Es onian Jou nal o A chaeology, 2017, 21, 2, 161–185
h ps://doi.o g/10.3176/a ch.2017.2.04
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
RITUAL DEPOSITION OF ANIMALS IN LATE
IRON AGE FINLAND: A CASE-STUDY OF THE
MULLI SETTLEMENT SITE IN RAISIO
The pape discusses he emains o domes ic animals showing signs o i ual deposi ion a
he se lemen si e o Mulli a Raisio in sou h-wes e n Finland, da ing o he La e I on Age
and Ea ly Medie al pe iod. Ini ially, a singly deposi ed sheep ound unde he wall o a
building had been in e p e ed as i ually bu ied. While selec ing samples o ano he s udy
he cu ious na u e o o he deposi s o domes ic animals a he si e became appa en and a
e-analysis was conduc ed. This pape p esen s he esul s o he os eological e-
examina ion and discusses indica o s o i ual ac i i y a he si e. In ac , he si e exhibi s
e idence o epea ed i uals in ol ing sheep cu o small chunks and bones bu ied a he
homes ead. Since o ganic ma e ial seldom p ese es in he local soil, Mulli o e s a unique
glimpse in o he i ual p ac ices in ol ing animal emains in La e I on Age Finland.
Al hough p e ious s udies sugges ha Ch is ian belie s we e al eady changing he bu ial
p ac ices o he Mulli dwelle s, domes ic i uals emained impo an in hei wo ld iew.
Sonja Hukan ai al, A chaeology, FI-20014 Uni e si y o Tu ku, Finland; [email p o ec ed]
Auli Bläue , Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland, 3 I äinen pi käka u S ., FI-20520 Tu ku/
A chaeology, FI-20014 Uni e si y o Tu ku, Finland; [email p o ec ed]
In oduc ion
This pape conside s i ually deposi ed animals a he La e I on Age o Ea ly
Medie al (ca AD 900–1200) se lemen si e o Mulli a Raisio in SW-Finland
(Fig. 1). P e ious discussions on he emains o i ually handled animals du ing
his pe iod a e a e in Finland (e.g. Tupala 1999; Bläue & Hukan ai al 2013;
Ki ike o 2015), mainly since he acidic soil causes o ganic ma e ial o decompose
quickly, hus des oying he e idence o such ac i i ies. Howe e , he si e discussed
he e displays unusually well p ese ed bone ma e ials o s udy.
Mulli is a small se lemen si e wi h h ee exca a ed building complexes, each
including se e al phases o use. Exca a ions we e conduc ed in he 1990s by he
Depa men o A chaeology a he Uni e si y o Tu ku (Pie ikäinen 1994; 1995;
1996; 1997) and Juha-Ma i Vuo inen (2009) published he esul s as a PhD- hesis.
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
162
Ulla Tupala (1998a; 1998b) ca ied
ou an ini ial bone analysis on he
ma e ial o he si e. La e , aDNA
analysis, δ15N and δ13C iso ope
analysis, and adioca bon da ing we e
ca ied ou on i e sheep and ou
ca le bones du ing he FinnARCH-
p ojec 1 (Niemi e al. 2013; 2015;
Bläue e al. 2016). The adioca bon
da ing placed hese bones in he La e
I on Age (10 h o 12 h cen u y).
The pu pose o his pape is
o ho oughly analyse and in e p e
animal emains ha poin owa d
i ual ac i i ies a he Mulli si e.
The esul s o an os eological e-
examina ion a e p esen ed and he
indica o s o i ual ac i i y a e dis-
cussed. Some compa isons o con-
empo a y I on Age adi ions and
e idence om neighbou ing a eas
a e explo ed while p ac ices o animal
sac i ice in Finland du ing his o ical
imes known om ex ual o olklo ic
sou ces a e ea ed as e hnog aphic
e e ence ma e ial in he discussion.
