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The oles o he s a e and social licence o ope a e? Lessons om nuclea was e
managemen in Finland, F ance, and Sweden
© 2019 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d.
Published e sion
Leh onen, Ma kku; Kojo, Ma i; Ja i, Tuija; Li manen, Tapio; Ka i, Mika
Leh onen, M., Kojo, M., Ja i, T., Li manen, T., & Ka i, M. (2020). The oles o he s a e and
social licence o ope a e? Lessons om nuclea was e managemen in Finland, F ance, and
Sweden. Ene gy Resea ch and Social Science, 61, A icle 101353.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.e ss.2019.101353
2020
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/e ss
O iginal esea ch a icle
The oles o he s a e and social licence o ope a e? Lessons om nuclea
was e managemen in Finland, F ance, and Sweden
Ma kku Leh onen
a,⁎
, Ma i Kojo
b
, Tuija Ja i
c
, Tapio Li manen
c
, Mika Ka i
b
a
Uni e si y Pompeu Fab a (UPF), Ramon T ias Fa gas 25-27, 08005 Ba celona, Spain
b
Tampe e Uni e si y, Finland
c
Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Nuclea ene gy
Go e nance
Co po a e social esponsibili y
T us
SLO
Communi y accep ance
ABSTRACT
The concep o social licence o ope a e (SLO) is an inc easingly popula ool o companies o manage hei
ela ions wi h he local communi ies. SLO is e y seldom used in he nuclea sec o , which has ne e heless
applied simila app oaches, unde no ions such as pa ne ship and pa icipa o y go e nance. This a icle ex-
plo es he specific challenges ha he applica ion o SLO aces in he nuclea was e managemen (NWM) sec o ,
by applying an o en-used SLO amewo k o Bou ilie and Thomson o illus a i e case s udies conce ning
nuclea was e eposi o y p ojec s in Finland, F ance and Sweden. Among he specifici ies o his sec o , he
a icle ocuses on he cen al ole o he s a e in he go e nance o a p ojec designed as a local solu ion o a
na ional, e en a global p oblem, en ailing ex emely long- e m challenges, in a con ex when he s a e has a
es ed in e es in he p ojec ob aining an SLO. The a icle sugges s ha s a e- ela ed elemen s be added o he
ou key c i e ia o he Bou ilie and Thomson amewo k, which consis s o economic and socio-poli ical le-
gi imacy, and in e ac ional and ins i u ionalised us . To accoun o he di e si y o se ings, such as he ‘high-
us ’con ex s o Finland and Sweden and he F ench ‘socie y o mis us ’, u he analysis and concep ual
efinemen a e needed, especially conce ning he mul iple dimensions o us and mis us , he ela ionships
be ween legal, poli ical, and social licences, and he specific challenges o in e gene a ional jus ice in SLO wo k.
1. In oduc ion
Wi h i s oo s in ex ac i e and o es y indus ies, including ene gy
and na u al esou ce sec o s, he concep o Social licence o ope a e
(SLO) has become a p e e ed ool o an inc easing numbe o com-
panies and o ganisa ions, ope a ing in a ious sec o s, o manage hei
communi y ela ions and epu a ional isks [1, p. 1779; 2–7]. Whils
necessa y, compliance wi h s a u o y egula ions seldom suffices o
mee he socie al expec a ions on indus ial p ojec s [5, p. 473]. In
b oad e ms, SLO deno es he app o al o accep ance ha he public o
a communi y o s akeholde s g an s o he ope a ions o a company o
indus y – o a specific p ojec o land use change [1, p. 1779; 8, p. 346;
9, p. 61; 10, pp. 489–490]. SLO can help a company by alle ia ing
social, economic and poli ical isks s emming om local opposi ion;
consolida ing local suppo o a p ojec ; a oiding delays; elimina ing
un iable p ojec s and si ing al e na i es ea ly; and p e en ing a decline
o he ma ke alue o he company's p oduc s [11,6]. Fo he affec ed
communi ies, SLO offe s a well- ecognised concep ha affo ds salience
and legi imacy o hei iews and demands.
In his a icle, we explo e he specific challenges ha he applica ion
o SLO aces in he nuclea was e managemen (NWM) sec o , by ap-
plying one o he mos well-known SLO amewo ks, he “a owhead
model”o Bou ilie and Thomson [12; see also 1,11] o illus a i e case
s udies conce ning nuclea was e eposi o y p ojec s in Finland, F ance
and Sweden. The a icle seeks nei he o compa e he deg ee o which
he h ee p ojec s ha e ob ained an SLO, no o es he amewo k o
Bou ilie and Thomson. Ins ead, we highligh he pa icula ly cen al
and complex oles o he s a e in nuclea was e policy. We hen sugges
ways o amending SLO amewo ks in gene al, and he Bou ilie &
Thomson amewo k in pa icula , o be e accoun o he mul iple
oles o he s a e. Ou cases p o ide a non-exhaus i e sample o eal-
wo ld examples o he s o he s a e in was e managemen o ganisa-
ions’effo s o ob ain an SLO.
While SLO is usually applied o p i a e sec o ac i i ies, a di e se
ange go e nmen bodies a e in ol ed in egula ion, su eillance, im-
plemen a ion, R&D, communica ion and owne ship ela ed o nuclea
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.e ss.2019.101353
Recei ed 28 Ma ch 2019; Recei ed in e ised o m 25 Oc obe 2019; Accep ed 7 No embe 2019
⁎
Co espondence o: Uni e si y Pompeu Fab a, Ba celona & Ecole des Hau es E udes en Sciences Sociales, Pa is & Uni e si y o Sussex, UK.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (M. Leh onen), ma i.kojo@ uni.fi(M. Kojo), uija.ja i@jyu.fi(T. Ja i), apio.a.li manen@jyu.fi(T. Li manen),
mika.ka i@ uni.fi(M. Ka i).
Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
2214-6296/ © 2019 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/BY/4.0/).
T
was e go e nance. Recen esea ch has highligh ed how go e nance
and ins i u ions a mul iple le els shape he acquisi ion o an SLO [e.g.
13–15], ye we a gue ha SLO heo y and p ac ice need o pay g ea e
a en ion o he oles o he s a e. The ex emely long imescales and
isks in ol ed in NWM se hese p ojec s apa om ‘con en ional’SLO
p ojec s: high-le el adioac i e was e needs o emain isola ed om
li ing o ganisms o up o hund eds o housands o yea s. This ac-
cen ua es he oles o he s a e, as a las ing albei no e e nal ins i u ion,
media ing be ween he public, p i a e and communi y in e es s. In-
sigh s om ou case examples in he nuclea was e sec o bea e-
le ance o nuclea ene gy sec o mo e gene ally, bu also o clima e
policy, gi en he cen ali y o he s a e in dealing wi h he associa ed
in e gene a ional challenges [e.g. 16, pp. 54–83].
The nex sec ion desc ibes he esea ch me hods and jus ifies he
choice o he case s udies. Sec ion h ee b ieflydefines SLO and i s
challenges, and p esen s he ‘a owhead’ amewo k o Bou ilie and
Thomson [12], which p o ides a basis o he p esen a ion o ou a -
gumen s. Sec ion ou desc ibes he specific and complex oles o he
s a e in NWM, while sec ion fi e p esen s ou h ee illus a i e cases.
Sec ion six illus a es ou a gumen s by applying he Bou ilie and
Thomson amewo k o he case s udies. Sec ion se en concludes by
summa ising he key aspec s ha need o be conside ed in u he wo k
o in eg a e he ‘s a e dimension’, and sugges s hemes o u he e-
sea ch.
