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Me, My Bo and His O he (Robo ) Woman? Keeping You Robo Sa is ied in he Age o
A i icial Emo ion
© 2018 by he au ho . Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
Published e sion
Rousi, Rebekah
Rousi, R. (2018). Me, My Bo and His O he (Robo ) Woman? Keeping You Robo Sa is ied in he
Age o A i icial Emo ion. Robo ics, 7(3), A icle 44. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ obo ics7030044
2018
obo ics
A icle
Me, My Bo and His O he (Robo ) Woman? Keeping
You Robo Sa is ied in he Age o A i icial Emo ion
Rebekah Rousi ID
Depa men o A and Cul u e S udies, Uni e si y o Jy askyla, 40014 Jy äskylän yliopis o, Finland;
ebekah. [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +358-40805-3100
Recei ed: 14 June 2018; Accep ed: 10 Augus 2018; Published: 15 Augus 2018


Abs ac :
Wi h a backd op o ac ion and science ic ion mo ie ho o s o he dys opian ela ionship
be ween humans and obo s, su p isingly o da e-wi h he excep ion o e hical discussions- he
ela ionship aspec o humans and sex obo s has seemed ela i ely unp oblema ic. The a ac ion
o sex obo s pe haps is he p omise o unp oblema ic a ec iona e and sexual in e ac ions, wi hou
he need o conside he o he ’s ( he obo ’s) emo ions and indeed p e e ence o sexual pa ne s. Ye ,
wi h apid ad ancemen s in in o ma ion echnology and obo ics, pa icula ly in ela ion o a i icial
in elligence and indeed, a i icial emo ions, he e almos seems he likelihood, ha some ime in he
u u e, obo s oo, may lo e o he s in e u n. Who hose o he s a e-whe he human o obo -is o
be specula ed. As wi h he laws o emo ion, and pa icula ly ha o he cogni i e-emo ional heo y
on App aisal, a eali y in which obo s expe ience hei own emo ions, may no be as osy as would
be expec ed.
Keywo ds: emo ions; obo s; sex; in ideli y; a i icial in elligence
1. In oduc ion
Fo some eason, he idea o no only a i icial in elligence, bu a i icial emo ions seems en icing
om he pe spec i e o he humanoid obo s being de eloped [
1
]. A gumen s a e being made o
emo ions in obo s ha a emp o subs an ia e a belie ha in o de o ha e ully a ec i e in e ac ions
be ween humans and obo s, he obo s hemsel es also need o eel [
2
,
3
]. By d awing on a hypo he ical
u u e scena io in which obo s ac ually possess hei own emo ions, he aim o his a icle is o e lec
a heo e ical unde s anding o wha he wo ld would be like i obo s did indeed possess hei own
emo ions. Thus, o his eason, please imagine ha he yea is 2050. Ad ances in obo s ha e
come o such a poin , ha au onomous machines a e no simply a luxu y o no el y in he wo ld,
bu an essen ial pa o people’s daily exis ence. Ye , no only a e obo s occupying bo h u ili a ian and
hedonic (pleasu able o non-u ili a ian) oles, hey ha e al eady become he companions o people
o a ious pu poses. I is a his poin in ime, ha ma iage be ween humans and obo s has been
legalized in many coun ies o he pas wo decades. The cha ac e is ic ha di e en ia es a obo
pa ne in 2050 as compa ed o he olde models e idenced in 2018, is ha in 2050 obo s ha e he
capaci y o eally hink and choose o hemsel es. These la e o ms o obo s possess hei own
emo ions, meaning ha hey also ha e he p opensi y o lo e hei human pa ne in e u n. Ye ,
mo e and mo e o en, and much o he dismay o human pa ies in his mode n socie y, obo s a e
choosing o be wi h o he obo s.
Thus, he abili ies o ca e o , o empa hize, o ecip oca e emo ions, and o expe ience he
exhila a ion o pu e, uncon ollable, unabashed lo e, is no held exclusi ely by human ci izens,
bu also by obo s. The e a e di e en ypes o lo e and emo ions ha a ise om human- obo and
obo - obo ela ionships. In ela ion o he ype ha leads o ma iage (la e on desc ibed in e ms o
‘ins umen ali y’) i is obse ed ha humans and obo s alike a e inc easingly wan ing he oppo uni y
Robo ics 2018,7, 44; doi:10.3390/ obo ics7030044 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ obo ics
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 2 o 20
o ep oduce- o ha e child en, ei he hei own, o o adop . Thus, no pe haps dissimila o he wo ld
o 2018, concep s o sex, gende and iden i y a e cons an ly unde deba e. Ye , in he case o obo ics,
i is qui e clea om a u ili a ian pe spec i e ha biological sex does no ul il any ep oduc i e
unc ion. Howe e , om he pe spec i e o emo ions as well as whom and how obo s wan o be
iden i ied as, gende ed iden i y can be i e wi h ensions and eelings.
Wha is mo e, in his e a o ad anced humanoid obo ics, obo s can be iewed as supe humans.
