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Social media as a place o see and be seen : Explo ing ac o s a ec ing job a ainmen
ia social media
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Laukka inen, M. (2023). Social media as a place o see and be seen : Explo ing ac o s a ec ing
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Social media as a place o see and be seen:
Explo ing ac o s a ec ing job a ainmen ia
social media
Ma i Laukka inen
To ci e his a icle: Ma i Laukka inen (2023): Social media as a place o see and be seen:
Explo ing ac o s a ec ing job a ainmen ia social media, The In o ma ion Socie y, DOI:
10.1080/01972243.2023.2199418
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Published online: 18 Ap 2023.
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The In o maTIon SocIeTy
Social media as a place o see and be seen: Explo ing ac o s a ec ing
job a ainmen ia social media
Ma i Laukka inen
Depa men o Social Science and Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, inland
ABSTRACT
Job seeke s can u ilize social media pla o ms o ac i ely sea ch o job oppo uni ies and
also ecei e unsolici ed job o e s om ec ui e s and employe s. Using da a om a
ep esen a i e sample o Finnish social media use s, his a icle s udies bo h aspec s o social
media job a ainmen by analyzing how much indi iduals success ully apply o jobs and
ge ec ui ed o posi ions h ough social media. Resul s show ha he p e alence o
success ully applying o jobs h ough social media does no di e s a is ically be ween
socio-economic g oups, bu he p e alence o ge ing ec ui ed o jobs h ough social media
is g ea e wi hin highe socio-economic g oups. LinkedIn use s a e mo e likely o ge ec ui ed
o a job, while s a egic ne wo king and pos ing o p o essional con en inc ease he chances
o bo h success ully applying and ge ing ec ui ed o a job h ough social media. The
indings demons a e ha in social media-media ed job ma ke , job seeke s’ online beha io
a ec s one’s exposu e o job leads and ca ee oppo uni ies.
In oduc ion
Social media pla o ms a e ecognized as one o he
p ima y in e media ies in oday’s digi al job ma ke
(Gandini and Pais 2018; Sha one 2017). While many
people join hese pla o ms o enjoymen and leisu e
pu poses, esea ch has shown ha use s can gain p o-
essional ca ee bene i s om social media usage (Da is
e  al. 2020; Niki ko and Sain y 2014; U z 2016). The
signi ican ole o social media in labo ma ke ma ch-
making can be a ibu ed o i s capaci y o o e a
cos -e icien a enue o job seeke s and employe s o
exchange job- ela ed in o ma ion (B own and Vaughn
2011; Chiang and Suen 2015). On he supply-side o
he labo ma ke , job seeke s u ilize social media ea u es
and pe sonal con ac s o online job sea ch (Ga g and
Telang 2018; Ka aoglu, Ha gi ai, and Nguyen 2022). On
he demand-side, employe s le e age social media pla -
o ms as a alen a ac ion and selec ion ool (Bohne
and Ross 2010; McDonald e  al. 2022; Olling on, Gibb,
and Ha cou 2013; Phillips and Gully 2015).
Mos o he li e a u e cha ac e izes job sea ch as a
p ocess in which job seeke s acqui e in o ma ion abou
po en ial job oppo uni ies h ough ins umen al job
sea ch ac i i ies, i.e., pu posi e in es men s o in o ma-
ion seeking (McDonald 2010). In he social
media-media ed job ma ke , his amewo k p o es
inadequa e, as ec ui e s can p oac i ely sea ch o
po en ial job candida es, allowing job seeke s o ecei e
in o ma ion abou job oppo uni ies e en i hey a e
no ac i ely sea ching o hem. Some use s know his
and build hei online p esence wi h his p emise in
mind (Bange e , Roulin, and König 2012; Be kelaa
2014). E en hough changing jobs wi hou ac i ely
engaging in a job sea ch is no a no el concep (see
G ano e e 1995), Social media pla o ms ha e b oad-
ened he scope o social media “headhun ing” o include
a wide a ie y o occupa ional g oups and posi ions
(K oll, Vei , and Ziegle 2021; McDonald e  al. 2019).
Se e al au ho s ha e lagged he lack o esea ch
in e es in how social media a ec s indi iduals’ ca ee
ansi ions and labo ma ke ou comes (Ro h e  al.
2016; Sulli an and Al A iss 2021; T eem and Leona di
2013; U z and B eue 2016). This a icle in oduces
a no el amewo k o s udying social media job
a ainmen by ecognizing ha job seeke s can use
social media pla o ms o acqui e job- ela ed
© 2023 The au ho (s). Published wi h license by Taylo & ancis G oup, LLc.