2. Me hods and choice o he illus a i e case s udies
Th ee ea u es jus i y ou choice o he illus a i e cases. Fi s , he
oles o he s a e, and he ela ionships be ween a ious key ac o s a
diffe en le els o nuclea was e go e nance diffe significan ly be ween
he h ee coun ies. Second, con as ing he No dic ‘high- us ’socie ies
[e.g. 17] and he F ench “socie y o mis us ”[18,19] is pa icula ly
ele an , gi en he cen al ole o us as a key elemen o SLO. Thi d,
hese eposi o y p ojec s a e nea e o implemen a ion han simila
p ojec s in any o he coun y. In e ms o case s udy esea ch [20, p. 30]
ou sample he e o e ep esen s a mix o “di e se cases”(as o he oles
o he s a e), he “mos diffe en ”cases ( he No dics s. F ance in e ms
o us ), while being he “mos simila ”wi h ega d o he ad ance-
men o he p ojec s ( h ee o e unne s in NWM).
The a icle d aws p ima ily on exis ing academic li e a u e on SLO
and on NWM in ou h ee case s udy coun ies. Ou choice o con-
cen a e on he ole o he s a e ollowed om findings om he ini ial
li e a u e su ey, as well as om discussions wi h expe s wo king on
social aspec s o NWM. These e ealed ha SLO was nea ly absen om
he ocabula y o NWM ac o s, and ha SLO li e a u e has hus a paid
sca ce a en ion o he ole o he s a e. The seconda y NWM li e a u e,
which se ed as he co e ma e ial o he s udy, included also ou own
ea lie ex ensi e wo k conce ning he Finnish, F ench and Swedish
nuclea sec o , on SLO- ela ed opics such as eposi o y si e selec ion,
local communi y pe cep ions, and he ole o he hos municipali y
[21–26]; long- e m challenges o memo y conse a ion [27]; commu-
ni y benefi schemes [28–30]; socioeconomics o NWM [31–35]; ci izen
pa icipa ion and delibe a ion [36–38]; as well as poli ics and egula-
ion o nuclea ene gy and NWM [39–43]. Da a om opinion su eys
p o ided addi ional insigh s especially conce ning he le els o us . As
a complemen a y sou ce, especially o he F ench case, we used he
SLO- ele an ma e ial om he semi-s uc u ed s akeholde in e iews
conduc ed by he fi s au ho in ea lie esea ch on NWM. These in-
e iews conce ned NWM opics closely ela ed o SLO, including no-
ably ci izen pa icipa ion, socioeconomic e alua ion o he eposi o y
p ojec and he associa ed benefi schemes (in all h ee coun ies),
public communica ion (Finland and F ance), and us in NWM policy
(Finland and Sweden). In Finland, fi een in e iews we e conduc ed
be ween Ap il 2009 and Augus 2018; in F ance, 34 in e iews in
2013–2014 and in 2019; and in Sweden, wel e in e iews in 2013 and
2015. In F ance, mos in e iewees we e local and depa men al-le el
ac o s, bu also na ional-le el ep esen a i es om he nuclea indus y,
cen al go e nmen , sa e y au ho i ies, and NGOs we e in e iewed. In
Finland, he in e iewees included ep esen a i es om he NWM
company, he nuclea ope a o s, he na ional au ho i ies, esea che s,
and NGOs. The Swedish in e iewees ep esen ed he NWM company,
he sa e y au ho i y, NGOs, he Na ional Council on Nuclea Was e,
local poli icians, academics, and independen consul an s. Annex 1
gi es u he de ail on he in e iews. On all h ee coun ies, nume ous
in o mal discussions o e he yea s wi h s akeholde s and expe s
p o ided u he inpu s.
To iden i y and o ganise he ele an in o ma ion in ou ma e ial,
we used as a guide he ‘a owhead’ amewo k o Bou ilie and
Thomson [12], which we p esen in sec ion ou . This allowed us o
s uc u e he analysis and he p esen a ion in sec ion six acco ding o
he ou key elemen s o he amewo k: economic and socio-poli ical
legi imacy, as well as in e ac ional and ins i u ionalised us . When
analysing he da a om mul iple sou ces, we sough o iden i y he
specific oles ha he s a e played in ou h ee cases, in he key p o-
cesses alling wi hin hese ou ca ego ies o SLO c i e ia.
3. Wha is a social licence o ope a e?
A e wen y yea s o use, SLO lacks a s anda dised defini ion and is
applied somewha diffe en ly depending on he sec o and con ex in
ques ion [44]. SLO cons i u es a me apho [e.g. 7], ye schola s ha e
de eloped elabo a e means o measu ing SLO, o example ia ailo -
made ques ionnai es [e.g. 11,45]. A gene al consensus ne e heless
p e ails o e he key ideas: an SLO is g an ed by he local communi y
hos ing a p ojec [e.g. 46], i en ails p ocesses o accep ance and ap-
p o al o indus y's ac i i ies, and i is cons uc ed ia dynamic in e -
ac ion be ween communi y, s akeholde s and companies [44]. Al-
hough usually employed o indus ial p ojec s, Jijela a and Vanclay
[47] applied SLO o humani a ian NGO ac ion. As a ‘so con ac ’[48,
p. 1], SLO complemen s and in e ac s wi h he s a u o y legal licence
g an ed by he au ho i ies, and he ‘poli ical’licence (PLO) deno ing he
deg ee o which na ional decision-make s a e in a ou o he p ojec in
ques ion [49,46]. In ica ely linked wi h he (economic) de elopmen
agenda o he s a e, PLO can esul om ade-offs wi h issues un ela ed
o he p ojec in ques ion [53]. While PLO alone would gene ally suffice
in au ho i a ian se ings, s a e's de elopmen objec i es can o e ide o
a leas h ea en SLO e en in democ a ic egimes [49].
An SLO needs o be cons an ly main ained, and align wi h he
changing alues and objec i es o he communi y [e.g. 1, p. 1779].
Mul iple SLOs, o se e al ‘sub-licences’would be needed o accoun o
he he e ogenei y among he diffe en pa s o communi y [c . 50, pp.
189–190; 6, p. 1084]. Fo example, a p ojec may ha e an SLO om
municipal leade s and local businesses, bu no om ci izen mo e-
men s.
As a ule, an SLO is g an ed o a specific p ojec o ac i i y –a
company may ha e an SLO o one o i s p ojec s, bu no o ano he
[1, p. 1781]. Some imes he ‘owne ’o an SLO is ex ended o co e he
company and i s local ope a ions [12, p. 2] o e en an en i e indus y
b anch [e.g. 51, p. 45]. In p ac ice, when conside ing a p ojec and i s
SLO, ci izens d aw on hei ea lie expe ience conce ning he company
and indus y in ques ion, as well as on hei ideological con ic ions
[e.g. 25,15,52, p. 45]. In his sense, SLO con as s wi h he mo e ‘cal-
cula i e’poli ical licence [53].
3.1. The ou -ladde model o SLO: legi imacy and us as he key
p e equisi es
To illus a e ou a gumen abou he oles o he s a e, we apply an
o -used SLO amewo k, de eloped by Thomson and Bou ilie [1; see
also 12,54,6,7,55]. Since NWM is no always he esponsibili y o a
p i a e company, we eplace he habi ual SLO e m ‘company’by ‘o -
ganisa ion’.
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
2
The amewo k dis inguishes ou le els in he o ma ion o an SLO.
A he lowes le el, he communi y ejec s o wi hd aws he SLO om
he o ganisa ion, whe eas a he second le el, i accep s and ole a es
he p ojec . A he hi d le el, he communi y explici ly app o es he
p ojec and encou ages he con inua ion o he ac i i y. A he op o
he ladde , he communi y pe cei es he p ojec as i s own, as an in-
eg al pa o i s iden i y and alues. We ely on a sligh ly mo e efined
'a owhead' e sion, p esen ed in Fig. 1, in which he ou le els
(wi hd awal, accep ance, app o al, psychological iden ifica ion) o m a
con inuum, and cons i u e he key elemen s shaping he acquisi ion o
an SLO: economic legi imacy, socio-poli ical legi imacy, in e ac ional
us , and ins i u ionalised us [12, pp. 3–6].
3.1.1. Economic and socio-poli ical legi imacy: dis ibu i e and p ocedu al
jus ice
Legi imacy ep esen s “ he accep ance o he p ojec by he hos
communi y especially in e ms o i s ai ness”[6, p. 1078]. Economic
legi imacy – he minimum equi emen o accep ance – ela es o
dis ibu i e jus ice, i.e. ci izens’pe cep ion ha cos s and benefi s o he
p ojec a e sha ed equi ably. Communi y benefi schemes o en seek o
ensu e his kind o legi imacy.