Animal emains on he Mulli si e
The en i e bone ma e ial om Mulli includes 15 270 bones and bone agmen s
om domes ic animals (sheep2, goa 3, ca le4, pig5, ho se6, domes ic chicken7, and
dog8), wild mammals (seal9, Eu opean elk10, a c ic ha e11, ed ox12, b own
1 Finnish A chaeogene ics. Join p ojec o Luke (MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland) and he
Depa men o A chaeology a he Uni e si y o Tu ku, unded by he Academy o Finland
(SA 128451).
2 O is a ies.
3 Cap a hi cus.
4 Bos Tau us.
5 Sus sc o a.
6 Equus caballus.
7 Gallus domes icus.
8 Canis amilia is.
9 Phocidae.
10 Alces alces.
11 Lepus imidus.
12 Vulpes ulpes.
Fig. 1. The Mulli si e si ua es in Raisio own in
sou h-wes e n Finland.
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
163
bea 13, ed squi el14, lynx15, o e 16, house mouse17, and a 18), a a ie y o wild
bi ds (e.g. whoope swan19, common malla d20, black g ouse21, and wes e n
cape caillie22) and ish (no he n pike23, pe ch24, and cyp inidae amily) (Tupala
1999, 46 .). Acco ding o Vuo inen (2009, 175; based on da a in Tupala 1998a;
1998b) he bone ma e ial in he no h-eas and eas pa o he si e is domina ed
by ca le (in he no h-eas 41.8% and in he eas 24.2% o all iden i ied agmen s),
pig (18.5% and 26.2%), and sheep and goa bones (18.5% and 18.2%). Howe e ,
in he wes e n and cen al pa o he si e sheep and goa bones domina e he
assemblage (67.6% and 47.5% o he iden i ied agmen s).
Ini ially, one sheep bone deposi in he cen al pa o he si e was in e p e ed
as he emains o i ual ac i i y: a comple e ewe skele on (Fig. 2) ha was ound
13 U sus a c os.
14 Sqiu us ulga is.
15 Lynx lynx.
16 Lu a lu a.
17 Mus musculus.
18 Ra us sp.
19 Cygnus Cygnus.
20 Anas pla y hychos.
21 Ly u us e ix.
22 Te ao u ogallus.
23 Esox Lucius.
24 Pe ca lu ia ilis.
Fig. 2. The comple e sheep skele on (TYA 642: 2316, deposi No. 11) ound unde he wall o a log
building has been in e p e ed as a i ual building deposi . The animal has been adioca bon da ed o
AD 1018–1155 (2-sigma, Hela-2325; Niemi e al. 2013). Pho o by Taina Pie ikäinen.
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
164
unde a log-building wall is published as a i ual building deposi (TYA 642: 2316;
Pie ikäinen 1997; Tupala 1999, 48; Pihlman 2005, 209 .; Vuo inen 2009, 76, 153).
Tupala no ices o he con ex s in he wes e n pa o he si e wi h plen y o sheep
o goa bones and coun s he MNI (Minimum Numbe o Indi iduals) o some
o hese, bu does no in e p e hem u he (Tupala 1998b; 1999). Vuo inen
(2009, 150 .) in e p e s he abundan sheep o goa bones as household was e.
While wo king wi h he aDNA-bone samples om he Mulli si e o he
FinnARCH-p ojec Auli Bläue no iced hese sheep and goa deposi s, and ealized
ha a new analysis and in e p e a ion we e needed (Bläue 2016). Tupala’s bone
epo s do no include sys ema ic eco ding o he elemen side, which hampe ed
he possibili y o es ima e he numbe o elemen s and indi iduals in each sample.
Mo eo e , cu ma ks we e no ed only spo adically and no bones we e measu ed
o oo h wea eco ded.
The wide con ex o Mulli
The Mulli ma e ial belongs in a ansi ional pe iod be ween p ehis o y and
p o ohis o y, p e-Ch is ian and Ch is ian belie s. In Finland he his o ical pe iod
is seen as beginning in he mid-12 h cen u y wi h he ac i i ies o he Swedish
kingdom esul ing in he adop ion o ins i u ionalized Ch is iani y and a poli ical
in as uc u e (see e.g. Fews e 2000; Hiekkanen 2002). Howe e , con ac s wi h
he Ch is ian eligion p eda e his p ocess somewha (see e.g. Ruohonen 2013).