Being supe humans, hey a e no only c ea ed by humans, bu can c ea e and eplica e hemsel es.
Thus, his s ands o eason when conside ing he epi ome o a i icial in elligence (AI), in ha hey
now possess he capaci y o exis independen ly and au onomously, as well as o ca y ou ac i i ies
in ol ing c ea i i y, lexible hinking and p oblem-sol ing [
4
,
5
]. In he yea 2050, obo s no longe
eel like obo s. They a e global ci izens wi h hei own igh s and libe ies o exis side-by-side wi h
humans in he mode n socie y. In e lec ion o Isaac Asimo ’s ‘Th ee Laws o Robo ics’ [
6
], he obo s
indeed a e obliged o obey he law: (1) obo s a e no pe mi ed o inju e human beings, o h ough
passi i y, allow humans o be inju ed; (2) obo s a e equi ed o ollow human gi en o de s, excep i
hese o de s should h ea en he i s law; and (3) obo s should p o ec hei own exis ence p o iding
ha his does no in e e e wi h he i s and second laws. Ye , gi en he possibili y ha obo s will
hen be emo ional beings in hei own igh , will hese laws s ill apply? I hey would, hen he e is
a clea case o a u u e ision o emo ional and sexual sla e y o obo s. I no , obo s wi h emo ions
would ce ainly be in he league o supe humans wi h he powe o o e ule humans. Mo eo e ,
one ex emely impo an ac abou obo s in he yea 2050 is ha , a he han being a he me cy o
human-bound selec ion, obo s ha e he igh o exp ess hei own ee will and exe cise hei powe s
o li e and lo e pa ne selec ion.
This heo e ical a icle uses a po en ial u u e scena io as a backd op o unde s anding he
implica ions o in oducing emo ions in o obo ic machine y. The me hod implemen ed in he a icle
is a li e a u e e iew ha is applied o scope heo ies o lo e and i s di e en ypes, hen ocusing
mo e ca e ully on e olu iona y biological heo ies o lo e o explain sexual desi e and a ac ion om
he pe spec i e o obo s. The a icle ou lines lo e and i s associa ed heo ies in e e ence o lo e and
obo ics-Lo o ics [
7
,
8
]. Lo e is ea ed as a complex, mul ilaye ed phenomenon ha se es di e ing
unc ions depending on a ied ci cums ances and ac o s. The heo e ical ma e ials included in his
a icle comp ise s udies and heo ies ha ha e been unde aken in he ele an ields o lo e and
jealousy (sociological and psychological) esea ch, Lo o ics, cogni i e-a ec i e app oaches o emo ions
(App aisal heo y), as well as cul u al s udies ci ing discu si e mani es a ions o obo s in olklo e
and he public imagina ion. O e all, his a icle aims o p oblema ize u opian image y o docile,
obedien , lo e- illed obo s, such as hose expe ienced in p oduc s such as Hello Ki y, and b ing o
ligh he po en ial eali y o machines ha possess hei own emo ions—emo ions ha aim in su i al
o a species, and a o d he powe o disc imina ion.
2. Lo e as a Concep and I s Implica ions on Robo ics
The opic and condi ion o lo e has pe plexed philosophe s and scien is s alike h oughou he
his o y o human-kind [
9
,
10
]. While he na u e o lo e is highly deba ed [
11
,
12
], undeniable quali ies
o lo e as a cons uc and concep a e ha i is complex, dynamic, ela i ely unp edic able (al hough
much e o has been placed owa ds unde s anding uni e sal p inciples o lo e and a ac i eness,
see e.g., [
13
–
15
]) and is elian on a numbe o ac o s om he physiological, as well as he in ellec ual
and emo ional [
16
]. F om a lo e and obo ics pe spec i e, schola s in Lo o ics [
8
] ha e been examining
“lo e” as a concep h ough he lens o lo e-like ela ionships be ween humans and obo s. Samani
and colleagues [
8
] analyze lo e by looking a i s his o ical o igins in he eachings o philosophe s
such as A is o le. A is o le had applied he e m “philia” o desc ibe mu ually bene icial ela ionships
expe ienced in displays o loyal y exp essed by amilies, iends and communi ies [
17
–
19
]. Mo eo e ,
philia is pa icula ly emphasized in cases whe e beau y and goodness a e co e quali ies o he objec o
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 3 o 20
lo e ( he belo ed)- hus, he lo e a ac ion, o lo e s a e o he belo ed is based on me i s inhe en in
hei pe sonal cha ac e is ics [20].
While philia is a means o desc ibing his o m o kinship, wa m o wholesome lo e, ‘e os’
ano he G eek e m, was applied o desc ibing a mo e passiona e, sexual a ac ion and desi e o
someone o some hing [
21
,
22
]. Thus, he e is a clea mul idimensionali y o he way in which lo e
may be conside ed ega ding lo e and obo ics: ha which is ep esen ed in philia ha can pe haps
be connec ed o ela ionships e idenced in popula cul u e such as ilms like A.I. A i icial In elligence
(2001, di ec ed by S e en Spielbe g), Fligh o he Na iga o (1986, di ec ed by Randal Kleise ), and he
S a Wa s mo ies—obse ing lo o ics h ough philia; and ha which is conce ned wi h he mo e
passiona e, sexually-o ien ed pe spec i e-e os.