Socio-poli ical legi imacy can allow a p ojec o win ue app o al.
I posi s p ocedu al jus ice as a key conce n, equi ing ha he o ga-
nisa ion shows willingness o p o ec he communi y's social, en i on-
men al and cul u al ways o li e om ha m ul impac s. The o ganisa ion
should in o m he communi y abou i s ac i i ies, lis en o communi y
conce ns, es ablish and explain he p ojec 's a ionale, and demons a e
ha he benefi s clea ly ou weigh he downsides [1, p. 1785; 12,p.4;
7]. P ocedu al jus ice is ul ima ely ancho ed in in e na ional and na-
ional law, ia legisla i e ac s such as he Aa hus Con en ion on access
o in o ma ion, pa icipa ion and jus ice; En i onmen al Impac As-
sessmen and Social Impac Assessmen p ocedu es; o laws go e ning
access o and owne ship o land [46,7,32].
3.1.2. In e ac ional us : keeping he p omises
Legi imacy is a ounda ion o mu ual us , ha is, a si ua ion in
which pa ies olun a ily accep hei ulne abili y o ac ions by o he s
[1, p. 1786]. In he case o SLO, us implies confidence by he com-
muni y membe s ha he o ganisa ion will always ac in he commu-
ni y's bes in e es s [1, p. 1786; 6, p. 1078]. An o ganisa ion should
appea as hones and since e in i s communica ion and a emp s o keep
i s p omises bu mus also demons a e ha i has he equisi e ech-
nical, financial and o he esou ces [e.g. 6,p. 1078; 7,56, p. 2645].
While lis ening and communica ing suffice o ensu e legi imacy, in-
e ac ional us equi es esponsi eness o ci izens’conce ns and
iews [1, p. 1785; 57, p. 141], mu ual dialogue, espec o local ways
o li e, and a sha ed ision o he u u e o he egion [12,p.4;10].
Conc e e measu es include en isioning new de elopmen goals wi h he
communi y; capaci y building and economic de elopmen ; and dele-
ga ion o aspec s o he p ojec o he communi y, allowing sha ed
owne ship o isks and oppo uni ies [1, p. 1786]. Fo pa icipa o y
go e nance o build us , ci izens mus be in o med abou how hei
iews ha e been aken in o accoun in decision-making.
3.1.3. Ins i u ionalised us : psychological iden ifica ion wi h “ou p ojec ”
SLO a i s s onges implies ins i u ionalised us o “ ull us ”,
ha is, a si ua ion in which ela ions be ween he communi y and he
o ganisa ion a e “based on an endu ing ega d o each o he 's in e -
es s”[12,p.4;6, p. 1079; 1, p. 1784; 11]. Bo h pa ies hen ake us
o g an ed, he ci izens psychologically iden i y hemsel es wi h he
alues and in e es s o he o ganisa ion – he o ganisa ion and he
communi y see each o he as pa ne s, as "good buddies" [54,6]. The
communi y ac i ely suppo s and adop s he p ojec as i s own, akes
p ide o i , and designs and implemen s i s own ac i i ies as pa o he
p ojec [6, p. 1079].
While in e ac ional us is empo a y and di ec ly linked o a spe-
cific p ojec , ins i u ionalised us is mo e s able o e ime, al hough
ul ima ely subjec o he gene al ‘ ule’o us being ha d o ea n, bu
easy o lose [58, p. 677]. Ins i u ionalised us can be seen as an ou -
come o long- e m in e ac ion o he communi y wi h i s en i onmen
and s akeholde s, us -building measu es by he p ojec o ganisa ion
being only one among many causal ac o s.
The 'a owhead model' (Fig. 1) illus a es how a company may a ain
app o al o i s p ojec in he p esence o ei he : 1) economic legi imacy
and socio-poli ical legi imacy; o 2) economic legi imacy and in e ac-
ional us . On he basis o hei empi ical analysis, Bou ilie and
Thomson [12, p. 4] concluded ha economic legi imacy is a minimum
equi emen o an SLO, whe eas ull/ins i u ionalised us is possible
only when all h ee o he key c i e ia a e p esen a he same ime.
4. The i al ole o he s a e in nuclea was e managemen
Al hough acing social accep abili y challenges simila o hose o
he ex ac i e indus ies – he mos common ‘use ’o an SLO – he
nuclea indus y has only ecen ly shown in e es in he concep [59].
1
I has ne e heless applied simila app oaches, especially in nuclea
Fig. 1. The ou ac o s ha de e mine he p opo ions o s akeholde s a each le el (sou ce: adap ed om 12, pp. 2–5).
1
Wi h he no able excep ion o u anium mining, whe e SLO is a well-es ab-
lished no ion e.g. [63,64].
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
3
was e eposi o y si ing, unde denomina ions such as local pa ne -
ships, o b oad public and s akeholde pa icipa ion [e.g. 37,60–62].
Te ms such as pa ne ship and s akeholde confidence ha e been in-
s i u ionalised in e na ionally, e.g. in he ac i i ies o he Fo um on
S akeholde Confidence (FSC) o he OECD Nuclea Ene gy Agency,
2
and na ionally, in egula o y amewo ks ia manda o y En i onmen al
Impac Assessmen p ocedu es, mul is akeholde expe commi ees,
na ional commissions o public deba e (e.g. in F ance, Canada, and
I aly), local liaison commi ees, and communi y benefi schemes, o
example. These app oaches ace simila challenges as SLO, including
he isk o pa icipa ion being used o me ely ins umen al pu poses
[e.g. 65,37,66], SLO legi imising “ques ionable company p ac ices be-
hind an SLO enee o espec abili y”[53], and benefi schemes being
denounced as a o m o b ibe y [e.g. 67,68,30]. Pa icipa ion, pa -
ne ships and effo s a gaining an SLO may hen ail in hei sha ed
main objec i e, ha o engende ing us .
Despi e hese simila i ies, nuclea was e disposal p ojec s exhibi
specific ea u es ha b ing o he o e he oles o he s a e, and com-
plica e he key ques ions o “who should g an an SLO, o whom/wha ,
and on which g ounds”. While indus y p ojec s a e ypically designed
o gene a e p ofi o p i a e business en e p ises and o os e na ional,
egional and local socioeconomic de elopmen , nuclea was e e-
posi o ies aim o p o ide a local solu ion o a na ional –e en a
global –p oblem. This public-in e es na u e o nuclea was e p ojec s
complica es he a bi a ion be ween he SLO and he poli ical licence
[49], accen ua ing he ole o he s a e as a gua dian o he public
in e es .
The ex emely long imespan o NWM adds an in e - empo al aspec
o he al eady complex a bi a ions be ween he diffe en ypes o li-
cences, and be ween he local, na ional and global le els o go e nance.
Can he p esen local communi y legi ima ely g an an SLO o a p ojec
ha can ha e implica ions o innume able gene a ions o u u e e-
siden s in ha communi y? SLO schola s ha e a gued ha he concep
can eflec he conce ns o b oade (e.g. mul ina ional) ci il socie y
[1,8]. In p inciple, an SLO can he e o e add ess in e gene a ional
conce ns, which a e cen al in NWM p ojec s. Specific ways o dealing
wi h in e gene a ional jus ice in SLO heo y and p ac ice would me i
a sepa a e ea men , and will no be add essed in de ail in his a icle.
SLO schola s ha e d awn a en ion o he ole o complex go e n-
ance and ins i u ional a angemen s in shaping SLO p ocesses and
ou comes [e.g. 8,13]. Heff on e al. [46] unde line ha al hough an
SLO is essen ially an in o mal con ac , law is o en c ucial in gi ing
effec o SLO, o example h ough minimum legal s anda ds. Howe e ,
ex an SLO li e a u e has seldom add essed he in e nal he e ogenei y
o he s a e, and, by implica ion, i s a ious oles in SLO p ocesses. The
go e nmen is some imes ea ed me ely as a hi d-pa y egula o [e.g.