These ea ly con ac s a e also isible in he ind ma e ial a Mulli, since a piece o
polished g een G eek po phy y in e p e ed as a agmen o a po able al a was
ound concealed in he hea h o he eas e nmos building (Pihlman 2005, 215;
Vuo inen 2009, 73, 164, 212 .). Simila inds ha e been unea hed in he Swedish
own o Sig una in laye s da ed o he 11 h and 12 h cen u ies; hese ha e been
in e p e ed as signs o he ini ial adop ion o he new eligion, p eda ing o icial
chu ch o ganiza ion in he a ea (Tesch 2007). O he excep ional inds om
Mulli, such as a lead-b onze ingo and a ball om a lail weapon (kis en), also
sugges i id con ac s wi h bo h wes e n and eas e n cul u es (Suhonen 1998;
Taa i sainen 2004; Vuo inen 2009, 157 .).
Unlike in neighbou ing Scandina ia, p e-Ch is ian i uals and belie s ha e no
been comp ehensi ely s udied in Finland due o local a chaeologis s’ ca e ulness
o discuss he o en meag e e idence o hese cus oms. A Mulli, signs o ea lie
belie s a e p esen a he nea by Viking Age (ca 800–1000) c ema ion ceme e y
unde la g ound (Sii i 1) ypical o he a ea (abou his ceme e y ype, see e.g.
Wickholm 2005; Wessman 2010). Vuo inen sugges s ha his was whe e he
immedia e ances o s o he inhabi an s o Mulli we e bu ied, and ha he
inhuma ion ceme e y o Kansakoulunmäki was he mos likely bu ial place o he
Mulli dwelle s (Vuo inen 2009, 63, igs 3.2, 65; 3.3, 191). He e he dead we e
bu ied o ien a ed eas –wes in hei bes clo hes bu mos ly wi hou o he g a e
goods han hose belonging o he d ess. Thus, Vuo inen a gues ha he Mulli
dwelle s we e mo e s ongly associa ed wi h Ch is iani y han hei close neighbou s
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
165
who con inued o place ools in g a es o ien ed no h–sou h o no h-eas –sou h-
wes in hei inhuma ion ceme e y (Vuo inen 2009, 201, 212). S ill, e idence om
la e his o ical imes show ha he adop ion o Ch is iani y had less p ominen
e ec s on i uals conduc ed in he domes ic sphe e han on he cul o he
A e li e. This is isible o example in adi ions in ol ing i ual deposi ion o
animal emains o o he objec s in buildings p ac iced in Finland up o he ea ly
20 h cen u y (Hukan ai al 2007; 2016).
Theo e ical amewo k and e hnog aphic e e ence ma e ial
A i ual is an ac ha has been dis inguished om mundane ac ion by he use
o di e en emphasizing echniques: e.g. se epe i i e mo emen , a cane language,
o special pa aphe nalia (see e.g. Bell 1997, 138–170). Since many o hese
i ualizing echniques a e unobse able in an a chaeological se ing, special
a en ion mus be di ec ed owa ds he con ex o he objec suspec ed o be he
emains o i ual ac i i y. Fo he same eason a chaeologis s discussing i ual
mus o en ely on signs o unnecessa y e o in ea men and disposing o
an objec , e en hough he dicho omy o p ac ical s. i ual ac ion is widely
accep ed as oo simpli ying (e.g. B adley 2003; B ück 1999; Chadwick 2012;
Hukan ai al 2015).
Gene ally, i ual bu ial o animals is unde s ood as he disposal o animal
emains ha is no me ely done as was e ea men , bu includes symbolic
exp ession and/o spi i ual in en ion (c . he de ini ion o i ual in Ky iakidis
2007, 294; see also e.g. Mo is 2012; Pluskowski 2012). S ill, schola s ha e
ealized ha in ac nei he i ual bu ial no was e ea men a e s aigh o wa d
concep s (e.g. B ück 1999; Chadwick 2012). Ins ead, hey mus be seen as wo
ex emes on a con inuum ha has many luid s ages in be ween. Howe e , in
p ac ice he ele an ques ion o en s ill is how o dis inguish i ual deposi s om
common e use.
