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Va ia ion and a iabili y in L2 lea ning ajec o ies : Lea ning he Finnish exis en ial
cons uc ion
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Published e sion
Lesonen, Si kku; S eink auss, Rasmus; Suni, Minna; Ve spoo , Ma jolijn
Lesonen, S., S eink auss, R., Suni, M., & Ve spoo , M. (2022). Va ia ion and a iabili y in L2
lea ning ajec o ies : Lea ning he Finnish exis en ial cons uc ion. Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language Associa ion, 6(1), 1-17. h ps://doi.o g/10.22599/jesla.77
2022
RESEARCH
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Si kku Lesonen
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Seminaa inka u 15, PO Box 35,
FI-40014 Jy äskylä, FI
[email p o ec ed]
KEYWORDS:
usage-based linguis ics;
complex dynamic sys ems
heo y; cons uc ion; L2
Finnish; L2 de elopmen
TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Lesonen, S., S eink auss, R.,
Suni, M., & Ve spoo , M. (2022).
Va ia ion and a iabili y
in L2 lea ning ajec o ies:
Lea ning he Finnish exis en ial
cons uc ion. Jou nal o he
Eu opean Second Language
Associa ion, 6(1), 1–17. DOI:
h ps://doi.o g/10.22599/
jesla.77
Va ia ion and a iabili y
in L2 lea ning ajec o ies:
Lea ning he Finnish
exis en ial cons uc ion
SIRKKU LESONEN
RASMUS STEINKRAUSS
MINNA SUNI
MARJOLIJN VERSPOOR
ABSTRACT
Taking an onomasiological app oach and a dynamic usage-based pe spec i e,
his s udy explo es how ou beginning L2 lea ne s o Finnish de elop in exp essing
exis en iali y (‘ he e is some hing somewhe e’) be o e and a e ins uc ion. Da a we e
collec ed weekly o e a pe iod o nine mon hs and examined o con en ionalized and
non-con en ionalized cons uc ions ha exp ess exis en iali y. As expec ed om a
dynamic usage-based pe spec i e, bo h in e -indi idual a ia ion and in a-indi idual
a iabili y we e iden i ied. The ini ial epe oi es o wo o he lea ne s we e qui e
a iable, as hey used se e al di e en non-con en ionalized cons uc ions be o e
se ling on mo e con en ionalized ones. In con as , he wo o he lea ne s did no
independen ly y ou di e en ways o exp essing he a ge ed meaning bu s a ed
o use he con en ionalized Finnish exis en ial cons uc ion only a e pedagogical
in e en ion. As one would expec om a usage-based pe spec i e, some lea ne s’
ini ial epe oi es included some i em-based cons uc ions ha we e simila o each
o he . As a as ins uc ion is conce ned, o all lea ne s he e was an inc ease in he
use o he con en ionalized cons uc ion a e an explici in e en ion, bu he use was
no mo phologically accu a e. The indings con i m wo commonly held hypo heses
in dynamic sys ems app oaches: Lea ne s own hei own lea ning ajec o ies and
ini ial ajec o ies a e some imes cha ac e ized by high deg ees o a iabili y because
lea ne s need o y ou di e en s a egies be o e hey can adap o he equi emen s
o he new si ua ion.
*Au ho a ilia ions can be ound in he back ma e o his a icle
2Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
1. INTRODUCTION
Adul second-language (L2) lea ne s who a e li ing in he a ge -language speaking communi y
may ha e a need o ai ly complex linguis ic s uc u es a he e y beginning o hei L2 lea ning
p ocess. In Finnish, o example, exis en iali y ( he e is some hing somewhe e) is such a case.