CONTACT ma i Laukka inen ma i.m.laukk[email p o ec ed] Depa men o Social Science and Philosophy, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, opinki i,
Keskussai aalan ie 2, Jy äskylä 40014, inland
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01972243.2023.2199418
This is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he c ea i e commons a ibu ion-noncomme cial-noDe i a i es License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans-
o med, o buil upon in any way. The e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he accep ed manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h
hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
ecei ed 10 ma ch 2022
accep ed 2 ap il 2023
KEYWORDS
Imp ession managemen ;
LinkedIn; online job sea ch;
social media; social ne wo king
2 M. LAUKKARINEN
in o ma ion and conduc online job sea ches, as well
as enhance hei isibili y and a ac he a en ion o
ec ui e s and po en ial employe s. Consequen ly, job
seeke s mus ha e no only he skills o seek ou
p o essionally ele an in o ma ion, bu also possess
cul u al capi al and knowledge o p esen hemsel es
in a manne ha cap u es he a en ion o ec ui e s
(Bills, Di S asio, and Gë xhani 2017; Sha one 2017).
In his amewo k, job-seeking h ough social media
is simul aneously a pu posi e p ocess o
in o ma ion-seeking as well as a p ocess pa ly medi-
a ed by chance. The esea ch on se endipi ous job
ma ching has sugges ed ha social in e ac ion can
ha e unin ended consequences o ca ee ou comes
(B igh , P yo , and Ha pham 2005), which is likely
o be an e en bigge ac o on social media, whe e
he chances o se endipi ous encoun e s is pa icu-
la ly high.
While ecei ing job leads h ough one’s social media
ne wo k can seem an unexpec ed e en om he use ’s
poin o iew, esea ch has shown ha indi idual and
con ex ual ac o s in luence he eceip o unsolici ed
job in o ma ion (McDonald 2010). This a icle examines
wha ac o s a ec he p obabili y o ecei ing jobs
h ough social media. The i s goal o he a icle is o
in es iga e he success a es o job seeke s om di e en
socio-economic g oups in applying o jobs and ge ing
ec ui ed o jobs h ough social media. The second goal
is o analyze he ac o s ha impac he likelihood o
job a ainmen ia social media. To add ess hese ques-
ions, a na ionally ep esen a i e sample o Finnish
social media use s was analyzed.
The e olu ion o social media and hei
impac on online job sea ch and ec ui men
The landscape o social media pla o ms has e ol ed
apidly du ing he las decade. The in oduc ion o
a ious echnologies has a ec ed he ways how pla -
o ms p ocess con en and how use s gain access o
in o ma ion (Ellison and Vi ak 2015; Kane 2017).
These changes ha e also impac ed how job seeke s
and ec ui e s ob ain p o essionally ele an in o ma-
ion h ough social media. Al hough social media
pla o ms con inue o e ol e and emain a mo ing
a ge o esea che s, i is impo an o iden i y some
signi ican changes ha ha e in luenced con empo a y
social media job sea ch and ec ui ing.
Mos o he social media- ela ed li e a u e cen e s
on he e m social ne wo k si e. In a widely u ilized
de ini ion, boyd and Ellison (2007, 211) de ine social
ne wo k si es (SNS) as “web-based se ices ha allow
indi iduals o (1) cons uc a public o semipublic
p o ile wi hin a bounded sys em, (2) a icula e a lis
o o he use s wi h whom hey sha e a connec ion,
and (3) iew and a e se hei lis o connec ions
and hose made by o he s wi hin he sys em.”
Subsequen ly, in hei e ised de ini ion, Ellison and
boyd (2014) acknowledge ha social ne wo k si es
ha e e ol ed om hei “ iend” o “ ollowe ” based
o igins mo e owa d algo i hmic-cu a ed s eams o
con en . E en hough he e ised de ini ion1 akes in o
accoun ha social ne wo k si es a en’ as p o ile-cen ic
as hey used o be, Kane e  al. (2014) a gue ha he
e m social ne wo k “si e” is misleading gi en he
cu en s a e o social media. Ins ead, hey p opose a
eplacemen e m social media ne wo k, which hey
de ine as ha ing “ ou essen ial ea u es such ha
use s (1) ha e a unique use p o ile ha is cons uc ed
by he use , by membe s o hei ne wo k, and by he
pla o m; (2) access digi al con en h ough, and p o ec
i om, a ious sea ch mechanisms p o ided by he
pla o m; (3) can a icula e a lis o o he use s wi h
whom hey sha e a ela ional connec ion; and (4) iew
and a e se hei connec ions and hose made by
o he s on he pla o m” (278, i alics in o iginal).