48], o an ac o ha ends o unduly complica e SLO p ocesses. Ya es
and Ho a h [69] illus a ed how local go e nmen s can help he p o-
jec owne o iden i y he key s akeholde g oups. F om a sligh ly di -
e en angle, an SLO has been po ayed as a p e equisi e o , bu in-
dependen om, he o mal legal licence g an ed by he go e nmen
[13]. Munde a [48] highligh s social inclusion policies as i al de-
e minan s o SLO p ocesses, while Rauffle [51] s esses he ways in
which he s a e can ac i ely p omo e p i a e-sec o p ojec s in pu sui
o economic and e i o ial de elopmen . The complexi y o he e y
no ion o ‘ he s a e’is pa icula ly p onounced in he NWM sec o , o
ins ance because he s a e is no only a key ac o in ene gy policy, bu in
some cases (e.g. F ance) also he p ojec owne seeking an SLO o a
eposi o y. Fu he mo e, he sub-na ional public ac o s, a diffe en
le els o go e nance, a e o en o n be ween mul iple loyal ies owa ds
he s a e on one hand and hei local cons i uencies on he o he .
This he e ogenei y also s ems om he dis inc pa e ns o eco-
nomic in e es s in ol ed, in pa icula he close ies be ween nuclea
ene gy policy and NWM, and he con en ious na u e o nuclea powe
in public discussion. E en in he mos economically libe al coun ies,
he s a e has, since he ea ly yea s o nuclea de elopmen , laid he
essen ial ounda ions o he success o he indus y, ia s a e- unded
R&D, communica ion and knowledge-c ea ion, egula ion, as well as
di ec and indi ec economic and ins i u ional suppo o an indus y
ini ially bo n ou o he effo s o cons uc nuclea weapons. This has
c ea ed a dense ne wo k o pa ly ansna ional links be ween he in-
dus y, go e nmen ins i u ions, local and na ional poli icians, ax-
paye s, and o e s. As an endu ing h ea o he con inued use o nu-
clea ene gy, he un esol ed ‘was e p oblem’ u he ein o ces hese
connec ions.
5. SLO challenges in he nuclea was e sec o : illus a ion ia
examples om F ance, Finland, and Sweden
5.1. F ance: a s a e-led and conflic - idden p ojec
The planned eposi o y, Cigéo,
3
o be buil in clay hos ock, would
ecei e he high- and medium-le el was e om he 58 eac o s cu -
en ly supplying o e 70% o F ance's elec ici y consump ion. And a,
he na ional adioac i e was e managemen agency, plans o s a
cons uc ion in 2022 and pilo s age ope a ions in a ound 2030 [70,p.
56]. Via And a, he s a e is he e o e he ul ima e agen seeking o
ob ain an SLO, al hough he financing o he p ojec comes ia axes
le ied on he la gely s a e-owned was e p oduce s: EDF, O ano (un il
la e 2017 A e a), and he na ional nuclea R&D agency, CEA.
4
The
nuclea sec o enjoys a special place among s a e in e es s, as a majo
expo sec o , a key ac o in he mode nisa ion o he coun y since he
1950s, and a sou ce o na ional p ide [71].
The eposi o y p ojec has a long and conflic - idden his o y.
And a's ini ial si e in es iga ions in he la e 1980s gene a ed ehemen
local opposi ion [e.g. 72,65]. To unblock he subsequen s alema e, he
go e nmen eopened he sea ch o include h ee diffe en RWM op-
ions, and opened he discussion o a wide ange o ac o s [72]. The
g ound-b eaking Was e Ac 1991 [73] in oduced he concep o e-
e sible geological disposal and communi y benefi schemes. I also led
o he es ablishmen o mul is akeholde commissions, ex e nal e alu-
a ing bodies, and local in o ma ion and liaison commi ees (CLIS).
These added u he complexi y o he go e nance o he p ojec , un-
de pinned by he F ench poli ico-adminis a i e sys em, which in ol es
wo pa allel lines cu ing ac oss a ious ie s o go e nance: s a e ad-
minis a ion on one hand, and au onomous e i o ial poli ico-admin-
is a i e s uc u es on he o he . The sa e y au ho i y, ASN, is suppo ed
by he echnical sa e y expe o ganisa ion, IRSN.
Towa ds he la e 1990s, local conflic agg a a ed again, in he
con ex o declining public us in he go e nance o isk,
5
and ol-
lowing go e nmen decision o designa e as a si e o an unde g ound
esea ch labo a o y (URL) Bu e –a small illage in a emo e, u al,
spa sely popula ed, and socio-economically declining egion in he eas
o F ance [41]. The o he si es elimina ed one by one, Bu e soon be-
came also he de ac o only candida e o hos ing a eposi o y [65]. The
Na ional Commission on Public Deba e (CNDP) o ganised manda o y
public consul a ions on adioac i e was e policy in 2005–06 and on he
Cigéo p ojec in 2013–14. In 2019, i o ganised ye ano he simila
consul a ion, on he na ional s a egy on managing adioac i e was e
2
The Canadian NEA delega es had men ioned social licence in some o he
Agency's mee ings (Pe sonal e-mail communica ion, a o me NEA consul an ,
14 Ma ch 2018).
3
Cen e indus iel de s ockage géologique.
4
The F ench s a e owns o e 80% o he sha es o EDF, he ope a o o
F ance's 58 nuclea eac o s, and mo e han 90% o hose o he ull- uel-cycle
nuclea company, O ano.
5
Including he widesp ead pe cep ion ha he go e nmen had sough o
conceal he ue ex en o Che nobyl allou in F ance [42].
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
4

and spen uel (PNGMDR).
Mos pa liamen a ians, depa men al au ho i ies, business o gani-
sa ions, ade unions, and local mayo s a e in a ou o he p ojec ,
condi ional on gua an ees o sa e y and anspa ency [74, p. 7]. Some
opposi ion pe sis s, including om a hand ul o mayo s o he small
u al communes in he immedia e icini y o he ins alla ion. Inc easing
con es a ion by local and na ional ac i is s has ecen ly led o clashes
be ween he police and he demons a o s.
5.2. Finland: ad ancing smoo hly, o become he fi s in he wo ld?
The indus y-owned Finnish NWM company, Posi a, hopes o s a
disposing o spen nuclea uel (SNF) in Olkiluo o, in he municipali y
o Eu ajoki, in he 2020s, almos on schedule es ablished in a 1983
go e nmen Decision-in-P inciple (DiP). The highly echnical app oach
o si e selec ion gene a ed local opposi ion in he la e 1980s and ea ly
1990s. In 1994, a law amendmen banned SNF expo s om Finland,
and hus spu ed he wo nuclea powe ope a o s, he s a e elec ici y
company IVO ( oday, Fo um Powe and Hea L d), and he p i a ely-
owned TVO, o se up a join was e managemen company, Posi a [21].
The go e nmen oday holds abou 51% o he sha es o Fo um, which
ope a es in en coun ies, wi h emphasis on he No dic and Bal ic a ea,
Poland, Russia, and India [75]. TVO is owned by a conso ium o powe
and indus ial companies, wi h Pohjolan Voima (57%) and Fo um
(28%) as i s la ges sha eholde s [76]. The go e nance a angemen s
a e simple compa ed o he F ench one, wi h he Minis y o Economic
Affai s and Employmen esponsible o policy planning and co-
o dina ion (including in he p ocesses o En i onmen al Impac As-
sessmen , EIA), he Radia ion and Nuclea Sa e y Au ho i y (STUK) as
he main egula o y body, he highly au onomous municipali ies as he
key local-le el ac o s, and Pa liamen as he ul ima e decision-make .