I is con en ionally exp essed wi h he Finnish exis en ial cons uc ion (FEC; e.g., Suomessa on
paljon jä iä ‘The e a e many lakes in Finland’), which is peculia in many ways (e.g., Huumo,
2003; I aska, 2010; Kajande , 2013). The e o e, i is o en conside ed o be a di icul s uc u e
(I aska, 2010) and no augh in beginne -le el L2 Finnish cou ses. Howe e , be o e any
pedagogical in e en ion, lea ne s may wan o exp ess his meaning, and so hey need o ely
on c ea i e linguis ic solu ions ha may no be con en ionalized in he a ge -language speaking
communi y. In his s udy, we aim o iden i y he c ea i e lea ne language cons uc ions ha
de ia e om con en ional language o ms bu do no cause a b eakdown in communica ion
(see Waa a, 2004, o de ini ion o lea ne language cons uc ion). The e o e, we adop an
onomasiological app oach, meaning we s a ou in es iga ion om he meaning and explo e
wha cons uc ions lea ne s use o exp ess i (Fe nández-Domínguez, 2019; G zega, 2012). We
ace he de elopmen o he ways ou L2 Finnish lea ne s’ exp ess exis en iali y du ing a nine-
mon h pe iod ha included wo pedagogical in e en ions ocusing on he FEC. We ocus on
he indi idual de elopmen al p ocesses by aking a dynamic usage-based (DUB) app oach and
in es iga e he e ec o eaching FECs. Mos s udies ha look a he e ec o ins uc ion do so
wi h p e- and pos - es s o see how he ea men has a ec ed he L2 de elopmen o g oups
o lea ne s (see No is & O ega, 2000; Spada & Tomi a, 2010 o me a-analyses). Al hough
such g oup s udies can gi e an excellen indica ion o gene al ends, hey canno shed ligh
on he ac ual de elopmen al p ocess (Lowie & Ve spoo , 2019). In a longi udinal s udy se ing,
such as he cu en s udy, i is possible o s udy bo h a iabili y (di e si y in pe sonal epe oi es)
and a ia ion (lea ne s’ indi idual ajec o ies) in L2 de elopmen (Lowie & Ve spoo , 2015).
2. BACKGROUND
2.1. INVESTIGATING L2 LEARNERS’ LINGUISTIC MEANS: THE
ONOMASIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Language is used in social in e ac ion o achie e ce ain communica i e goals ha a y om
gene al in en ions such as eques ing help o sha ing emo ions o mo e speci ic goals (Schmid,
2020), such as ge ing ac oss he idea ha he e a e many lakes in Finland. P o icien speake s
may choose among di e en kinds o con en ionalized linguis ic solu ions in he speech
communi y o achie e a ce ain communica i e goal (e.g., Fe nández-Domínguez, 2019;
Lesonen e al., 2021; Schmid, 2020). Con en ionalized links be ween communica i e goals and
linguis ic o ms a e usually e e ed o as cons uc ions (e.g., Goldbe g, 2006). Fo example, i
a p o icien speake wan s o con ey he meaning ha he e a e many lakes in Finland, he
likely o m is he FEC (VISK [Comp ehensi e Finnish G amma Online] § 893, 894): Suomessa
on paljon jä iä ‘The e a e many lakes in Finland’. Howe e , a beginning L2 Finnish lea ne may
no ye ha e no iced o acqui ed he o m o his cons uc ion and may he e o e use c ea i e
linguis ic solu ions o exp ess a simila meaning (e.g., *Se on paljon jä iä Suomessa ‘*I is many
lakes in Finland’). To in es iga e such lea ne language cons uc ions, i is use ul o ake an
onomasiological app oach.
In an onomasiological app oach, he in es iga ion s a s wi h he meaning and he aim is o
in es iga e wha kinds o linguis ic solu ions a e used o exp ess i (Fe nández-Domínguez,
2019; G zega, 2012). This app oach makes i possible o in es iga e L2 lea ne s’ make-do
solu ions ha e lec hei his o y, goals, and abili ies a ha ime (La sen-F eeman, 2013).
Using his app oach, we iew lea ne s’ L2 as i s own, aluable linguis ic a ie y, which in he end
may o may no esemble he a ge a ie y.
2.2. TRACING L2 LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE CONSTRUCTIONS: A DUB APPROACH
A DUB app oach, a combina ion o Complex Dynamic Sys ems Theo y (CDST) and a usage-
based pe spec i e, sees language lea ning as an indi idual, dynamic p ocess in which L2
cons uc ions eme ge non-linea ly and become en enched in usage e en s in which an L2
lea ne uses he L2 o he pu poses o in e ac ion (e.g., Ve spoo & Beh ens, 2011; Ve spoo e
al., 2012; Lesonen, 2020). Because all lea ne s and hei usage e en s a e unique, L2 lea ning
3Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
ajec o ies a e expec ed o be ai ly di e en om one indi idual o ano he (in e -indi idual
a ia ion; Lowie & Ve spoo , 2015). To gain insigh s in o hese indi idual de elopmen al
p ocesses, a longi udinal, case-s udy app oach is an app op ia e me hodology (La sen-
F eeman & Came on, 2008). I has been shown in longi udinal s udy se ings ha indi idual
lea ne s’ ajec o ies a y o a g ea ex en in he de elopmen o syn ac ic complexi y (e.g.,
Chan e al., 2015; Lowie & Ve spoo , 2019). Much less is known abou how indi iduals a y in
hei abili ies o exp ess a ce ain meaning. This s udy aims o ill his gap by in es iga ing wha
kind o indi idual ajec o ies ou L2 Finnish lea ne s show when de eloping hei linguis ic
esou ces o exp ess he meaning ha is con en ionally exp essed wi h he FEC.