This a icle acknowledges ha social media pla -
o ms ha e e ol ed om hei ini ial “bounded” single
websi e o igins o mo e open da a analy ic-d i en
in as uc u es, which ha e enabled a b oade use o
use da a in labo ma ke ma chmaking (see Köchling
and Wehne 2020). Fo example, on LinkedIn,
pla o m-p o ided sea ch ools enable ec ui e s o
gain access o a a ge ed pool o po en ial job candi-
da es based on he in o ma ion p esen ed on he use ’s
LinkedIn p o ile (McDonald e al. 2019). These ma ch-
ing p ocesses a e la gely media ed by algo i hm-based
p edic i e analy ics, which emains an unde s udied
subjec in online job ma ke esea ch (see Sh es ha
and Yang 2019).
In p o essional con ex , Facebook, LinkedIn, and
Twi e a e among he mos s udied social media pla -
o ms (see U z 2016). These pla o ms di e in hei
a chi ec u e and in ended use (Papacha issi 2009).
Facebook’s use in e ace is gea ed mo e owa d pe -
sonal sel -exp ession, whe eas LinkedIn’s use in e ace
is designed o p o essional sel -p esen a ion (Van
Dijck 2013). Facebook’s in e ace incen i izes use s o
publish pe sonal da a (hobbies, in e es s, e c.).
LinkedIn, on he o he hand, p o ides a uni o m and
ch onological in e ace o publishing p o essional
ca ee -o ien ed in o ma ion. Twi e p o ides use s
limi ed possibili ies o sha ing p o ile in o ma ion
and ins ead allows use s o pos sho ex ual messages
o a ne wo k o “ ollowe s”. Twi e ’s e e al-based
in e ace p omo es dialogical communica ion, e en
ThE INFoRMATIoN SocIETy 3
hough he e a e no echnical equi emen s o social
expec a ions o ecip ocal communica ion (Ma wick
and boyd 2011). Use s ne wo k composi ions also a y
by pla o m. On Facebook, ne wo ks a e ypically
comp ised o an exis ing g oup o iends and acquain-
ances, and he pla o m is used o suppo p eexis ing
o line ies. As a ca ee -o ien ed pla o m, LinkedIn
p omo es p o essional ne wo king, and use s ypically
connec wi h wo k- ela ed acquain ances o expe s
in hei ields (boyd and Ellison 2007). On Twi e ,
he ne wo k composi ions a e gene ally asymme ical,
as he pla o ms’ ollowing unc ion doesn’ necessi a e
ecip ocal connec ion. The asymme y o ne wo ks
en ails ha on Twi e , con en each is ha d o de ine,
especially i use s’ p i acy se ings a e un es ic ed
(Ma wick and boyd 2011).
Social media as a place o see
Gene ally speaking, online job sea ch e e s o any
ins ance when people u ilize he in e ne in hei job
sea ch, anging om online job boa ds (e.g., Mons e .
com) o social media pla o ms (S e enson 2009).
P e ious esea ch has es ablished ha online job
sea ch educes he du a ion o unemploymen and
migh help job seeke s ind mo e p es igious jobs
(DiMaggio and Bonikowski 2008; Fabe man and
Kudlyak 2016). Acco ding o Kuhn and Mansou
(2014), unemployed people who look o wo k online
eemploy app oxima ely 25% as e han hose who
do no sea ch o wo k online. E en hough he
au ho s did no speci ically e iew he e ec s o social
media pla o ms on job a ainmen , hey concluded
ha “con ac ing iends and ela i es online is highly
co ela ed wi h job- inding a es” (1231). These ind-
ings acco d wi h p e ious li e a u e, which has es ab-
lished ha besides casual socializing ac i i ies, people
u ilize social media o in o ma ion-seeking pu poses
(B and zæg and Heim 2009; Vi ak and Ellison 2013).
Fo example, on LinkedIn, use s can sea ch o pos ed
and ad e ised jobs as well as each ou o hei ne -
wo k con ac s o job leads and e e als (Ga g and
Telang 2018).
Compa a i e s udies ha e shown ha LinkedIn
seems o yield mos p o essional bene i s o i s use s
(Niki ko and Sain y 2014). U z’s (2016) s udy o
Du ch online use s also suppo s his iew. In he
s udy, LinkedIn use s epo ed he highes p o essional
in o ma ion bene i s ( imely access o ele an in o -
ma ion and being e e ed o ca ee oppo uni ies),
ollowed by Twi e use s and las ly Facebook use s.