In esponse o he 1994 Ac on En i onmen al Impac Assessmen
P ocedu e [77], which made an EIA manda o y, Posi a s a ed planning
wha was o become in he p e ailing con ex an unp eceden edly
pa icipa o y and ambi ious EIA [78,79], going beyond me e legal e-
qui emen s. Fou candida e si es we e s udied, ye Posi a soon ocused
on he wo nuclea communi ies, Eu ajoki and Lo iisa, expec ing hese
o be he mos willing o hos a eposi o y [80, p. 95]. App o al by he
Eu ajoki municipal council in 2000 led o a a ou able Pa liamen DiP
in 2001, ollowed by ano he DiP in 2002 o he cons uc ion o a new
TVO-owned Olkiluo o 3 eac o in he same municipali y. Posi a
s a ed cons uc ing he unde g ound ock cha ac e isa ion acili y in
2004, and ob ained in 2015 cons uc ion licence on he same si e o he
final eposi o y cons uc ed acco ding o he Swedish KBS-3 concep in
g ani e bed ock [43]. The eposi o y is o ecei e SNF om he ou
nuclea eac o s and om he Olkiluo o 3 – o eseen o s a ope a ing
in 2020 and o b ing he sha e o nuclea in elec ici y supply om he
p esen 27% o abou 45% [81]. A he ime o w i ing, he a e o he
SNF om he planned six h eac o emains unce ain [24].
5.3. Sweden: us -building ia dialogue and municipal powe
The Nuclea S ipula ion Ac om 1977 imposed upon he Swedish
nuclea ope a o s a legal obliga ion o demons a e an “absolu ely sa e”
solu ion o he was e p oblem, be o e new eac o s could be licenced
[82,83]. Since hen, he u u e o nuclea powe in Sweden has been
ied o he abili y o he indus y o demons a e he possibili y o such a
solu ion [82,60]. The ini ial sea ch o a willing si e by he p i a e
indus y-owned was e managemen company, SKB, in he 1980s and
ea ly 1990s p o ed unsuccess ul in he ace o public opposi ion [84].
The s a e-indus y ela ions a e complex and in ica e, ex ending ou -
side o he Swedish bo de s [82]. SKB's sha eholde s a e he 100%
s a e-owned Va en all, Fo sma ks K a g upp (wi h Va en all as i s
majo i y owne ), OKG, and Sydk a Nuclea Powe [85]. The Finnish,
mos ly s a e-owned, Fo um owns sha es in Swedish nuclea powe
s a ions, while o he Swedish companies owning sha es in he coun y's
nuclea plan s a e Fo um's subsidia ies.
6
Sweden was one o he ea ly
adop e s o nuclea powe , and he indus y has played a significan
ole in he coun y's economy [83]. Following a e e endum in 1980,
he go e nmen commi ed o phasing ou nuclea powe , ye he
schedule has been epea edly delayed. Eigh nuclea eac o s oday
p o ide abou 40% o he coun y's elec ici y [86]. The go e nance
s uc u e esembles ha o Finland, wi h s ong municipal au onomy as
a ounding pilla . Howe e , unlike in Finland, he p o incial au ho i ies
ha e a coo dina ing ole in he EIA, and he licencing sys em en ails
wo ‘ acks’” – one based on he Nuclea Ac i i ies Ac , and ano he on
he En i onmen al Code [87].
In 1993–2000, SKB conduc ed easibili y s udies in eigh munici-
pali ies. Like Posi a, i ended up concen a ing i s effo s on nuclea
communi ies, o which Oska shamn and Ös hamma p o ed o be he
mos eage o engage [84]. Hos s o nuclea powe s a ions and e-
posi o ies o long-li ed and sho -li ed adioac i e was e –and wi h a
la gely a ou able local opinion – he municipali ies engaged in com-
pe i ion o he p ojec . Howe e , hey also collabo a ed closely, con-
s i u ing a join nego ia ing o ce owa ds SKB, including ia highly
elabo a e and pa icipa o y mul is akeholde dialogue, pa ly in con-
nec ion wi h he manda o y EIA consul a ions [88,26]. In 2009, SKB
chose Ös hamma as he eposi o y si e, while Oska shamn would e-
cei e he encapsula ion plan . SKB submi ed a cons uc ion licence
applica ion in 2011, ye he final decision is s ill pending, no ably be-
cause o doub s conce ning he co osion a e o he coppe -clad was e
con aine s, and he financing o he acili y. The Swedish example is
equen ly po ayed in e na ionally as a model o democ a ic and
dialogical planning and decision-making in he a ea o NWM [60].
6. The oles o he s a e: analysis ia he ou elemen s o SLO
In his sec ion, we will illus a e he oles o he s a e and long- e m
isks in nuclea -was e sec o SLO, by applying o ou h ee cases he
concep s p esen ed abo e.
6.1. Economic legi imacy and b ibe y allega ions: ax bonuses and legally
manda o y o p i a ely nego ia ed benefi schemes
Since he designa ion o Bu e as he hos o a URL in F ance, he
wo depa men s (Meuse and Hau e-Ma ne) sha ing he acili y ha e
ecei ed subs an ial suppo ( oday, EUR 30 million pe yea o each
depa men ) in he o m o legally manda o y benefi schemes [89]. The
schemes –designed o help he egion p epa e o he a i al o he
eposi o y –a e go e ned a he depa men al le el by mul is akeholde
bodies, GIPs,
7
and financed ia cha ges le ied on he was e p oduce s
[89]. As ou in e iews e ealed, e en many 'p o-Cigéo' mayo s con es
he ai ness o he dis ibu ion o he GIP benefi s, no leas ollowing
he go e nmen decision o ex end he ange o beneficia ies om he
33 small communes nea es o he acili y o mo e han 300 su -
ounding municipali ies [90, p. 26] hos ing abou 168 000 inhabi an s.
Ou in e iewees –p ojec opponen s and de ende s alike –blamed
GIPs o inefficiency, was ing public money on luxu y p ojec s, c ea ing
dependence on s a e unding, dis o ing compe i ion by p i ileging
local en ep eneu s o e hose om elsewhe e in he coun y, sp eading
unding oo hinly, and o ailing o c ea e uly “endogenous de el-
opmen ”. P oponen s ypically desc ibed GIPs as ai and jus com-
pensa ion, designed o p omo e accep ance [91]
8
and p epa e he e-
gion o he a i al o a p ojec o na ional in e es , ye allega ions o
b ibe y we e widesp ead [see also 65,92]. Opponen s –mos ly local
6
Fo example, Vä mlandk a OKG-deläga na, Mellans ensk k a g oup.
7
G oupemen d'in é ê public.
8
A iew exp essed also by Nicolas Lac oix, he P esiden o Hau e-Ma ne
depa men al council, in a TV deba e a F ance 3 Régions, "Dimanche en
Poli ique", 11 Ma ch 2018.
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
5
NGOs –desc ibed he benefi schemes as illegi ima e albei legal
b ibe y ha has ailed o gene a e he p omised e i o ial de elop-
men . Some mayo s suppo ing he p ojec a gued ha GIPs indeed
we e a o m o b ibe y, bu legi ima e as such: ‘buying’accep ance was
a ai way o compensa ing communi ies o hei willingness o sac i-
fice o he common good [c . 68].
In Finland and Sweden, benefi schemes a e no legally manda o y,
ye Finnish nuclea municipali ies ecei e subs an ial e enue in he
o m o a p ope y ax.
9
Almos a hi d o Eu ajoki's ax e enue in 2010
came om he nuclea indus y [28, p. 46]. Economic mo i es, desi e o
gain an ad an age o e Lo iisa in he i al y o a planned new eac o ,
and, acco ding o local newspape s, p essu e om TVO, helped ensu e
municipal council's suppo o he eposi o y p ojec [21, pp. 176–184;
28]. The council success ully lobbied he go e nmen o p o ide a
highe p ope y ax a e and speci y his in legisla ion [21]. Commu-
ni ies hos ing nuclea ins alla ions in F ance benefi om simila ax
bonuses [93,65, p. 140] –in he case o Cigéo es ima ed a EUR 43
million/yea on a e age –a o al o EUR 5.5 billion o e he planned
124-yea (2020–2144) cons uc ion and ope a ion pe iod [94].