In addi ion o in e -indi idual a ia ion, he e is in a-indi idual a iabili y because
con en ionalized and non-con en ionalized cons uc ions may al e na e in he L2 lea ne s’
p oduc ion. Va iabili y¹ hus e e s o di e si y wi hin he lea ne ’s pe sonal epe oi e. In he
con ex o CDST, i has been sugges ed ha eme ging L2 cons uc ions show conside able
a iabili y, especially a he beginning o he lea ning p ocess because lea ne s a e ying ou
di e en ways o making meaning (Ellis, 1994; Thelen & Smi h, 1994; an Dijk e al., 2011). As
poin ed ou by an Gee and an Dijk (2002, p. 341), a iabili y “can be an essen ial ac o in
p omo ing de elopmen ”. I is assumed ha ee explo a ion leads o a iabili y in pe o mance,
which can be seen as a p e equisi e o de elopmen ( an Dijk e al., 2011). Fo L2 lea ne s,
di e si y in cons uc ion use is impo an because i p o ides ma e ial o selec ion: The mos
e ec i e exp essions can be selec ed o la e use. Such de elopmen was obse ed in Cancino
e al.’s (1978) da a, which an Dijk e al. (2011) e-analyzed la e om a CDST pe spec i e. In
his longi udinal s udy, a he beginning o he lea ning p ocess, he lea ne used di e en kinds
o cons uc ions, some a ge like and o he s non- a ge like, o exp ess nega ion. In ecen
yea s, many esea che s ha e adop ed a CDST/DUB app oach o s udy he ole o a iabili y in
L2 de elopmen . I has been shown ha a lea ne ’s pe o mance luc ua es when measu ed
wi h bo h speci ic and holis ic measu es (Spoelman & Ve spoo , 2010; Tilma, 2014; Ve spoo e
al., 2008; Ve spoo e al., 2017). Resea ch has also demons a ed ha lea ne s whose language
exhibi s subs an ial a iabili y may be mo e success ul han hei less- a iable pee s (Chan e
al., 2015; Huang e al., 2021; Lowie & Ve spoo , 2019).
Whe eas CDST emphasizes a iabili y in lea ning ajec o ies o e ime, usage-based linguis s
a gue ha in i s -language (L1) acquisi ion, cons uc ions a e ini ially ela i ely ixed and ied
o speci ic lexical i ems (i.e., i em-based cons uc ions) and he e o e show e y li le a iabili y
ea ly on. I is assumed ha hese ini ial cons uc ions a e o e-lea ned exp essions. Only a e
open slo s wi hin cons uc ions ha e been disco e ed does he amoun o a iabili y inc ease
in young child en’s language p oduc ion. (Dąb owska & Lie en, 2005; Tomasello, 2003.) In
L2 lea ning, howe e , indings ha e been mixed. In some cases, lea ne s use i em-based
cons uc ions ini ially (Eskildsen, 2009; Eskildsen & Cadie no, 2007; Mellow, 2006); in o he
cases, he e is mo e a iabili y in he ea ly cons uc ions (Lesonen e al., 2017; Lesonen e
al., 2020; Roeh -B ackin, 2014). The di e ences be ween L1 and L2 may be explained by he
ac ha L2 lea ne s a e al eady con e san wi h slo - inding and need less ime o disco e
hem. L2 lea ne s can use hei L1 when p oducing L2 exp essions (e.g., Cadie no, 2004; Ja is
& Pa lenko, 2008). Angelis and Selinke (2001) poin ou ha mul ilingual lea ne s may ans e
om languages o he han he L1. In e language ans e ( ans e o he L2 om o he
languages han he L1) has been explained by a cogni i e mode o “ o eign language alk”: The
use o a language o he han he L1 may be p e e ed because i sounds mo e o eign han he
L1 (de Angelis & Selinke , 2001).