Mo eo e , i is ascina ing o examine he concep ual cons uc o lo e h ough obse ing
dic iona y de ini ions. Fo ins ance, Me iam-Webs e Dic iona y [
23
] cha ac e izes lo e as a s ong
a ec ion, eme ging om kinship and o he ypes o pe sonal connec ions. Me iam-Webs e
addi ionally illus a es lo e as being cha ac e ized by wa m h and de o ion owa ds people and
phenomena. The e os mode o lo e is also accoun ed o in ega ds o he ype o lo e ypi ied by
sexually-d i en a ac ion.
In psychology, Robe S e nbe g [
24
–
26
] has p oposed he iangula heo y o lo e. This iangula
heo y is said o ea u e h ee componen s: passion, in imacy and commi men . Simila ly, o he ways
in which he G eeks cha ac e ized e os [
22
], acco ding o S e nbe g, passion is he d i e o sexual
a ac ion. In imacy, while exis ing in close connec ion wi h passion, e e s o eelings o closeness
and connec edness ha people expe ience in ela ion o one ano he . Thus, in imacy can be linked o
bo h pla onic o iendship ypes o lo e, as well as passiona e ypes. Commi men [
24
,
25
] on he o he
hand possesses di e en ypes o quali ies, bo h ega ding a unc ional o ep oduc i e mode o lo e,
and in e ms o long- e m li e- ela ed plans in ela ion o a pa ne . Mo eo e , hese longi udinal and
ep oduc i e quali ies o commi men also imply di e en sub-ca ego ies, and complexly, om he
pe spec i e o S e nbe g, his commi men dimension possesses ins ances in which lo e is no a
play a all. Thus, commi men ypes include: non-lo e (no passiona e no in ima e lo e); iendship
and liking (wa m h o one ano he ); in a ua ed lo e (passiona e a ousal, also known as a c ush ha
exis s ou side o a mu ual lo e ela ionship); a uous lo e (whi lwind omance wi hou in imacy);
oman ic lo e (emo ional and physical bonding); emp y lo e (commi men lacking passion and
in imacy); companiona e lo e (li e-long pa ne ships and ma iage); as well as consumma e lo e
(all-encompassing lo e, companionship and long- e m in imacy).
F om he neu oscien i ic pe spec i e o emo ions i is a gued ha basic emo ions eme ge ou o
pa icula sys ems o ci cui s o neu al ac i i y. This is a cha ac e is ic sha ed be ween mammals ha
di ec ly a ec s beha io [
27
–
29
]. Neu oscien i ic esea ch has e ealed ha he e a e h ee o mo e
in e ela ed, disc e e emo ion-mo i a ion sys ems ha a e in ol ed in he unc ions o ep oduc ion,
ma ing, as well as pa en ing. These emo ion-mo i a ion sys ems o ci cui s a e: a ac ion, lus ,
and a achmen [
30
]. The a ac ion sys em as a whole is by na u e expe ienced h ough sensa ions o
highe ene gy le els as well as concen a ed a en ion on a chosen subjec (p e e ed ma ing pa ne ).
A ac ion, and he sensa ions de i ing om i s ac i a ion in humans, is cha ac e ized by exhila a ion,
obsession and in usi e hinking abou he p e e ed ma e, passion and c a ing. Resea ch sugges s
ha hese sensa ions and he s a es in ol ed a e p ima ily ho monally d i en, seen in inc eased le els
o no epineph ine (NE) and dopamine (DA) [30–33].
His o ically, Sigmund F eud can be iewed as one o he pionee ing lo e heo is s, who ypi ied
lo e as a pe son’s unconscious desi e and need o ind hei “ego ideal” [
34
]. Tha is, F eud a gued
ha people we e cons an ly in sea ch o pa ne s who embodied wha hey hemsel es wan ed o be.
F eud claimed ha he inne image would be molded upon people he beholde admi es. Mo eo e ,
when obse ing Ab aham Maslow’s [
35
] hie a chy o needs, i is e idenced ha sel -ac ualiza ion
(g owing owa ds he a ainmen o an indi idual’s highes needs) gi es indica ion owa ds he
p ospec o lo e and he cha ac e ha lo e will ake on (in e e ence o he di e en ypes o lo e
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 4 o 20
lis ed abo e). Thus, sel -ac ualiza ion can be iewed as a mobilize when people a e sea ching o
and selec ing lo e pa ne s. O pa icula ele ance he e a e he mechanisms and quali ies o lo e
and p ospec i e pa ne s ha indi iduals selec on he basis o hei sel -ac ualiza ion p ocess. Thus,
i an indi idual’s goal in li e is o be weal hy and amous, hei pa ne will mos likely ha e quali ies
ha can assis he indi idual o a ain hese goals, and will mos likely be weal hy and amous
hemsel es. When hinking on he le el o physio-psychology o e olu iona y psychology [
36
,
37
],
i may be iewed ha pa ne s a e selec ed o he ep oduc i e quali ies hey ep esen , and mo eo e ,
he p ospec i e o sp ing ha hei physical and mo e o less men al quali ies exhibi in ela ion o
being able o p o ide his o sp ing.