In he absence o p ope y ax a angemen s in Sweden, he muni-
cipali ies nego ia ed wi h SKB, p io o he si ing decision in 2009, he
so-called ‘ alue added p og ammes’, imposing hese as an absolu e
condi ion o hei engagemen .
10
The p og ammes would p o ide a
o al o SEK 2 billion (nea ly EUR 200 million) o added alue, om
2010 un il he end o he cons uc ion pe iod, ia p ojec s in educa ion,
aining, in as uc u e, inno a ion, and business de elopmen [28].
The chosen hos communi y would ecei e 25% o he unds, while
h ee- ou hs would go o he ‘lose ’. The schemes a e go e ned join ly
by he municipali ies and SKB, and, like in F ance, in ol e elabo a e
a angemen s o ensu e ha he money is spen app op ia ely and
gene a es added alue [28]. A decade ea lie , as pa o si ing nego-
ia ions, he Finnish Eu ajoki had nego ia ed wi h TVO and Posi a a
much mo e modes benefi scheme [21, pp. 174–184]. The so-called
Vuojoki ag eemen was i al in ensu ing he municipal council's sup-
po . Via he ag eemen , Posi a en ed he Vuojoki Mansion om he
municipali y o use as i s headqua e s, ga e Eu ajoki a loan o o e
EUR 7 million, and helped i o es ablish a business de elopmen und
and build an ice s adium [21, pp. 183–188]. Eu ajoki essen ially go
wha i wan ed: a new NPP, he associa ed ax e enue, and an addi-
ional benefi scheme.
In Finland and Sweden, we could find only wo ins ances o b ibe y
allega ions. Local opponen s in Eu ajoki a gued ha he Vuojoki
ag eemen agg a a ed he municipali y's dependence on he powe
company [21, pp. 184–188], while in Ös hamma , opponen s de-
nounced he use o benefi money o financing he municipali y's day-
o-day s a u o y du ies [95]. The ele an cou s ejec ed he claims
filed by opponen s. I is no able ha he bulk o a en ion and c i ique
in F ance concen a ed on he manda o y and legally binding GIP
scheme, whe eas c i ics less seldom e oked he suppo om he in-
dus y, which is olun a y bu s ongly encou aged by he s a e [92].
The was e p oduce s (A e a, EDF, and CEA) ha e since 2006 p o ided
aining o local businesses, in es men loans, suppo o ene gy effi-
ciency and enewable ene gy in es men s, and financing o nuclea -
ela ed high school cu icula, wo h a o al o EUR 159.5 million in
2006–2016 [96].
The F ench and Finnish examples highligh he ole o he s a e as a
key p o ide o economic legi imacy, whe he ia ax benefi s o legally
manda o y benefi schemes. Se e al o ou in e iewees a gued ha ,
gi en he s a e-led cha ac e o nuclea indus y and he di igis e
poli ical cul u e in F ance, ci cula ing indus y money ia a s a e-go -
e ned benefi a angemen was he only legi ima e op ion. One migh
hypo hesise ha he c i ique in F ance was pa icula ly ehemen
pa ly because ci izens end o place g ea e expec a ions and e hical
no ms upon he s a e han on p i a e companies.
6.2. Socio-poli ical legi imacy: s a e-gua an eed municipal e o,
anspa ency, and public consul a ions
SLO li e a u e ecognises he ole o he s a e in es ablishing he
condi ions o p ocedu al jus ice and exe ing p essu e upon p i a e
companies. In F ance, he go e nmen is gene ally seen as he only
legi ima e gua dian o he public in e es [e.g. 97], and can decide on
he p ojec alone, in p inciple e en agains he will o he affec ed
nume ous small communi ies [93, p. 55]. In Finland and Sweden, he
legally gua an eed e o igh ga e significan le e age o he mu-
nicipali ies in hei nego ia ions wi h he indus y and he p ojec
owne . In Sweden, he hos municipali y's igh o wi hd aw applies
un il he e y las s age o he si ing p ocess, bu in Finland only un il
he Decision-in-P inciple [43]. In p inciple, e en he Swedish go e n-
men can g an a cons uc ion licence wi hou he municipali y's con-
sen , in he name o na ional in e es , bu his is conside ed highly
unlikely [93, pp. 84–85].
T anspa ency is in Finland and Sweden g ounded in he legisla ion,
da ing back o he mid-18 h cen u y, which s ipula es ee access o
public documen s [98]. O iginally an offsp ing o a omic weapons in-
dus y, he F ench nuclea ene gy sec o suffe s om a epu a ion o
sec ecy and opaci y [e.g. 72,71,99]. The s a e has o e he yea s pushed
o anspa ency, esponding o p essu e om ci il socie y, especially
since he con o e sy o e he impac s o he Che nobyl acciden [42,
pp. 63–75]. T anspa ency has since hen become an endu ing opic in
nuclea -sec o deba es in F ance, and is inc easingly ins i u ionalised in
legisla i e ac s, mul is akeholde bodies, and ‘coun e -expe ise’o ga-
nisa ions ecognised by he s a e [e.g. 42,100].
11
Effo s a anspa ency
a e se wi hin he highly complex go e nance se ing o he F ench
eposi o y p ojec , in ol ing au ho i ies, expe s and mul is akeholde
bodies a a ious le els o policymaking. Howe e , c i ics - no only in
F ance, bu also in Finland and Sweden - o en desc ibe anspa ency as
an excuse o he indus y and p ojec owne s o d own ci izens in in-
o ma ion o e flow and he eby conceal he essen ial [101,87,102].
In e iewed local p ojec p oponen s and opponen s blamed he s a e –
especially And a – o wi hholding key in o ma ion conce ning he
socioeconomics o he p ojec . Likewise, while legisla ion gua an ees
access o public in o ma ion, in e iewed NGOs in Sweden as well as
academics in Finland ha e aced difficul ies in accessing documen s
p oduced by he p i a e was e managemen and nuclea ope a o s [26].
Howe e , i is p ecisely he s a e-imposed no m o anspa ency ha
has allowed his c i icism o a ise, by p o iding an e hical no m and
benchma k o p i a e-sec o p ac ice.
Manda o y public consul a ions cons i u ed ano he means o
ensu ing anspa ency. The EIAs in Finland and Sweden and he CNDP
deba es in F ance allowed was e managemen o ganisa ions o in o m
ci izens, and ci izens o exp ess hei conce ns [79,78,87,103]. This was
he case al hough hese p ocedu es a e only ad iso y, and despi e he
ac ha only ela i ely small p opo ion o ci izens pa icipa ed.
Howe e , he lack o cla i y conce ning he ole o hese p ocesses in
decision-making engende ed c i icism. In Sweden, he wo- ack licen-
cing p ocess, and he oom o in e p e a ion ha i allows o key ac-
o s c ea ed con usion [87]: o cons uc ion and ope a ing licences,
SKB needs app o al om he Radia ion Sa e y Au ho i y, SSM, (unde
he Ac on Nuclea Ac i i ies) and om he Land and En i onmen
9
Municipali ies a e allowed o fix a conside ably highe ax a e on powe
plan s, including nuclea ins alla ions (3.1% in Eu ajoki in 2018), han on o he
indus ial acili ies (0.93-2% in 2018).
10
In e iew wi h an SKB official esponsible o he communi y benefi s
schemes, 20 Augus 2013.
11
Explici ly eflec ed in egula o y ac s and ins i u ions such as he Ac on
nuclea anspa ency and secu i y (2006), and he High Commission o
T anspa ency and In o ma ion on Nuclea Secu i y (HCTISN).
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
6
Cou , MMD ( ollowing he En i onmen al Code). The la e p o ides
unique anspa ency, as demons a ed by he mul is akeholde hea -
ings, o ganised in sp ing 2017, whose p ocedu al ai ness was e-
cognised by all pa icipan s.
12
The hea ings led o u he delays as he
Cou equi ed ha SKB p o ide addi ional in o ma ion [104].