E en hough U z’s ini ial s udy p edic ed p o essional
in o ma ion bene i s o a ious measu es, such as
pos ing o p o essional con en and he numbe o
s ong ne wo k ies, he ollow-up longi udinal s udy
(U z and B eue 2016) showed long- e m p o essional
in o ma ion bene i s only o s a egic ne wo king.
Acco ding o he au ho s, he lack o long- e m ben-
e i s is linked o how indi iduals sha e and seek in o -
ma ion on social media. Social media use s an icipa e
p omp eedback o hei que ies and pos s, which is
why in e ac ions a ely yield in o ma ion bene i s a e
a ce ain pe iod has passed.
Social media as he place o be seen
In addi ion o job seeke s, employe o ganiza ions
also u ilize social media pla o ms o
in o ma ion-seeking pu poses (Da ison, Ma ais , and
Bing 2011). Employe s u ilize social media o a ious
pu poses h oughou he ec ui men p ocess, and i
is impo an o iden i y whe he hey a e using i o
a ac candida es o e alua e hem. Online sc eening
o “cybe e ing” is a p ocess whe e employe s e al-
ua e job candida e’s po en ial job pe o mance and
cha ac e is ics by u ilizing he in o ma ion a ailable
on he in e ne (B own and Vaughn 2011; McDonald
e  al. 2022). In p ac ice, his is done by e iewing
candida e’s social media p o ile o “googling” he can-
dida e. These assessmen s a e ela ed o he selec ion
phase o he ec ui men p ocess (Ro h e  al. 2016),
meaning ha ec ui e s use online sc eening as an
addi ional in o ma ion sou ce a e he e alua ion o
p elimina y in o ma ion, i.e., CV, applica ion o m, o
i s sc eening in e iew (Nikolaou 2014).
Be o e he selec ion phase, employe s also use
social media o ac i e sou cing, which in ol es he
p oac i e sea ch and eaching ou o po en ial job
candida es (B eaugh 2008; K oll, Vei , and Ziegle
2021, Olling on, Gibb, and Ha cou 2013). McDonald
e al. (2019) p esen ed an insigh ul analysis and dis-
cussion on his sca cely esea ched phase o ec ui -
men . In hei quali a i e s udy, he au ho s desc ibed
how ec ui e s use LinkedIn o iden i y passi e job
candida es, i.e., employed indi iduals who a e no
looking o wo k bu migh be willing o change jobs.
By u ilizing LinkedIn as a “wo k o ce da abase”,
ec ui e s can sea ch he use base and hei ne wo k
connec ions o ind po en ial job candida es. Paid
se ices a e also o e ed by he pla o m, which p o-
ides ec ui e s wi h access o a ious sea ch unc ions
and p edic i e analy ic ools. These ea u es allow
ec ui e s o scan and il e he en i e use base based
on he in o ma ion p o ided in he use ’s LinkedIn
p o ile. Rec ui e s can il e he use base by hei
p o essional expe ience and compe ence and also

4 M. LAUKKARINEN
le e age algo i hm-based p edic i e analy ics ools o
so indi iduals by hei sociodemog aphic back-
g ound and in e p e ed pe sonali y ai s. Au ho s
sugges ha algo i hmic sea ch ools, among o he
in e ne echnologies, ha e e ol ed in o a new sou ce
o labo -ma ke pola iza ion. In his new kind o
“winne - ake-all labo ma ke ”, ac i e sou cing p ac-
ices inc easingly a o hose who can digi ally signal
compe ence and ma ch employe s’ subjec i e pe cep-
ions o op imal pe o mance, while compe i ion
amongs o he wo ke s is ge ing inc easingly in en-
si ied (McDonald e  al. 2019, 96).
Simila ly, Sha one (2017) a gues ha o job seek-
e s, employe ´s use o social media is a double-edged
swo d. On one hand, social media pla o ms o e job
seeke s he oppo uni y o inc ease hei isibili y o
ec ui e s. On he o he hand, as employe s inc eas-
ingly use social media o ac i e sou cing, job seeke s
mus in es mo e ime and e o in o hei online
p esence o a oid missing ou on p o essional oppo -
uni ies. While employe s ha e always been inclined
o a oid s igma ized applican s in a o o p i ileged
applican s (Bills, Di S asio, and Gë xhani 2017),
ad ancemen s in echnology and wide access o open
da a ha e esul ed in a signi ican inc ease in he
numbe o candida es ha employe s can now each
using algo i hmic ools. In his ac i e sou cing p o-
cess, mino a ia ions in digi al signals can ha e con-
side able implica ions o job ma ke ou comes. The e
is e idence ha con empo a y ec ui men p ac ices,
such as ac i e sou cing, a e suscep ible o bo h implici
and explici disc imina ion. (K oll, Vei , and
Ziegle 2021).
