund ed o Lowe Sa akun a on h ee sepa a e occasions
(1651–1655, 1664–1666, and 1671–1673).47
The ac ha baili s we e o en able o pu sue p i a e in e es s, and
some imes hold mo e han one o ice a he same ime as ca ying ou he
du ies o he pos , is ye u he p oo ha mos baili s we e ising om he
g ass oo s le el o a middle anking o ice. I was an a ac i e p ospec ha
he e would be o he jobs made a ailable o anyone appoin ed as a baili
who showed p omising ba gaining skills which we e clea ly ans e able
elsewhe e; and his ac ed as a posi i e coun e balance o he all he nega i e
sides o he job (including he ac ha hey would be ul ima ely liable o
any unpaid axes).
The agency o baili s
In his chap e , he discussion has no been limi ed o simply c own baili s,
as by he se en een h cen u y he e we e baili s o a ious kinds in Sweden
and, al hough i is deba able as o whe he his same i le uly connec s
hese o icials in any way, hey all did sha e one key elemen in hei du ies
– ac ing as he b oke be ween he common people and he au ho i ies. The
job o each hus in ol ed using skills in nego ia ion, mu ual exchange and
e en coe cion o collec axes; bu his a ied om pos o pos in e ms o
wha le el i happened a . Wha agency did baili s eally ha e hen, o allow
hem o ca y ou hese asks?
The managemen o axa ion p esupposed o ganisa ional and logis ical
skills. The baili had o be able o ca y ou ax collec ion on schedule and
acco ding o es ablished ules by ollowing he o de s o he go e no and
his o ice. Occasionally, ax collec ion o he collec ion o he unpaid axes
would u n in o a physical al e ca ion, and so he baili and his se an s
had o be p epa ed o his. Agg essi eness (o a leas asse i eness) was in
ac a i ue o a local le el o icial, as i helped hem de end he in e es s o
he au ho i ies. The need o ul il hei obliga ions was hus a majo ac o
in hei agency, as i hey ailed in deli e ing axes on ime, hey could ace
ape sonal bank up cy o hei own.
A he same ime hey we e expec ed o ac ai ly, and pay a en ion o he
well-being o common people. The collec ion o axes was igh ly connec ed
o gaining in o ma ion on he ax-paying abili ies o people. Howe e , his
was no es ic ed o a simple in en o y o a pe sons goods and cha els;
i also ex ended o a sensi i e analysis o each axpaye as a pe son, and
his added a ce ain mo al dimension o he agency o baili s. To p ope ly
182
Janne Haika i
e alua e he in eg i y, hones y and decency o people in cases when hey
we e ha ing di icul ies in paying he o icial a e o ax was hus a ask ha
was p one o mee ing wi h con lic .
Because o his mo al dimension, baili s we e also le exposed o simila
mo al assessmen s by he local populace. They no only asked whe he he
ax collec o was ai and easonable in his judgemen s, bu also whe he
he was a good and honou able man. A lo o he guidelines used in his
ask we e ul ima ely biblically de i ed, and he local cle gymen we e hus
impo an agen s in local a ai s oo, as hey could assess he mo ali y o
he o icial in eligious e ms. All he baili could do was o make su e he
ollowed he uno icial no ms o he communi y in which he wo ked. The
agency o baili s was hus simul aneously shaped om below as well as
om abo e.
The esea ch on which his publica ion is based was unded by he Academy o Finland
(g an no. 137741).
No es
1 Ma s Hallenbe g, Kungen, ogda na och ike . Lokal ö al ning och s a sbyggande
unde idig Vasa id (S ockholm: B u us Ös lings Bok ö lag Symposion, 2001),
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och adminis a i a ö hållanden i syd äs a S e ige unde och e e no diska
sjuå sk ige . Biblio heca his o ica Lundensis 26 (Lund: Glee ups, 1971), p. 221;
Ma ie Lenne sand, Rä isans och allmogens beskydda e. Den absolu a s a en,
kommissione na och jäns emännen, ca 1680–1730. S udia His o ica Upsaliensia 190
(Uppsala: Uppsala uni e si e Lenne sand, 1999), p. 39; Bjö n Aske , I konungens
s ad och s älle. Länss y else i a be e 1635–1735 (Uppsala: S i elsen ö u gi ande
a A ki e enskapliga s udie , 2004), p. 60.
2 Joh. Axel Almquis , Den ci ila lokal ö al ningen i S e ige 1523–1630. Fö s a
delen (S ockholm: No s ed , 1917), pp. 112–134; Pen i Ren all, “Val iollise
aihee ja hallinnollis-oikeudellinen kehi ys”. In: Va sinais-Suomen his o ia V:1
(Tu ku: 1949), pp. 134–146; Kyös i Kiuasmaa, Suomen yleis- ja paikallishallinnon
oime ja niiden hoi o 1500-lu un jälkipuoliskolla ( . 1560–1600). Hallin o- ja
yh eiskun ahis o iallinen u kimus. His o iallisia Tu kimuksia 63 (Helsinki: Finnish
His o ical Socie y, 1962), pp. 27–43; Anssi Mäkinen, Linnalei i ja aino alkea .
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Biblio heca His o ica 73 (Helsinki: The Finnish Li e a u e Socie y, 2002), pp 124–
140, 209–211; Ös e be g, G änsbygd unde k ig, pp. 220–230.
3 Janne Haika i, Isännän, Jumalan ja ehellis en mies en edessä. Vallankäy ö ja
i kamies en oimin aympä is ö sa akun alaisessa maaseu uyh eisössä 1600-lu un
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4 The Finnish na ional biog aphy (Kansallisbiog a ia, h p://www.kansallisbiog a ia.
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5 Hallenbe g, Kungen, ogda na och ike , pp. 218–236.
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Kinnunen, Elina Suolah i. Tu kijalii on julkaisusa ja 73 ([Helsinki]: Tu kijalii o,
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10 Jokipii, Suomen k ei i- ja apaahe akunna , I, p. 96.
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pi äjän his o ia I. Ruo sin allan loppuun (Lammi: Lammin kun a,1972), pp. 254–
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