Thus, in e ms o lo e, e os, and he ypes o lo e connec ed wi h sexual a ac ion ega ding
human- obo ela ionships, a en ion should be d awn owa ds physical and non-physical (in ellec ual,
pe sonali y and humo ) quali ies o po en ial pa ne s. Wi h he p ospec o obo s possessing
emo ional capaci y, and indeed in elligence, nume ous ques ions would a ise in ela ion o hei
beha io and sen imen s when choosing a lo e pa ne . In o he wo ds, wi h he capabili ies o
ac ually hink and eel, i should be expec ed ha he obo s hemsel es also make selec ions in e ms
o lo e and sexual pa ne s, ende ing he powe o choice ou o he hands o he human pa ies,
and mo e o less, in o he hands o he physical and in ellec ual supe io s— he obo s. The e o e,
who would a being ha exhibi s supe human cha ac e is ics, bo h physically and in ellec ually, choose
as a li e-long and/o sexual pa ne ? And, i in a ela ionship wi h a human—wha would i ake o
main ain he in e es o he obo ?
While somewha c i icized, S e nbe g’s model, mi o ing he neoclassical psyche o cogni ion,
a ec , and cona ion [
38
] is ideal o he logic and a ionale o his a icle, pa icula ly om he
pe spec i e o analyzing he bases upon which obo s selec hei own lo e and sexual pa ne s. This is
due o he ac ha , he e i is a gued ha when conside ing a o m o emo ional in elligence in obo s,
pe haps he mos logical app oach is ha o he cogni i e-a ec i e heo y o App aisal [
39
]. App aisal
heo y d aws on e olu iona y psychology o explain he unc ion o emo ions in su i al [
40
–
42
].
App aisal heo y applies unde s andings o cogni i e e alua i e p ocesses o explain how emo ions
a ise, on wha capaci y and he dis ance be ween he phenomena and si ua ions ha a e encoun e ed,
and he emo ional eac ion-i.e., whe he o no he emo ion is el di ec ly (p imal esponse) o whe he
o no i occu s as he esul o e lec i e and associa i e p ocesses (highe o de cogni ion) [
39
–
41
].
The main p emise o App aisal heo y is ha humans a e cons an ly e alua ing, o app aising wha
hey encoun e acco ding o hei co e conce ns (heal h, sa e y and wellbeing) [
42
]. These co e conce ns
ine i ably ela e o he human’s s i e o su i al, whe he h ough, e.g., conce n o pe sonal sa e y
( ecognizing an immedia e h ea which in u n igge s ea o example), o o ins ance, well-being
in e ms o e alua ing designs and b ands h ough he social dimension and eeling emo ions owa ds
p oduc s no in e ms o wha hey a e, bu wha hey can do o he pe son who consumes hem [
43
–
46
].
The ield o ela ionship science ocuses mainly on close ela ionships [
47
]. Close ela ionships a e
desc ibed as he equen o consis en , powe ul ye a ied in e dependence be ween (human) beings
ha con inues o a subs an ial du a ion o ime [47].
When e u ning o schola ship on lo e and ela ionships, Finkel, Simpson and Eas wick [
48
]
main ain ha he e a e ou een p inciples, which ha e been ca ego ized in ela ionship science
as pe aining o hese pa ne ships. These include: (1) uniqueness—di e ing combina ions o
cha ac e is ics and elemen s in e e y pa ne ship; (2) in eg a ion— he me ging o cogni ion, a ec ion,
beha io and mo i a ion be ween wo people as hei ela ionship de elops owa ds in e dependence;
(3) ajec o y—longi udinal goals in o m he e alua ion c i e ia o ela ionships, hese a e cons an ly
upda ed and applied o e alua e he ela ionship du ing egula in e als as he ela ionship p og esses
(also linked o he In es men Model, e.g., see [
49
]); (4) e alua ion— his e alua ion occu s ia e lec ion
o e posi i e and nega i e aspec s in a couple’s ela ionship; (5) esponsi eness— he ecep i e na u e
o indi iduals o hei pa ne s’ desi es, needs and ac ions; (6) esolu ion— esilience o ela ionship
u bulence; (7) main enance—pe sis ence in beha io and cogni ion, ei he h ough esilience o

Robo ics 2018,7, 44 5 o 20
sel -decep i e biases; (8) p edisposi ion—a i udes and quali ies ha a pe son b ings in o ela ionships
ha may a ec he ela ionship’s wellbeing; (9) ins umen ali y— he u ili a ian iew owa ds a pa ne
o he pu poses o allowing he indi idual o a ain hei goals, e.g., in e ms o ep oduc ion, ma iage
o inancial gain; (10) s anda ds— he c i e ia and p inciples one has o med h ough p e ious ideals,
expe ience and ea lie ela ionships, ha a e hen applied o he pe cep ions o he cu en and u u e
ela ionships; (11) diagnos ici y—oppo uni ies in which people a e able o e alua e hei pa ne s’
ela ionship mo i a ions and goals; (12) al e na i es— he means by which indi iduals seek and
conside al e na i e candida es o hei cu en pa ne s; (13) s ess—ex e nal ac o s ha impose s ess
can ha m a ela ionship; and (14) cul u e— ela ionships a e hea ily cul u ally bound, encompassing
nume ous ideals o bo h he pa ne s’ quali ies as well as he ela ionship’s.