Employe s’ p oac i e use o social media o iden-
i ying and app oaching po en ial job candida es, i.e.
ac i e sou cing, inc eases he likelihood o job o e s
being ex ended o job seeke s who ha e no ac i ely
pa icipa ed in he job-seeking p ocess. This aises
he ques ion o wha ac o s a ec he chances o
ge ing ound and con ac ed by an employe . Resea ch
on employe ’s use o social media has indica ed ha
ec ui e s u ilize job seeke ’s sel -p esen a ion signals
o assess hei sui abili y o he job and he o gani-
za ion hey’ e hi ing o (Chiang and Suen 2015;
McDonald e  al. 2022; Roulin and Bange e 2013).
Social media pla o ms p o ide use s wi h he oppo -
uni y o e icien ly edi and dis ibu e in o ma ion,
which is why hese pla o ms a e o en desc ibed as
ideal pla o ms o p o essional imp ession manage-
men (Roulin and Le ashina 2016). P e ious s udies
on p o essional imp ession managemen ha e ocused
mainly on LinkedIn. Roulin and Le ashina (2019)
ound ha on LinkedIn, p o ile leng h, p o ile pho o,
and numbe o connec ions we e posi i ely ela ed o
pla o m-based hi ing ecommenda ions, which we e
associa ed wi h highe ca ee success. A ecen s udy
on p o essional imp ession managemen concluded
ha on LinkedIn, a mo e ex ended p o ile summa y
and a p o ile pho o wi h highe acial p ominence
we e posi i ely ela ed o ecei ing mo e job o e s
(K ings e  al. 2021). Toge he , hese s udies indica e
ha he con en on job seeke s’ social media p o iles
plays a ole in ac i e sou cing.
Socio-economic di e ences o social media
job a ainmen
P io esea ch on he e ec s o socio-economic ac o s
on job sea ch has shown ha job seeke s o highe
socio-economic g oups possess highe p o essional
sel -e icacy, which ansla es in o mo e ac i e and
a ied job-seeking ac i i ies (DeO en iis, Van
Iddekinge, and Wanbe g 2022; Hu e al. 2022; Huang
and Hsieh 2011). Al hough only a ew s udies ha e
speci ically examined he e ec s o socio-economic
ac o s on online job sea ch, some s udies ha e high-
ligh ed he e ec s o indi idual sociodemog aphic
ac o s, such as age and educa ion. G een e al. (2012)
ound ha job seeke s wi h highe educa ional qual-
i ica ions we e mo e likely o use he in e ne o job
sea ch. Ka aoglu, Ha gi ai, and Nguyen (2022) ound
ha job seeke s wi h lowe income and educa ion
le els we e less likely o use social media o job
sea ch. They also concluded ha in addi ion o socio-
demog aphic ac o s, “digi al job-sea ch skills” co -
ela e s ongly wi h he use o he in e ne and social
media o job sea ch. Nikolaou (2014) ound ou ha
males and job seeke s wi h highe educa ion end o
use LinkedIn mo e, whe eas younge job seeke s p e-
e o use Facebook in hei job sea ch. The s udy
also ound ou ha compa ed o ac i e job seeke s,
so-called passi e job seeke s, i.e., employed indi iduals
who a e no looking o wo k bu migh be willing
o change jobs, bene i ed mo e om LinkedIn e en
hough ac i e job seeke s used social media pla o ms
mo e ac i ely compa ed o passi e job seeke s.
Ve y li le was ound in he li e a u e on he ques-
ion o socio-economic di e ences in ge ing
ec ui ed o a job h ough social media. P e ious
esea ch on execu i e sea ch, in o mally known as
“headhun ing”, has es ablished ha ec ui e s iden i y
and a ac po en ial job candida es, especially when
hi ing o execu i e posi ions (Hamo i 2010, 2014).
I has been p oposed ha employe s also u ilize
social media o iden i ying and a ac ing pu poses
p ima ily when ec ui ing o highe posi ions
ThE INFoRMATIoN SocIETy 5
(see McDonald e  al. 2019). This sugges s ha job
seeke s om highe socio-economic backg ounds
migh be mo e commonly a ge ed o ec ui men
h ough social media compa ed o hose om lowe
socio-economic backg ounds, po en ially leading o
a g ea e chance o ge ing ec ui ed o a job.