Two s a e-led measu es a e essen ial in helping o ad ance p oce-
du al jus ice by educing esou ce asymme ies in Sweden. The Nuclea
Was e Fund (financed by he nuclea eac o owne s) channels sub-
s an ial economic suppo o NGOs and municipali ies o hei e iew,
in o ma ion and communica ion ac i i ies [93, pp. 91–93]. The Na-
ional Council o Nuclea Was e, a mul idisciplina y expe ad iso y
body, o ganises independen e alua ion and na ional-le el public de-
ba es and he eby helps o ensu e he plu ali y o pe spec i es on NWM
[43]. Ye , NGOs ha e ecen ly c i icised he pauci y o independen
esea ch no financed by he indus y [105].
6.3. In e ac ional us : he s a e (b eaking i s) p omises, aming he
deba es, and ensu ing he espec o he spi i o he law
The in e iewed F ench s akeholde s a bo h local and na ional le el
epea edly e oked 'b oken p omises', no ably hose ela ing o he so-
cioeconomic benefi s o he p ojec . Fu he mo e, while he Meuse and
Hau e-Ma ne depa men s indeed olun ee ed in he mid-1990s o hos
a URL, he way in which his olun ee ing hen u ned Bu e o a e-
posi o y hos , “almos by s eal h”[65], gene a ed discon en amongs
he locals, in he ace o o e whelming s a e powe . “We' e been
conned”, a local mayo lamen ed. In Finland and Sweden, eelings o
decep ion seemed absen ,
13
and he indus y and au ho i ies unde lined
he impo ance o con inuous poli ical commi men , pa ien and de-
e mined long- e m wo k owa ds implemen a ion, ollowing p e-
sc ibed s eps and a ealis ic ime able [e.g. 106,107,60].
The legally manda o y consul a ions aced simila c i icism in all
h ee coun ies: absence o al e na i es (esp. he ze o-op ion); alleged
a emp s o wea ou he opponen s ia endless consul a ions [101];
s iking esou ce and in o ma ion asymme ies be ween he p ojec
owne and ci il socie y ac o s; excessi ely echnical and expe -led
aming; and he dominan ole o he p ojec owne in he p ocess –
including he possibili y o igno e c i ical ques ions [103,78,87,108, pp.
74–76; 82,66,109,74].
Two nega i e examples help o highligh he c ucial ole o he s a e.
Fi s , in all h ee coun ies, ci izens and s akeholde s suspec ed he
manda o y consul a ions o being me e effo s o legi imise decisions
al eady made, and eg e ed he exclusion o nuclea ene gy policy om
he deba es. In F ance, he 2013–14 consul a ion u ned in o a a ce, as
opponen s p e en ed he public mee ings om aking place. They la-
belled he consul a ions as “masque ade”and “a a es y o democ-
acy”, gi en ha he necessi y o he p ojec could no longe be dis-
cussed [110, pp. 457–458]. CNDP hence decided o eplace he
mee ings by expe deba es on he In e ne . An in e iewed Posi a o -
ficial indi ec ly acknowledged he legi ima ing ole o he Finnish EIA
consul a ions, no ing ha , as “spa ing pa ne s”, opponen s helped he
company o s eng hen i s c edibili y and a gumen s [see 82 o simila
findings in Sweden]. Second, ia he sec e i e Vuojoki communi y
benefi ag eemen , Posi a effec i ely selec ed Eu ajoki as a hos while
he EIA p ocess was s ill unde way [79,46,53,55,21]. This unde mined
he EIA's ole as he key o um o ci izen pa icipa ion [e.g. 78],
14
and
be ayed he implici p omise ha he EIA would influence decisions.
Bo h in Finland and in Sweden, s akeholde s blamed he coo dina ing
EIA au ho i y (Minis y o Economic Affai s and Employmen in Fin-
land; he s a e p o incial au ho i y in Sweden) o passi eness and
unwillingness o ensu e ha he p ojec owne and he en i e p ocess
espec no only he le e bu also he spi i o he law [21,87].
The p ocesses c ucial o in e ac ional us he e o e include also
o he s akeholde s han he company and he communi y –mos no-
ably he sa e y au ho i y and o he s a e au ho i ies. In F ance, e en
many opponen s conside ed ha he fi s consul a ion (2005–06) o -
ganised by he Na ional Commission on Public Deba e (CNDP) en-
gende ed us in he CNDP as an independen and au ho i a i e
gua dian o ai and equal public engagemen [103, p. 64]. The ailed
2013–14 deba e, by con as , unde mined us in he CNDP [110, pp.
459–460].
15
Also he F ench sa e y au ho i ies ha e engaged in pa i-
cipa o y dialogue in ol ing NGOs. Howe e , he ‘Swedish model’o
s akeholde dialogue, while ancho ed a he municipal le el, p obably
p o ides he clea es posi i e example o how he s a e ac i ely helped
o build in e ac i e us . In he ea ly 1990s, as Oska shamn se up i s
highly elabo a e and pa icipa o y municipal o ganisa ion o dialogue
wi h SKB, he sa e y egula o ini ia ed so-called ‘dialogue p ojec s’
[84,82]. S a e suppo o municipali ies and NGOs o hei ‘coun e -
expe ise’and communica ion ac i i ies, pa icipa o y e iew and
moni o ing schemes [26], and he dialogical En i onmen al Cou
hea ings, all con ibu ed o in e ac ional us . The wo- ack licencing
may ha e complica ed he p ocess, ye i also s eng hened and speci-
fied he ole o en i onmen al NGOs in he EIA, pu ing on a mo e equal
oo ing he compe ing pa adigms o ‘planning’and ‘p ecau ion’[87].In
a way, us -building eached beyond he Swedish bo de s, as SKB and
consul ing fi ms ans o med he dialogical app oach in o a new
Swedish ‘expo p oduc ’, unde he denomina ion o “Riscom model”
[e.g. 93,60,111].
6.4. Ins i u ionalised us shaped by he ambiguous and mul idimensional
us in he s a e
SLO li e a u e has highligh ed how ci izens seldom a e able and
willing o clea ly dis inguish be ween hei iews on a gi en p ojec , he
company, and he indus y in ques ion [e.g. 15]. The ela i ely s able
'ins i u ional' us in he company and indus y he e o e shapes he
p ojec -specific and mo e con ingen SLO. In he NWM sec o , he o en
pola ised iews on nuclea ene gy play a i al ole. Howe e , mo e
gene al aspec s o “ideological us ”[112,113]–pe cep ions con-
ce ning he legi ima e ole o en i ies such as s a e, ma ke , and com-
muni y –decisi ely influence local-le el SLO. These pe cep ions can
ei he os e o hampe he eme gence o sen imen s o p ide, aken- o -
g an ed mu ual us , and sha ed in e es s be ween he communi y and
he NWM o ganisa ion.
In he Finnish and Swedish municipali ies, he local popula ions
ake special p ide in hos ing a eposi o y, and a cogni i e unde -
s anding o nuclea indus y ac i i ies has been ins illed in o he local
cul u e [22]. Ou in e iews in F ance, by con as , e ealed a he a
si ua ion o ins i u ionalised mis us , wi h en enched and cul u ally
ancho ed 'us and hem' ela ionships be ween he s a e and he local
ac o s. The in e iews e ealed simila ensions in ela ions be ween
And a's Pa is headqua e s and i s local office – he la e allegedly
mo e in une wi h local iews. Despi e i s effo s o es ablish i sel as a
ecognised and espec ed ac o in he egion, And a ha dly appea ed o
he locals as a ‘good buddy’, in he con ex o lacking municipal e o,
ma ginali y o local-le el ac o s in he go e nance o he benefi
schemes ( he s a e – ia he local p e ec –and he depa men al
12
Pe sonal communica ion by A ne Kaijse , an independen esea che p e-
sen a he hea ings, 27 Ap il 2018.
13
Despi e a p omise by TVO in 1980 ha he “was e would no s ay in
Eu ajoki”–a p omise ha local opponen s eminded abou , bu absen om he
collec i e memo y.