3. Lus , Passion and Uncon ollable Sexual A ac ion
Lo e is one aspec o conside in ela ion o obo s, lo e pa ne ships and ma iage and omance.
Ye , he e is also he dimension o sexual ela ionships be ween humans and obo s, o humans and
humans (o o he wise) ha connec s wi h S e nbe g’s [
25
] in a ua ed lo e—lus , passion o o he wise,
obsessi e, uncon ollable sexual a ac ion. This could be a gued o bo h d i e sexual pa ne ships,
as well as h ea en hem, due o he inabili y o main ain his ype o in ensi y wi h one pe son
(being) [
50
]. S e en Le ine [
51
] has w i en abou sexual desi e, and has no ed ha he e a e i e da k
pa adoxes pe aining o sexual desi e, ha encompass indi iduals when hey a e no wi h hose o
whom hey a e a ac ed. These i e pa adoxes a e: (1) non-synch onic mo i a ions and d i e; (2) he
longing o in ideli y while beha ing acco ding o ideli y; (3) he chances o lus e en i i goes agains
one’s mo al basis; (4) sexual in e es dec eases ia amilia i y; and (5) sexual exp ession is enhanced
by beli lemen . Le ine desc ibes bo h e ms ‘lus ’ and ‘passion’ as poo ly de ined, whe eby he e m
passion in i s conno a ion e e s o he desi e o eo ganize one’s li e h ough lo e, and lus indica es
ex emely high le els o sexual a ousal.
Fu he mo e, Le ine illus a es ha sexual desi e always main ains h ee elemen s: (1) men al
s a es o so ow o joy (pe sonal); (2) mu ual a ec ion, dis espec , o disag eemen (in e pe sonal);
and (3) du a ion o ela ionship plus in ideli y (social con ex s). Fu he mo e, he ou a iables ha a e
claimed o de e mine as o whe he o no humans beha e and expe ience sensa ions in a sexual way
include: heal h, age, sex and social si ua ion [
52
]. Poo men al and/o physical heal h can d as ically
ei he dec ease o inc ease sexual d i e. Condi ions such as dep ession o example, can be esponsible
o i s dec ease, while mania and sexual compulsi i y can be seen o di ec ly inc ease sexual d i e.
Sexual d i e is shown o dec ease wi h age [
53
–
55
], while in e ms o biological sex, males a e shown o
ha e a highe sex d i e om he ime o pube y onwa ds, con inuing in in ensi y and consis ency [
56
].
The social si ua ion such as ma i al, amily and ela ionship s a us addi ionally a ec s one’s desi e o
sex— hese social ac o s could easily be coupled wi h he physiological (ho monal) ac o s conside ing
he s a e o indi iduals when hey a e in hese social si ua ions [32].
Thus, as seen in hese a iables and he o he componen s men ioned, lus , passion and
sexual a ac ion a e d i en by no only ho monal (neu al) ea u es and unc ions, ye also,
he emo ion-mo i a ion sys em is coupled wi h ce ain beha io al pa e ns ha ope a e in conjunc ion
wi h a ious elemen s o ep oduc ion and human nu u e [
57
]. To di ide human sexual d i e in o
sex-speci ic cha ac e is ics, i has been no ed ha male sexual d i e is p ima ily concen a ed owa ds
copula ion, and is also mo e cons an [
51
,
56
], whe eas, emale is mo e spo adic ye also in ense and
comp ises a b oad ange o s imuli o igge sexual desi e. Fishe [
57
] addi ionally no es highe
a es o bi-sexuali y among women. On he opic o s imuli, esea che s [
58
,
59
] ha e also ound ha
males a e s imula ed o a highe deg ee by isual po nog aphic deg ee, while women a e addi ionally
s imula ed by linguis ic exp essions (wo ds, na a i es, ilm hemes and images) [58].