Aims
In o med by he abo e-discussed li e a u e, his a icle
app oaches social media pla o ms i s ly as enues
whe e job seeke s can ac i ely sea ch in o ma ion
abou po en ial job oppo uni ies and apply o hem,
and secondly as channels h ough which job seeke s
can manage hei p o essional image by sha ing in o -
ma ion abou hemsel es, he eby inc easing hei
isibili y o po en ial employe s. Speci ically, he
esea ch ques ions a e as ollows:
RQ1: Wha is he p e alence o success ul applica ion
o a job h ough social media, and does his a y by
socio-economic s a us?
RQ2: Wha is he p e alence o ec ui men o a job
h ough social media, and does his a y by
socio-economic s a us?
RQ3a: Wha ac o s a ec he p obabili y o success ul
applica ion o a job h ough social media?
RQ3b: Wha ac o s a ec he p obabili y o ec ui -
men o a job h ough social media?
Da a and me hods
The esponden s we e ec ui ed h ough wo la ge
online esea ch panels. F om hese panels, a p o es-
sional esea ch company adminis e ed he su ey o
each he desi ed sample o 5000 esponden s, a
na ionally ep esen a i e sample o he Finnish pop-
ula ion aged 18-69. The su ey asked a wide ange
o ques ions ega ding wo k li e in gene al, including
online and o line job sea ch2.
The o iginal sample was na owed o sui he
esea ch aims be e . The sample was es ic ed o he
ac i e labo o ce, so s uden s and e i ees we e
excluded om he analysis. En ep eneu ial g oups
we e also excluded om he analysis as sel -employed
pe sons’ con ac -based employmen ela ionships p o-
duce quali a i e di e ences in job-seeking beha io
compa ed o wage ea ne s. The e o e, he analysis was
es ic ed o wage ea ne s (blue-colla , lowe
whi e-colla , uppe whi e-colla , and uppe manage-
men ). As he ocus was on social media pla o ms,
he sample was u he es ic ed o exclude nonuse s
o Facebook, LinkedIn, o Twi e om he analysis.
The inal sample consis ed o 2138 esponden s, a
sub-sample o he ac i e labo o ce in Finland, com-
p ised o wage ea ne s who also use Facebook, Twi e ,
o LinkedIn.
Measu es
Dependen a iables
The phenomenon unde s udy, job a ainmen ia
social media, was examined h ough wo dependen
a iables. Responden s we e asked “ha e you ound a
job o assignmen h ough social media” and “ha e
you been ound o a job o posi ion h ough social
media”. The i s a iable indica ed whe he espon-
den s hemsel es had success ully applied o a job
h ough social media. The second a iable indica ed
whe he esponden s had been con ac ed and ec ui ed
o a job h ough social media. Bo h a iables we e
ca ego ical yes-o -no ques ions.3
Independen a iables
• Sociodemog aphics: Gende was coded as a
bina y a iable ( emale = 0, male = 1), as hey
we e he only op ions o e ed on he su ey.
Age was asked in yea s. Responden s indica ed
hei le el o educa ion on a 6-poin scale,
which was ecoded in o h ee ca ego ies (sec-
onda y deg ee o lowe , bachelo ’s deg ee, mas-
e ’s deg ee o highe ). Responden s indica ed
hei sel -assessed socio-economic g oup on a
scale based on a s anda d socio-economic clas-
si ica ion used by S a is ics Finland. The clas-
si ica ion is based on in e na ional s anda ds4
and is o med conside ing a pe son’s s age o
li e, occupa ion, and occupa ion s a us. Dummy
a iables we e c ea ed o indica e he espec i e
socio-economic g oup (0 = no, 1 = yes).
• S a egic ne wo king: Responden s indica ed
how much hey had spen ime consciously
ne wo king wi h people who could be aluable
o job sea ch du ing he las yea . Answe ca -
ego ies we e on a 5-poin scale anging om
“no a all”, “less han one wo kday”, “1-3 wo k-
days”, “3-5 wo kdays” o “mo e han 5 wo k-
days”. In he model, highe alues indica ed
mo e ac i e s a egic ne wo king.
• Job sea ch ac i i y: In pa allel o s a egic ne -
wo king, esponden s indica ed how much hey
had spen ime b owsing a ious job
sea ch- ela ed pla o ms and se ices du ing
6 M. LAUKKARINEN
he las yea . Answe ca ego ies we e on a
5-poin scale anging om “no a all”, “less
han one wo kday”, “1-3 wo kdays”, “3-5 wo k-
days” o “mo e han 5 wo kdays”. In he model,
highe alues indica ed highe job sea ch
ac i i y.