2.3. INSTRUCTION AS AN EXTERNAL FORCE IN DYNAMIC L2 DEVELOPMENT
An L2 class oom o e s oppo uni ies o meaning ul in e ac ions, as well as he chance
o de elop s a egies o make use o a o dances ou side he class and o answe lea ne s’
ques ions on how he L2 wo ks. In CDST and DUB, ins uc ion may be seen as an ex e nal
o ce ha may play a ole in L2 lea ne s’ de elopmen (e.g., La sen-F eeman, 1997; La sen-
F eeman & Came on, 2008; Nicolescu & Pe escu, 2013). Because in a complex dynamic sys em
“all pa s a e connec ed o all o he pa s” (de Bo & La sen-F eeman, 2011, p. 10), p edic ing
linea cause and e ec ela ionships may be e y di icul . Howe e , i should be no ed ha in
a dynamic sys em, no all connec ions a e equally s ong (de Bo & La sen-F eeman, 2011).
Exis ing esea ch sugges s ha he connec ion be ween ins uc ion and L2 de elopmen is
4Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
ela i ely s ong: I has been shown ha lea ne s de elop hei L2 esou ces when hey lea n
languages in ins uc ional se ings (e.g., No is & O ega, 2000; Spada & Tomi a, 2010). S udies
on he e ec o ins uc ion ha e mainly ocused on g oups and he e ec o di e en eaching
app oaches. Some s udies ha e ound ha a he g oup le el, explici ins uc ion is mo e
bene icial han implici ins uc ion (No is & O ega, 2000; Spada & Tomi a, 2010), while o he s
show ha a p edominan ly implici p og am is mo e e ec i e han an explici p og am (Rousse-
Malpa , 2019). In one longi udinal case s udy om a DUB pe spec i e, Tilma (2014) ound ha
he lea ne who ecei ed ins uc ion ha emphasized o m did be e ini ially on complexi y
and accu acy measu es han he lea ne who ecei ed ins uc ion ha emphasized meaning,
bu hese di e ences diminished o e ime, wi h no signi ican di e ences a e a yea .
In he cu en s udy, we ocus on he ins uc ion o he FEC. T adi ionally, he FEC is nei he
in oduced no augh ea ly on because i is conside ed a di icul s uc u e o L2 lea ne s,
as i is peculia in many ways (I aska, 2010). The e b (mos o en he e b olla ‘ o be’) does
no ag ee wi h he subjec , and he subjec comes a e he e b. The mos di icul aspec is
he o m o he subjec because i can be in he pa i i e case (I aska 2010; Kajande 2013;
Fo FEC, see VISK § 893.) Al hough L2 lea ne s may ind he FEC icky, hey s ill migh ha e a
communica i e need o his cons uc ion ea ly on. As poin ed ou by Aal o e al. (2009), i is
a he he communica i e need o he lea ne han he complexi y o he s uc u e ha makes
lea ning easy o di icul : Lea ning a complex cons uc ion may be easy i he lea ne needs he
cons uc ion equen ly. By selec ing he cons uc ions o he analysis wi h an onomasiological
app oach, we can ace he lea ne s’ need o FECs because use o non-con en ionalized
cons uc ions can be seen as an indica o o he lea ne s’ communica i e need.
In he cu en longi udinal s udy, we examine he ole o wo pedagogical in e en ions on ou
indi idual lea ne s’ ajec o ies. The speci ic ocus is on how ins uc ion a ec s a iabili y in
indi idual lea ning ajec o ies. Va iabili y is in es iga ed in wo ways. Fi s , an indi idual lea ne ’s
language use is in es iga ed wi h espec o he equency o con en ionalized FECs and non-
con en ionalized cons uc ions ha a e used o exp ess exis en iali y. A la ge epe oi e o
di e en kinds o exis en ial cons uc ions (bo h FECs and non-con en ionalized cons uc ions)
was conside ed a high deg ee o a iabili y. Second, he FECs a e in es iga ed wi h espec o
accu acy. Al e na ion o a ge like and non- a ge like o ms wi hin he FECs is conside ed a high
deg ee o a iabili y. We assume ha his kind o a iabili y in lea ne language is educed a e
he pedagogical e en because ins uc ion may help he lea ne s o ind he con en ionalized
linguis ic means o exp ess exis en iali y. Knowing he con en ionalized cons uc ion educes
ee explo a ion ha leads o a iabili y in pe o mance ( an Dijk e al. 2011).
2.4. TARGETED L2 CONSTRUCTION
The con en ional FEC exp esses he ac ha someone o some hing exis s o is in a pa icula
place (VISK § 893,894). Examples 1 and 2 show wo p o o ypical examples o he exis en ial
cons uc ion (see Appendix A o he glossing).
(1) Ke okse-ssa on ain yksi kei iö
Floo -INE be(3SG) only one ki chen
The e is only one ki chen on each loo .