These scien i ic disco e ies ela ing o lus , passion and sexual a ac ion a e qui e in e es ing
om he pe spec i e o sex obo design, as pe haps: (a) he desi es and s imula o y sys em o he
obo may be p og ammed based on speci ic sex/gende cha ac e is ics and in doing so, espond in
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 6 o 20
app op ia e ways o he human sex pa ne ; (b) he obo s, hei physical and exp essi e ea u es a e
designed in a way ha mo e eadily and app op ia ely appeal o he sexual desi es o people om
a ious gende s and sexuali ies; o (c) sel - hinking, maybe sel -c ea ing (lea ning) obo s ha adap o,
o maybe adop a gende and sexual ole, can be be e unde s ood and ca e ed o when hey oo a e
selec ing hei own sexual pa ne s.
Ei he way, he main a gumen he e is ha , i and/o when, obo s de elop o a e implan ed
wi h some o m o emo ions and ee-will, he na u e o lus —s ong sexual a ac ion—needs o be
comp ehended in e ms o i s componen s and unc ions, and how i would possibly ope a e wi hin
he dynamics o human- obo sexual ela ionships. While he ole o biological sex (o gende ) may
no play a la ge pa , o maybe any pa , om he pe spec i e o he obo s hemsel es, i mus be
conside ed ha in he case o human oman ic lo e, bo h men and women expe ience hese s a es
wi h he same le el o in ensi y [
32
,
60
,
61
]. Fo bo h men and women, and a guably hose who do no
iden i y wi h any one pa icula gende , a ac i e ai s in a p ospec i e pa ne a e heal h, eliabili y,
kindness, wa m h, socialness, domes ici y, educa ion and amily [
62
]. Con a y o oman ic lo e,
lus o sexual a ac ion has no gua an ee o any longing o he desi e o oman ic lo e [
32
]. In ac ,
expe imen s in which middle aged people o bo h gende s a e adminis e ed es os e one, sexual desi e
is inc eased, coupled wi h bo h sexual hough s and ac i i y, ye oman ic passion o ela ionship
a achmen does no inc ease [
63
,
64
]. Thus, in ac ual ac , i seems ha lo e and being “in lo e” a e
di e en o sexual desi e, as well as oman ic passion. When conside ing he design o obo s and hei
emo ional capaci ies, endencies, o e en ela ionship pu pose in ega ds o human- obo ela ionships,
i is i al om his pe spec i e o unde s and he dynamics be ween lo e and a achmen , and lus
wi h no so much a achmen , ye , qui e po en ially obsession [65,66].
4. Loyal y and Fai h ulness in Lo e Rela ionships
When conside ing human- obo sexual and lo e ela ionships, i o en imes seems ha obo
ai h ulness, de o ion and submission would be a gi en. Ye , i conside ing he obo pa ne om he
pe spec i e o i s po en ial emo ional in elligence and eewill, he chances o a obo emaining ai h ul
and dedica ed o any human pa ne may indeed be slim. F om his iewpoin , ques ions su ounding
in ideli y e sus loyal y a e highly impo an o conside , and e en pe haps mo e so, gi en he amoun
o scien i ic esou ces and e o de o ed o de eloping a i icial emo ions [
1
,
67
]. To s a wi h, om he
poin -o - iew o he a achmen dimension o lo e ela ionships, i can be seen ha e ms such as
‘ ai h ulness’ and ‘ ideli y’ a e used o desc ibe s ong allegiances wi h and suppo o people and
phenomena [
68
]. Resea ch o en poses ideli y and in ideli y, o ai h ulness and un ai h ulness in
opposi ion o one ano he [
69
]. Howe e , i should be no ed ha loyal y o commi men wi hin
a achmen ela ionships has li le co ela ion wi h he le el o ai h ulness expe ienced o exp essed in
ega ds o he ela ionship [
16
]. This means ha ai h ulness (un ai h ulness) and ideli y (in ideli y)
a e wo sepa a e condi ions. In ideli y o ins ance, desc ibes ex a ma i al ela ionships in cases
whe e o he wise he ma iage is cha ac e ized as a heal hy ela ionship. Un ai h ulness on he o he
hand, desc ibes he ins ances in which pa ne s ha e los ai h in hei ela ionship. Thus, om he
pe spec i e o ela ionship science [
70
], i is possible o engage in sexual ac i i y and oman ic en u es
ou side one’s ela ionship, while s ill main aining ai h ul o he a achmen lo e union.
Del ing deepe in o he meaning o loyal y, i can be seen ha loyal y as a concep e e s
o a ela ionship quali y ha is esis an o ex e nal p essu e, s ess and emp a ion om o ces
exis ing ou side he ela ionship [
16
,
70
]. O he wise known as ‘uncondi ional lo e’ [
71
,
72
], loyal y is
a cha ac e is ic in which ela ionships wi hs and connec ion e en du ing pe iods o disa ec ion and
in ideli y. Ye , a p e-condi ion o loyal y is agency on behal o he indi iduals wi hin he pa ne ship.