• Pos ing o p o essional con en : Responden s
indica ed how o en hey pos con en ela ed
o hei wo k o skills on social media, such
as w i ing an upda e, sha ing an a icle, o
publishing an image. The 7-poin scale answe
ca ego ies anged om “daily o almos daily”
o “ne e ”. In he model, highe alues indi-
ca ed mo e ac i e pos ing o p o essional
con en .
• Pla o m usage: Responden s indica ed wha
social media pla o ms hey used. Facebook,
LinkedIn, and Twi e we e selec ed o he
s udy as hey a e among he mos popula
social media pla o ms, and hese pla o ms
ha e been p e iously s udied in he p o essional
con ex . Responden s wi h a p o ile on
Facebook, Twi e , and LinkedIn we e coded
in o dummy a iables o ep esen he use (1)
o nonuse (0) o he speci ic pla o m.
Sample
App oxima ely hal o he esponden s we e emale
(48.8%). The mean age o he sample was 43.2. In
all, 46.8% o he esponden s had a seconda y deg ee
o less, 25.8% had a bachelo ’s deg ee, and 27.4% had
a mas e ’s deg ee o highe . Fu he , 49.6% o he
esponden s we e blue-colla wo ke s, 21.2% we e
lowe whi e-colla wo ke s, 24.4% we e uppe
whi e-colla wo ke s, and 4.8% we e uppe manage-
men wo ke s. The mos popula social media pla -
o m was Facebook (70.4%), ollowed by LinkedIn
(28.3%) and las ly Twi e (16.8%). I should be no ed
ha some o he esponden s used mul iple pla o ms
simul aneously. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he sample a e
p esen ed in Table 1.
Analy ical s a egy
C oss- abula ions and chi-squa e s a is ics we e used o
examine he p e alence and associa ion be ween
socio-economic g oups and he espec i e job a ain-
men me hod (RQ2, RQ2). Two sepa a e logis ic eg es-
sion analyses we e conduc ed o examine wha ac o s
a ec he p obabili y o success ully applying (RQ3a)
and ge ing ec ui ed (RQ3b) o a job h ough social
media. (Bo h analyses s a ed wi h he baseline o socio-
demog aphic a iables (Model 1). In he second s ep,
s a egic ne wo king, job sea ch ac i i y, and he pos ing
o p o essional con en we e added (Model 2). In he
inal s ep, he usage o a speci ic pla o m (Facebook,
LinkedIn, o Twi e ) was added (Model 3). Resul s a e
epo ed s epwise and summa ized in Tables 2 and 3.
Resul s
Desc ip i e s a is ics
Du ing he las yea , o e 40% o esponden s indi-
ca ed spending a leas some ime consciously ne -
wo king wi h people who could be aluable in ega d
o job sea ch (42.7%). Younge age and highe edu-
ca ion we e posi i ely associa ed wi h s a egic ne -
wo king. Uppe whi e-colla and uppe managemen
wo ke s we e likelie , and blue-colla wo ke s we e
less likely o p ac ice s a egic ne wo king. Two ou
o h ee esponden s had spen a leas some amoun
o ime b owsing a ious job sea ch- ela ed pla o ms
and se ices du ing he las yea (66.4%). Women,
younge esponden s, and esponden s wi h highe
educa ion we e mo e likely o spend ime sea ching
o a job. O e i y pe cen o esponden s had pos ed
con en ela ed o hei wo k o skills on social media
(52.7%). Uppe managemen wo ke s and indi iduals
wi h highe educa ion we e mo e likely o pos
p o essional- ela ed con en on hei social media p o-
iles. Rega ding pla o m usage and socio-economic
s a us, blue-colla wo ke s we e likelie o use
Facebook, whe eas o uppe whi e-colla and uppe
managemen wo ke s, he usage was less likely. Wi h
Table 1. Sample, desc ip i e s a is ics.
Pe cen / m (SD)
emale 48.8
age 43.2 (11.6)
18–24 5.8
25–34 21.5
35–44 25.5
45–54 27.5
55–64 18.7
65–69 1,0
educa ion le el
Seconda y deg ee o less 46.8
Bachelo ´s deg ee 25.8
mas e ´s deg ee o highe 27.4
Socio-economic s a us
Blue-colla wo ke 49.6
Lowe whi e-colla wo ke 21.2
Uppe whi e-colla wo ke 24.4
Uppe managemen wo ke 4.8
Social media usage
Uses acebook 70.4
Uses LinkedIn 28.3
Uses Twi e 16.8
n = 2138, m = mean, SD = S anda d De ia ion.