(2) Tampe ee-lla on paljon jä -i-ä
Tampe e-ADE be(3SG) many lake-PL.PAR
The e a e many lakes in Tampe e.
As shown in Examples 1 and 2, he noun ph ase (NP) e e ing o he place is opicalized: The
exis en ial cons uc ion ells some hing abou his NP (VISK § 894). This NP is mos o en in he
inessi e case (ending -ssA, ypically exp essing ha some hing is in o inside some hing, VISK §
1238) o in he adessi e case (ending -llA, ypically exp essing ha some hing is on some hing,
VISK § 1238). O he cases can be used as well (wi h ci ies, he choice o -ssA and -llA -ending is
no limi ed by his in/on dis inc ion). The mos equen e b in exis en ial cons uc ions is olla
‘ o be’, bu o he e bs can also be used. In a p o o ypical exis en ial cons uc ion, he e is no
cong uence be ween he p edica e and he subjec : The p edica e is always in he hi d-pe son-
singula o m. The subjec (o en) e e s o some hing ha has no been men ioned be o e in

5Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
he discou se. I can be in he pa i i e case i i is in he plu al (example 2; excep wi h nouns
ha only ha e a plu al o m), i i e e s o an uncoun able/mass noun (example 3), o i he
e b is nega ed (example 4; VISK § 893, 894).
(3) Kupi-ssa on kah i-a
Cup-INE be(3SG) co ee-PAR
The e is co ee in he cup
(4) E u i-ssa ei ole islanni-n ku ssi-a
E u -INE NEG be Icelandic-GEN cou se-PAR
The e is no Icelandic cou se in E u .
3. THE CURRENT STUDY
This s udy aces he de elopmen al ajec o ies o cons uc ions exp essing exis en iali y in
ou L2 lea ne s o Finnish. The da a collec ion las ed nine mon hs, s a ing be o e and inishing
a e wo ins uc ional in e en ions. The aim was o answe he wo esea ch ques ions
p esen ed below.
1. Wha lea ning ajec o ies do he ou lea ne s show when exp essing he meaning ha
is con en ionally exp essed wi h he exis en ial cons uc ion in Finnish?
a. To wha ex en is he e a ia ion be ween he lea ne s’ ajec o ies (i.e., Do he
lea ne s use simila o di e en kinds o linguis ic solu ions o exp ess exis en iali y?)?
b. To wha ex en does each lea ne show a iabili y in he cons uc ions hey use o
exp ess exis en iali y?
2. Wha impac do pedagogical in e en ions ha e on he ou lea ne s’ ajec o ies?
a. How do he in e en ions a ec he equencies o FECs?
b. How do he in e en ions a ec he accu acy o o ms wi hin he FECs?
4. METHOD
4.1. PARTICIPANTS
The pa icipan s, ou adul L2 lea ne s o Finnish, we e en olled in di e en English-medium
p og ams and we e aking he same Finnish cou ses a he same Finnish uni e si y a he ime o
he s udy (see sec ion 4.4.). Backg ound in o ma ion on he pa icipan s is p esen ed in
Table 1
.
To ensu e ha he pa icipan s’ da a we e compa able in e ms o Finnish language p o iciency
a he beginning o he s udy, h ee expe ienced a e s e alua ed he lea ne s’ w i ing
p o iciency a he beginning o he s udy (see Appendix B). The a ings show ha a he e y
beginning o he s udy, in weeks 1 and 3 (w i en ex s 1 and 2), Jungo’s and Khadiza’s w i ing
p o iciency was e alua ed as sligh ly highe han Lena’s and Al a o’s, p esumably because hey
had al eady been in Finland o some ime. Howe e , by week 5 (w i en ex 3), Lena and
Al a o had caugh up wi h hei pee s. The pa icipan s’ o e all p o iciency de elopmen o e
PARTICIPANT AGE L1 OTHER LANGUAGES TIME OF
RESIDENCE
BEFORE
THE STUDY
EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
BEFORE THE STUDY
Lena 23 Ge man Englisha,b, F encha,
Icelandica,b
0 0
Jungo 22 Chinese
(Hunanese)
Manda in Chinesea,
Englisha
2 yea s 1 Finnish cou se o 5 ECTSc,
20 hou s o sel s udy
Al a o 30 Spanish Englisha, F encha,b,
Russiana
0 0
Khadiza 31 Bangla Englisha Hindi, U du 4 yea s 0
Table 1 Backg ound
in o ma ion on he
pa icipan s.
aLea ned in an ins uc ional
se ing. b Lea ned in he
a ge -language communi y.
c Eu opean C edi T ans e
Sys em.
6Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
he nine-mon h pe iod is e iden o hei success ul comple ion o a B1 le el Finnish cou se a
he end o he pe iod o obse a ion.
4.2. DATA COLLECTION
The da a we e collec ed om he ou uni e si y s uden s weekly, w i en and spoken da a
al e na ing, o e a pe iod o 9 mon hs. Bo h ypes o da a we e collec ed because i was
desi able ha he da a collec ion e lec ed ac ual usage-e en s ha lea ne s ake pa in in
eal li e. Al hough w i en and spoken a ian s can be qui e di e en in he Finnish language,
he exis en ial cons uc ion is no subs an ially di e en in hese di e en modes. In o he
wo ds, i was no expec ed ha he lea ne s would use di e en cons uc ions o exp ess his
meaning in one mode e sus he o he . On hese g ounds, he decision was made o c ea e one
co pus consis ing o w i en and spoken samples. The numbe o da a poin s is shown in
Table 2
.
The da a a e ee esponse da a. The pa icipan s we e asked o alk o w i e abou opics like
summe plans o hei home own. The opics we e usually amilia o he pa icipan s because
hey we e selec ed in acco dance wi h cou se con en . The w i en da a we e handw i en and
he w i ing samples we e on a e age 99 wo ds long ( ange: 40–176 wo ds; SD = 33). The spoken
da a we e eco ded in a language s udio, usually wi h a eco de (Roland R-05) bu once wi h
a sma phone. The spoken da a consis ed o monologues and dialogues. The o he pe son in a
dialogue was ei he ano he L2 speake om he same class o an L1 speake o Finnish (mos ly
he i s au ho o he pape ). The speaking samples we e on a e age 260 wo ds long ( ange:
63–629 wo ds; SD = 128). In he i s hal o he da a collec ion, he da a we e collec ed du ing
he lessons o he pa icipan s’ language cou se. The e was a ime limi o app oxima ely 20
minu es. In he second hal , he da a we e collec ed ou side he class and he e was no ime
limi .
4.3. DATA SELECTION AND ANALYTIC PROCEDURES
We adop ed an onomasiological app oach: We sea ched o he o mal e baliza ions o a gi en
concep (G zega, 2012), in ou case, exis en iali y. The i s au ho selec ed all cons uc ions
ha con ained he meaning con en ionally exp essed wi h he FEC. In his s udy, Goldbe g’s
(2006) de ini ion o a cons uc ion (a con en ionalized pai ing o o m and unc ion) has been
b oadened o include he L2 lea ne s’ eme gen o m-meaning mappings, which migh no ye
seem con en ional om he poin o iew o p o icien language use s (see Waa a, 2004). Two
ca ego ies we e o med. One is con en ionalized FECs (e.g., Saksassa ei ole saunoja ‘The e a e
no saunas in Ge many’). The second ca ego y is non-con en ionalized cons uc ions (e.g., *Se
on kolme opiskelijaa samassa huoneessa ‘*I is h ee s uden s in he same oom’; *Jy äskylä
on kaupunki paljon sil an kanssa ‘*Jy äskylä is a ci y wi h many b idges’). Al hough he non-
con en ionalized cons uc ions migh some imes look qui e di e en om he con en ionalized
cons uc ion, selec ing hem o he analysis was no p oblema ic; he link be ween he a ge ed
meaning and he o m was clea in i ually all cases. As o FECs, we included hose ha
con ained all he necessa y elemen s in he igh places, e en i hey con ained inaccu acies
(e.g., using he nomina i e case ins ead o he pa i i e case o a subjec ).
A e he manual selec ion o he cons uc ions, he equencies o he cons uc ions we e
no malized because o he di e ences in ex leng h. In he p ocess o no maliza ion, he
equencies we e calcula ed pe 100 wo ds. To answe ou i s esea ch ques ion (wha lea ning
ajec o ies he ou lea ne s showed), line g aphs we e c ea ed o isualize he equency
de elopmen o con en ionalized FECs and non-con en ionalized cons uc ions. FECs we e
also analyzed in e ms o hei accu acy, wi h he esul s p esen ed in ba g aphs. To answe
ou second esea ch ques ion (wha impac pedagogical in e en ions had on he ou lea ne s’
PARTICIPANT WRITTEN DATA SPOKEN DATA TOTAL
Lena 17 18 35
Jungo 18 17 35
Al a o 16 17 33
Khadiza 16 12 28 Table 2 Numbe o da a poin s.
7Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
ajec o ies), he ins uc ional se ing was analyzed i s . Because he i s au ho was p esen
a e e y lesson (ei he as a eache o he i s i e mon hs o an obse e du ing he las
ou mon hs), we ha e p ecise in o ma ion abou wha was augh du ing he classes and he
kinds o lea ning ma e ial and ac i i ies ha we e used. A e analyzing he ins uc ion o he
exis en ial cons uc ion in he pa icipan s’ cou ses, changes in he lea ne s’ de elopmen al
pa hs we e compa ed wi h he iming o he pedagogical in e en ions.
4.4. INSTRUCTIONAL SETTING
The ou s uden s we e aking he same h ee L2 Finnish cou ses a a Finnish uni e si y. The
h ee cou ses we e a Common Eu opean F amewo k o Re e ence o Languages (CEFR) le els
A1, A2 and B1. Each cou se consis ed o 70 con ac hou s plus addi ional independen wo k.
All h ee cou ses we e augh by a quali ied language eache who was an L1 speake o
Finnish, he i s wo cou ses by he i s au ho and he hi d one by a colleague. The h ee
cou ses aimed o de elop lea ne s’ skills in ou di e en unc ions: Social in e ac ion, elling
and desc ibing, unde s anding and sea ching o in o ma ion, and de eloping as a language
lea ne . The eaching app oach was p ima ily meaning- ocused, wi h some explici a en ion
o linguis ic o ms.
Du ing he pe iod o obse a ion, in o al 55 di e en FECs we e in oduced in he lea ning
ma e ial and on he boa d. FECs we e speci ically deal wi h wice du ing he pe iod o
obse a ion. In weeks 15 and 16, s uden s’ awa eness o he FEC was aised o he i s ime.
In hese lessons, he ocus was no so much on he exis en ial cons uc ion, bu on he use
o he pa i i e case. The exis en ial cons uc ion was p esen ed as one con ex in which
he pa i i e case is used. In week 15, s uden s’ a en ion was d awn o he FEC and i was
poin ed ou ha his cons uc ion co esponds o he English he e is/ he e a e. In week 16,
he s uden s did a w i en exe cise ha included 13 di e en exis en ial cons uc ions. In his
exe cise, he s uden s needed o o m he co ec pa i i e o m o he subjec wi hin each FEC.
The pa i i e o m was he a ge ed o m, and no o he case would ha e been a ge like. In
weeks 28 and 29, he main pedagogical in e en ion ook place. The exis en ial cons uc ion
was explici ly augh , i s elemen s we e poin ed ou , and he o m o he subjec was discussed
du ing he class. The e we e also speaking and w i ing exe cises ocused on he FEC.
Figu e 1
shows he iming o he in e en ions. The i s au ho was he eache in he i s pedagogical
in e en ion in weeks 15 and 16. The main pedagogical in e en ion in weeks 28 and 29 was
augh by a colleague.
5. RESULTS
Table 3
shows he numbe o cons uc ions used o exp ess exis en iali y du ing he pe iod o
obse a ion o each pa icipan .
Nex , he esul s o each indi idual lea ne a e p esen ed sepa a ely. Two igu es o each
lea ne a e p o ided. The i s igu e illus a es he lea ning ajec o ies ( esea ch ques ion 1)
and shows he no malized equencies o bo h con en ionalized FECs (Thick, g ey line) and
PARTICIPANT NUMBER OF
CONSTRUCTIONS
NUMBER OF
CONSTRUCTIONS
PER 100 WORDS
NUMBER
OF FECS
PER 100
WORDS
NUMBER OF NON-
CONVENTIONALIZED
CONSTRUCTIONS PER 100
WORDS
Lena 39 15.7 8.7 7.0
Jungo 54 33.9 16.7 17.2
Al a o 30 9.3 7.9 1.4
Khadiza 22 11.2 10.5 0.7
Table 3 Numbe o
cons uc ions used o exp ess
exis en iali y.
Figu e 1 Timing o he
pedagogical in e en ions.
8Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
non-con en ionalized cons uc ions ha we e used o exp ess exis en iali y (o he lines). The
second igu e illus a es he impac o pedagogical in e en ions ( esea ch ques ion 2). I
shows he equency o FECs wi h a non- a ge like subjec ( ed ba s), FECs wi h he a ge like
subjec (g een ba s), and non-con en ionalized cons uc ions ha we e used o exp ess
exis en iali y (g ey ba s). The iming o ins uc ion is indica ed wi h a ows. The blue a ows
indica e he i s pedagogical in e en ion and he ed a ows indica e he iming o he
main pedagogical in e en ion. Fo each lea ne , accu acy pe ains o he subjec o m only.