This agency akes shape in he o m o main enance s a egies [
73
]. Main enance s a egies ake on
a ange o o ms om ask sha ing and posi i i y o assu ances. In acco dance wi h he p inciples
men ioned abo e [
48
], loyal y and/o he le el o loyal y (con a y o uncondi ional), may also
be de e mined by p inciples: 3— ajec o y, o he longi udinal goals o he pa ne s en e ing he
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 7 o 20
ela ionship; 4—e alua ion, o he e lec ion on he posi i e and nega i e aspec s o he ela ionship;
and 9—ins umen ali y, o how a pa ne (po en ial pa ne ) may be u ilized o a ain one’s li e
goals (e.g., ep oduc ion and amily ideas, economic and/o social s a us e c.). This a ionale can be
coupled wi h hough s on how emo ions ope a e om he pe spec i e o App aisal heo y. F om his
s andpoin , lo e and sexual ela ionships could be emo ionally a ionalized as a o ding an indi idual
he a ainmen and p ese a ion o p ima y conce ns (su i ing and h i ing li e condi ions—p imal,
social o o he wise) [39].
5. Jealously, In ideli y and A ac ion
In ideli y has been s udied ex ensi ely o decades. I is o en examined in e ms o
male- emale ela ionships in e ms o demog aphic, biological and psychological endencies.
This is u he ed by s udy on i s social and physical ami ica ions [
73
,
74
]. The e a e a ew
di e en ways o unde s anding in ideli y [
70
]. The a ious app oaches o in ideli y include:
e ospec i e and sel - epo ing echniques—desc ip i e; applying socio-no ma i e amewo ks o
analyze sel - epo da a—no ma i e; and epo s ( e bal o w i en) on he p og ess o ela ionships
including eeling in ensi y inc eases and luc ua ions, d i ing ou o commi men and ending he
ela ionship—in es men -model [
49
]; and concen a ing on bene i exchange be ween pa ne s, equi y
le els and subsequen sa is ac ion— he e olu iona y app oach.
The e olu iona y app oach is pa icula ly ele an when conside ing in ideli y in human- obo
ela ionships om he pe spec i e o he App aisal heo y o emo ions. Thus, ideli y may be iewed o
con inue o as long as he ela ionship pa ne s expe ience he e o be mu ual bene i , and in he case o
human-human ela ionships, o en imes his educes o he biological needs o sexual ep oduc ion [
75
].
Thus, lo e and/o sexual ela ionships a e conside ed om a unc ional poin -o - iew, in ela ion o,
o example, ep oduc ion. The e olu iona y model goes hand-in-hand wi h psychological heo ies
o a ac i eness and beau y [
36
,
37
], whe eby, pa ne s a e chosen and main ained on he basis o
pa icula in ellec ual and physical quali ies, including symme y, s eng h, and you h. These quali ies
no only indica e he heal h and po en ial ep oduc i e capaci y o he p ospec i e pa ne , bu also
he heal h and ep oduc i e po en ial o hei o sp ing. A s ong unconsciously expe ienced o ce in
ela ion o pa icula ly he e osexual conduc is o s i e o ep oduc i e success. The likelihood o
jealousy can also inc ease in ela ionship si ua ions whe e wi he pa ne may expe ience he po en ial
o inequali ies o unbalanced bene i wi hin he pa ne , which is subsequen ly coupled wi h he
e alua ion o indi iduals ex e nal o he ela ionship in e ms o hei sui abili y o eplacemen o he
o he [
76
]. When p egnan o ins ance, emales a e biologically linked o a male. Fo he p egnan
emale, he e is li le need o seek an ex adyadic (ex e nal) pa ne , i no o gain a supe io pa ne [
75
].
Males du ing p egnancy pe iods howe e , a e ne e ce ain abou hei pa e nal s a us. The e o e,
males a e mo e inclined o de elop jealous hough s and endencies han hei emale pa ne s. This is
no o say howe e , ha p egnan women a e en i ely com o able in hei pa ne ship si ua ions.
Qui e he con a y, he e is a high p obabili y o women’s anxie y le els o inc ease du ing imes o
p egnancy due o he possibili y o abandonmen [75].
When conside ing hese cha ac e is ics o human-human ela ionships, i may be o ecas ha in
an e a when obo s ha e he capaci y o expe ience emo ions, ee- hough and conscious in en ion,
human- obo lo e and sexual pa ne ships may be challenged in he same way. Mo eo e , pa icula ly,
he absence o he ep oduc i e unc ion may, om he obo ’s pe spec i e, se e ely ha ms hei
chances o main aining he in e es o hei human pa ne s, and may indeed, also inci e he possibili y
o jealousy on he obo ’s pa . Tha is, he e could be he possibili y ha he obo pa ne eels
h ea ened by po en ial subs i u e human pa ne s o hei lo ed one o lo e . The jealously may also
be expe ienced om a e e se pe spec i e hough in a di e en manne , whe eby in ellec and physical
ea u es ampli ying beau y and heal h such as symme y and s eng h o he obo may be a cons an
poin o compa ison o he impe ec human pa ne . Thus, he human in he ela ionship may
po en ially e alua e e e y obo as a h ea o hei human- obo ela ionship. The e o e, he ques ion
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 8 o 20
o pose in he e en o obo s possessing emo ions and eewill is: will hey (humans) be able o
compe e agains obo s in he ace o gain physical and in ellec ual a ec ion om a (‘ hei ’) obo [
74
]?