14
An in e iewed Posi a official (1 June 2009) admi ed ha his “was
sligh ly emba assing”, bu added ha he local poli icians did no wan o ake
he isk ha Posi a migh choose ano he loca ion.
15
The deba e was la gely conside ed as a ailu e, al hough And a insis ed on
decla ing he deba e as a success, as i allowed nume ous exchanges ha would
help u he imp o e he p ojec [110, p. 460].
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
7
au ho i ies hold a majo i y o o es sufficien o o e ide e en an un-
likely uni ed on o mayo s), and he s a e-cen ed poli ico-adminis-
a i e adi ion.
While no ully compa able wi h each o he because o diffe ences
in me hodologies, su eys on ci izen us in eposi o y sa e y and he
p ojec owne p o ide clues on he ole o b oade s a e- ela ed and
ideological aspec s. Table 1 shows ha in he Finnish Eu ajoki, locals
ha e ela i ely low us in eposi o y sa e y (41%) and in he eliabili y
o he in o ma ion p o ided by he p ojec implemen e , Posi a (57%),
as compa ed o he high local-le el us in F ance (78% and 63%, e-
spec i ely) and Sweden (86% and 76%).
The low us figu es in Eu ajoki seem su p ising in iew o he
absence o c i ique, seemingly high sa is ac ion in economic and p o-
cedu al legi imacy, and he scan conce n ha he ci izens showed o
isk issues du ing he EIA [78, pp. 183–202]. This may pa ly be ex-
plained by he well-known eluc ance o esiden s in nuclea commu-
ni ies o explici ly add ess isks, in a si ua ion o economic dependence
on a possibly isky indus y [e.g. 65]. Fo ins ance, in he F ench hos
egion, he locals acknowledge isks, bu exp ess condi ional us in he
sa e y expe s, along he lines “i mus be sa e, because o he wise hey
[expe s and au ho i ies] would no build a eposi o y he e”,o “I
hink”,“I da e o hope” ha he expe s ha e examined all e en uali ies
[e.g. 117, pp. 37–38]. In bo h F ance and Finland, ci izens exp ess g ea
us in he compe ence o expe s, especially in hei own coun y's
enginee s [117, p. 37; 108]. F ench na ional-le el su eys indeed show
high (76.5%) us in he compe ence o he nuclea sa e y au ho i ies
(ASN and IRSN), al hough us in he willingness o hese au ho i ies o
ell he u h abou nuclea isks (since i y)–is only 40% o he
egula o (ASN) and 57% o he sa e y expe , IRSN [118, p. 129].
This is whe e a ce ain Finnish excep ionalism seems o come o
play: as many as 82% o ci izens, bo h na ionally and in Eu ajoki, us
in he sa e y au ho i y as a sou ce o in o ma ion, i.e. i s since i y
[25,23,24]. In Eu ajoki, his us mani es s i sel in he municipali y's
nea ly symbio ic ela ionship wi h he companies essen ial o i s
p ospe i y, and i s willingness o ully delega e isk- ela ed analysis o
he sa e y au ho i y [43,26]. The sho comings o he EIA in building
in e ac ional us [101,78,66] did li le o unde mine his us and
silen acquiescence in he ace o a p ojec ha he communi y saw as
indispensable o i s socioeconomic wellbeing and su i al. The wo
Swedish hos municipali ies, by con as , ha e aken a highly p oac i e
ole, seeking o build independen compe ence also in sa e y ma e s
[43,26]. The Swedish municipali ies ans o med hemsel es om
“nuclea communi ies o a e“[88, p. 41] in o ue NWM s akeholde s
by ac i ely o ging hei image and ole as local ‘nuclea powe s’con-
scious o hei ba gaining powe o e SKB, which so ely needed a
willing hos o he eposi o y.
Ins i u ionalisa ion o us seemed o ely p ima ily on p ocedu al
jus ice and in e ac ional us in he Swedish municipali ies, while
economic legi imacy and de e ence o au ho i y appea ed as mo e
significan in Eu ajoki. Fu he mo e, in Ös hamma , only 61% o he
ci izens exp ess us in he egula o as sou ce o in o ma ion on nu-
clea - ela ed issues [119], well below he Finnish 82%. Diffe ences
conce ning he na u e o democ acy in he wo No dic coun ies may go
some way owa ds explana ion: he Finnish adi ion ends o empha-
sise us in s a e bu eauc acy, and show ole ance o au ho i a ian
go e nance, while he Swedes es eem co po a is poli ical ep esen a-
ion and a democ a ic leade ship s yle [120, p. 78; 121–123, pp.
22–26].
Local-le el a i udes owa ds And a and he eposi o y p ojec e-
ealed ambiguous pe cep ions conce ning he ole o he s a e in
F ance. The s a e appea s a he same ime as highly us ed (e.g. ia he
‘public se ice’ adi ion) and mis us ed (as a na u al ad e sa y o
g ass oo s and ci il socie y ac ion) [e.g. 97]. In F ance, he nuclea
sec o ep esen s a sou ce o na ional p ide, a symbol o he coun y's
mode nisa ion and echnological p owess [71], a significan employe
and sou ce o expo e enue, bu also a a ge o c i icism as an al-
legedly sec e i e “Nuclea S a e”[99,42]. Ambigui ies a e a guably
e en g ea e in he eposi o y hos egion, wi h local imagina ies ( e-
pea edly e oked in ou in e iews) deeply ma ked by he no ion o a
“sac ificed land”, in en ionally abandoned by he go e nmen as a
buffe zone agains Ge many du ing he wa hos ili ies in he 19 h and
20 h cen u ies [e.g. 124]. And ye , he locals equen ly called o he
s a e o ake a mo e ac i e ole and lead he p ojec wi h a fi m hand.
Local p ojec p oponen s sough o nu u e he idea o p ide o a na-
ionally i al p ojec . In a egion un amilia wi h he nuclea indus y, i
seems difficul o ins iga e he kind o p ide ha cha ac e ises
Table 1
Local-le el us in he sa e y o he eposi o y and in he was e managemen
o ganisa ion as a sou ce o in o ma ion.
Sou ces: 25; 114; 115; 24; 116.
Eu ajoki,
Finland
Bu e egion,
F ance
Ös hamma egion,
Sweden
Reposi o y sa e y 41% 78% 86%
Implemen e 57% 63% 76%
Table 2
Summa y o he ou c i e ia o ob aining an SLO, augmen ed wi h condi ions applying o s a e ac o s.
Economic legi imacy Socio-poli ical legi imacy In e ac ional us Ins i u ionalised us
Dis ibu i e jus ice P ocedu al jus ice Compe ence, since i y & esponsi eness Full us , psychological
iden ifica ion
•cos s (including isks) and benefi s o
he p ojec a e sha ed in an equi able
manne wi hin he communi y
•communi y benefi schemes a e
a anged in such a manne as no
o p o ide g ounds o allega ions
o illegi ima e b ibe y
• he company and he ele an au ho i ies a e
open and anspa en , as well as willing o
lis en, demons a e he p ojec 's social alue,
and p o ec he communi y om ha m ul
impac s
•adequa e legal and egula o y measu es a e
in place o ensu e anspa ency, as well as
access o in o ma ion, pa icipa ion, and
jus ice
The company and he ele an s a e
au ho i ies
•keep hei p omises
• espond o ci izen and s akeholde
conce ns and iews
•engage in mu ual dialogue
• espec local ways o li e
•sha e a simila ision o he u u e o
he egion
•a e compe en , eliable and since e in
implemen ing and egula ing he
p ojec (esp. isks and sa e y), and in
hei communica ion
•ensu e he espec o he spi i o he
law
• he p ojec suppo s local
well-being
•communi y is p oud o he
p ojec and o aking
esponsibili y on behal o he
es o socie y
• he company, he s a e ac o s,
and communi y show mu ual
ega d o each o he 's in e es s
• he egula o is independen
and eliable
• he s a e is always he e o
p o ec he communi y
agains isks and ha m ul
impac s
• he company, s a e ac o s,
and communi y mu ually
delega e du ies o each o he
M. Leh onen, e al. Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 61 (2020) 101353
8