ThE INFoRMATIoN SocIETy 7
LinkedIn and Twi e , he si ua ion is opposi e, as
bo h pla o ms we e less likely used by blue-colla
wo ke s and mo e likely used by uppe whi e-colla
and uppe managemen wo ke s. In e es ingly, he e
a en’ any s a is ically signi ican co ela ions wi h
lowe whi e-colla wo ke ’s pla o m usage. The means,
s anda d de ia ions, and pai -wise co ela ions o he
a iables included in he analysis a e displayed in
Table 4.
Applying o jobs h ough social media
The i s esea ch ques ion (RQ1) looked o how
success ul di e en socio-economic g oups a e in
applying o jobs h ough social media. C oss- abula ions
(see Figu e 1) show sligh a ia ion be ween
socio-economic g oups in he p e alence o success-
ully applying o a job h ough social media. In he
g oups o blue-colla (10.1%), lowe -whi e colla
Table 2. Logis ic eg ession analysis on success ully applying o a job h ough social media.
model 1 model 2 model 3
BSe
odds
a io BSe
odds
a io BSe
odds
a io
1.Gende ( emale = 0
male = 1)
−0.422** 0.152 0.656 −0.342** 0.160 0.647 −0.375** 0.167 0.687
2. age −0.035*** 0.007 0.966 −0.028*** 0.007 0.970 −0.027*** 0.008 0.973
3. educa ion 0.098 0.099 1.103 −0.066 0.103 0.950 −0.097 0.107 0.907
4. Socio-economic
s a us (base:
blue-colla )
5. Lowe whi e-colla 0.076 0.200 1.079 0.100 0.209 1.106 0.063 0.212 1.066
6. Uppe whi e-colla 0.219 0.215 1.245 0.154 0.222 1.133 0.084 0.230 1.088
7. Uppe managemen 0.489 0.351 1.631 0.129 0.378 1.067 0.066 0.371 1.068
8. S a egic ne wo king 0.338*** 0.066 1.402 0.324*** 0.060 1.382
9. Job sea ch ac i i y 0.249*** 0.064 1.282 0.244*** 0.065 1.277
10. P o essional
con en
0.274*** 0.035 1.315 0.273*** 0.037 1.314
11. acebook usage
(no = 0 yes = 1)
−0.050 0.294 0.951
12. LinkedIn usage (no
= 0 yes = 1)
0.211 0.189 1.234
13. Twi e usage (no
= 0 yes = 1)
0.005 0.188 1.005
chi-squa e (d ) 37.737*** (6) 191.407*** (9) 192.821*** (12)
nagelke ke Pseudo- ² 0.037 0.182 0.183
No es: n = 2138.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Table 3. Logis ic eg ession analysis on ge ing ec ui ed o a job h ough social media.
model 1 model 2 model 3
BSe
odds
a io BSe
odds
a io BSe
odds
a io
1.Gende ( emale = 0
male = 1)
−0.010 0.186 1.010 0.009 0.197 1.010 −0.184 0.205 0.832
2. age −0.015 0.009 0.985 −0.008 0.009 0.992 −0.006 0.010 0.994
3. educa ion 0.171 0.124 1.187 0.069 0.127 1.072 −0.067 0.131 0.936
4. Socio-economic
s a us (base:
blue-colla )
5. Lowe whi e-colla 0.691** 0.255 1.995 0.758** 0.263 2.135 0.588* 0.268 1.800
6. Uppe whi e-colla 0.812** 0.272 2.252 0.699** 0.275 2.013 0.396 0.283 1.486
7. Uppe managemen 1.358*** 0.374 3.890 0.939** 0.398 2.557 0.632 0.405 1.882
8. S a egic ne wo king 0.596*** 0.080 1.814 0.545*** 0.083 1.724
9. Job sea ch ac i i y −0.104 0.085 0.901 −0.124 0.086 0.884
10. P o essional con en 0.225*** 0.043 1.252 0.211*** 0.046 1.235
11. acebook usage
(no = 0 yes = 1)
−0.287 0.289 0.750
12. LinkedIn usage
(no = 0 yes = 1)
0.858*** 0.239 2.359
13. Twi e usage
(no = 0 yes = 1)
0.275 0.216 1.316
chi-squa e (d ) 29.590*** (6) 135.016*** (9) 154.653** (12)
nagelke ke Pseudo- ² 0.038 0.168 0.192
No es: n = 2138.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
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