When conside ing he ole o e olu ion in de elopmen , humans a e inna ely biologically
p og ammed o sea ch o and be a ac ed o symme ic, s ong and heal hy ma es. F om which
s andpoin also comes he ques ion as o whe he o no hen, humans hemsel es will only be a ac ed
o obo s. F om s udies in he ield o human compu e in e ac ion he e ha e been indings ha ea ly
adop e s o echnology ha e a p e e ence o human- o-compu e in e ac ion o e human- o-human
in e ac ion [
77
]. This may be an indica ion ha global le els o ep oduc ion could be se e ely hinde ed
i humans begin engaging in human- obo ela ionships mo e o en han human-human ela ionships.
Mo eo e , om a gende pe spec i e, in obo s he e is no unc ional ole. The obo s, being
machines, a e only deco a ed o ou i ed o appea and unc ion like ei he gende , o po en ially
gende ed-sexuali y (he e osexual, homosexual o bisexual). In he e en o obo -emo ions, he gende
o lack he eo , would a ec he ways in which he obo s hemsel es expe ience hei a ac ion
o and pu pose o being wi h humans. Wha abou he obo ’s own sexual desi es i he e a e any
wi hou a biological sex, o cul u ally cons uc ed gende [
78
]? Gende i sel has been deemed as he
mos in ellec ually challenging a iable in ela ion o lus and lo e [
51
]. This in ellec ual challenge
is p esen ed h ough a combina ion o physical and psychological ac o s. Fi s ly, ho monally om
pube y onwa ds men ha e a highe sex d i e han women. This d i e is physical and isual, and is
mo e di ec in e ms o he desi e o conc e e sexual sa is ac ion [
56
]. Women on he o he hand,
a e mo e likely o ely on he psychological dimension o sexuali y o en ice and sus ain sexual
engagemen and ul ilmen . This would be an addi ional ac o o conside in ligh o obo s c ea ed
o human sex o lo e pa ne s—which gende , o whom (will hey be able o psychologically o
physically ully ul il he human pa ne ?), and on his basis, how will obo s be a ac ed o po en ial
human pa ne s (i a all)?
Ano he aspec o conside is he mo i a ional ac o s o engaging in and main aining he lo e o
sexual ela ionship om he obo ’s pe spec i e. Some o his discussion has al eady been co e ed
abo e, howe e om a sligh ly di e en angle he ques ion once mo e mus be posed in ega ds o
why a obo would engage in a lo e o sex pa ne ship wi h a human being i he e is seemingly
no hing o gain ep oduc i ely o e en in ellec ually. In e ms o sexual mo i a ion, a s udy by Mes on
and Buss [
79
] e ealed 237 easons why humans wan ed o engage in sex. F om hese 237 easons
ou ca ego ies we e de i ed: physical (pleasu e seeking and a ac ion), goal a ainmen , insecu i y,
and emo ional. The insecu i y ca ego y is in e es ing om he pe spec i e o human beings and hei
endency o engage in sex ei he ou o du y o o sus ain a pa ne ship and/o social accep ance
howe e , in e ms o i s ele ance o obo s i may be ques ioned. By his, i is mean ha , i obo s
a e any way supe io physically and men ally o humans, he ‘ou o du y’ elemen o he sexual
ela ionship should be abandoned. On he o he hand, a plausible ac o behind a obo ’s sexual d i e
may be seen in Mes on and Buss’ obse a ion ha humans u ilize sex as a way o show a ec ion. In his
ligh , maybe obo s will wan o exp ess o hei human pa ne s he way ha hey eel, pa icula ly i
hey ac ually ha bo eelings o lo e and ado a ion, e en in he absence o a biological p opensi y o
engage in sex.
In e ms o he capaci y o obo s o expe ience lo e and a ec ion, i is wo hwhile no ing
Le y’s [
80
] insigh owa ds he wo ds o ep esen a ion o lo e, pa icula ly in he sense ha he e is no
biological unc ion o sex be ween people and obo s. In humans, pa icula ly women, he e is a s ong
psychological componen behind sexual desi e [
53
,
54
]. Thus, om he human being’s pe spec i e
wo ds, discou se, and e en body and acial language may be he key o ac i a ing sex d i e. In obo s,
he e may be a possibili y ha his psychological componen could be key o hei sexual endencies.
While physical ea u es and e en body language may be s ongly connec ed o ep oduc i e unc ion,
pe haps discou se—discussion, poe ics, wi and o he cul u ally ela ed, symbolic and linguis ically
based ac ions, may play impo an oles in a ac ing obo s’ oman ic emo ions.
Robo ics 2018,7, 44 15 o 20
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