Accu acy was ela i ely high o he opicalized NP and o he p edica e (84–100%). I should
be no ed ha he e is no always a one- o-one co espondence be ween he equencies o
exis en ial cons uc ions and hei subjec s in he igu es because some imes he e was mo e
han one subjec in di e en o ms wi hin one cons uc ion o non-Finnish wo ds we e used
whose accu acy could no be e alua ed.
5.1. LENA
As he igu es show, Lena ied ou many di e en kinds o cons uc ions o exp ess he meaning
ha is con en ionally exp essed wi h he FEC. The non-con en ionalized cons uc ions used
mo e han once included he ollowing ypes: kanssa ‘wi h’ (example 5), se on ‘i is’ (example
6), and on olemassa ‘exis ’ (example 7).
(5) The i s example om week 10
Jy äskylä on kaupunki *paljon *sil a-n kanssa
Jy äskylä be(3SG) ci y *many *b idge-GEN wi h
Jy äskylä is a ci y wi h many b idges
(6) The i s example om week 11
Tal ella se ei ole au inko Suome-ssa päi ä-llä.
Win e -ADE i NEG be sun Finland-INE day-ADE
In he win e , i is no sun in Finland du ing he day (In he win e , he e is no sun in
Finland du ing he day)
(7) The i s example om week 20
*ole ole-ma-ssa *mon a *sukke-ja
*be be-3.INF-INE *many *sock-PL.PAR
exis s many socks
In some weeks Lena used bo h he con en ionalized FEC and non-con en ionalized
cons uc ions o exp ess exis en iali y. This kind o non-linea i y in he de elopmen was
e iden , o example, in week 16, when Lena used he con en ionalized FEC (example 8) and
he possessi e cons uc ion o exp ess exis en iali y (example 9).
(8) The i s example om week 16
Be liini-ssä on eloku a ea e i
Be lin-INE be(3SG) mo ie. hea e
The e is a mo ie hea e in Be lin
(9) The second example om week 16
* ee-llä ei *on *ko eiini
* ea-ADE NEG *be(3SG) *ca eine
Tea has no ca eine (The e is no ca eine in ea)
The e seemed o be a gene al endency in Lena’s ajec o y o he con en ionalized FECs
o ake o e om non-con en ionalized cons uc ions o e ime (
Figu e 2
). A e he main
pedagogical in e en ion, he use and p opo ion o he FEC inc eased. Howe e , inaccu a e
o ms o he subjec also linge ed a e he main pedagogical in e en ion in which he o m o
he subjec was explici ly emphasized (see
Figu e 3
).
15Lesonen e al.
Jou nal o he Eu opean
Second Language
Associa ion
DOI: 10.22599/jesla.77
AUTHOR AFFILIATIONS
Si kku Lesonen o cid.o g/0000-0002-5274-8518
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Seminaa inka u 15, PO Box 35, FI-40014 Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, FI
Rasmus S eink auss o cid.o g/0000-0002-3643-8704
Uni e si y o G oningen, NL
Minna Suni o cid.o g/0000-0002-4869-1846
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, FI
Ma jolijn Ve spoo o cid.o g/0000-0001-8828-8405
Uni e si y o Pannonia, Hunga y
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TEXT 1 TEXT 2 TEXT 3 TEXTS 1–3 TOGETHER
RANGE MEDIAN RANGE MEDIAN RANGE MEDIAN RANGE MEDIAN
Lena 1 1 1 1 2–3 3 1–3 1
Jungo 1–2 2 1–2 2 2–3 2 1–3 2
Al a o 1 1 1–2 1 2–3 3 1–3 1
Khadiza 1–2 2 1–2 2 2–3 2 1–3 2
APPENDIX B. THE PARTICIPANTS’ WRITING PROFICIENCY AT THE
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leng h o he ex s anged be ween 40 and 159 wo ds (M = 91; SD = 41).
Pa icipan s’ L2 w i ing
p o iciency a he beginning o
he s udy.

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TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Lesonen, S., S eink auss, R.,
Suni, M., & Ve spoo , M. (2022).
Va ia ion and a iabili y
in L2 lea ning ajec o ies:
Lea ning he Finnish exis en ial
cons uc ion. Jou nal o he
Eu opean Second Language
Associa ion, 6(1), 1–17. DOI:
h ps://doi.o g/10.22599/
jesla.77
Submi ed: 21 June 2021
Accep ed: 10 Janua y 2022
Published: 01 Ma ch 2022
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