E en hough i would be misleading o d aw pa allel lines be ween La e I on
Age and mo e ecen p ac ices, compa ison s ill o e ui ul insigh s o di e ences
and simila i ies in p ac ices o di e en pe iods (see also Hukan ai al 2016).
E idence on he Finnish his o ical animal sac i ice p ac ices was mos ly eco ded
as o al his o y ( olklo e) in he la e 19 h and ea ly 20 h cen u y, bu some ea lie
w i en eco ds om he 17 h and 18 h cen u y also exis (Sa mela 2009, 120 .).
These ea lie documen s include S . Ola sheep sac i ices ha had a mo e wes e n
dis ibu ion han he la e in o ma ion on Michaelmas and Kek i25 lambs (Sa mela
2009, 120, 122). Mo eo e , Ma i Sa mela (2009, 122) sugges s ha he S . Ola
sheep belongs o he oldes laye o Finnish ag icul u al and ca le a ming i es,
and i may be ounded on a p e-Ch is ian ( he mal) midsumme sac i icial eas .
The known sheep sac i ices would begin wi h choosing a pe ec lamb ha
would be ed be e han he o he sheep and is le unsho n. This lamb would be
25 The adi ional Finnish au umn ha es es i al (simila o Halloween).

Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
166
slaugh e ed on he e e o he holiday and cooked whole. I was no allowed o
b eak he bones o he animal, and hese we e collec ed a e he meal o be
bu ied a he homes ead, aken o an o e ing ee, o he o es . The pu pose o
he i e was o ensu e good sheep o une and o p o ec he li es ock om p eda o s
by ein o cing he bond be ween he people and o he wo ldly gua dians o he
land (Va onen 1898, 147–148, 156–163, 169–171, 337–341; Sa mela 2009, 120 .;
see also e.g. Lencq is 1782, 73 .).
The aboo agains b eaking he bones o an animal is also known in he local
olklo e abou bea hun ing. In his connec ion, i has been explained ha he bea
can only be esu ec ed i he bones ha e been ea ed in he p ope way (Haa io
1959, 310; Sa mela & Poom 1982; Sa mela 2009, 79–106). The same no ion is
in e able om olklo e ha explains ha o ensu e he con inui y o he li es ock
no bones mus be missing om he emains o an annual eas (e.g. SKMT IV, 2,
1933, XII 433 §). Accoun s explaining ha he bones o a sac i icial sheep a e
bu ied in he sheep house in o de o ensu e he e ili y o he animals also belong
o a simila men al s uc u e (SKMT IV, 2, 1933, XII 13 §, 20 §, 144 §). Mo eo e ,
his heme is ound in he No se s o y abou Tho ’s goa s in he Edda: since
one bone was b oken du ing he eas , he goa became lame when esu ec ed
(The P ose Edda 1916, 58 .; Jennbe 2004, 161 .). Howe e , his no ion is
no uni e sal. Fo example, one Sibe ian Samoyed explana ion o b eaking
game animal bones was ha each agmen will spawn a new animal (Haa io
1959, 309 .).
Since he idea o esu ec ion has appea ed in na a i es in connec ion o he
i ually handled animal emains, a men al connec ion wi h he Ch is ian idea o
he bodily esu ec ion o he dead a Judgemen Day is possible (see also Haa io
1959, 302 .; B oadben 2010, 180; Jonuks e al. 2017).26 E en hough his las
men ioned belie has no been exclusi e and consis en h ough ime (see Se ze
2009), i has been (in he Bal ic Sea egion) adi ionally p esen ed as he main
eason why he Ch is ian bu ial i e a ou ed inhuma ion (e.g. G äslund 1994,
202; Fews e 2000, 99; U bańczyk 2010, 90 .; Jonuks & Ku isoo 2013, 79 .; see
also Gilch is 2015). As opposed o he Ch is ian belie , i has been a gued ha
he p e-Ch is ian unde s anding was ha he spi i o li e-agency would be eleased
when he body was b oken (e.g. Ka onen 1998, 5). Folk belie s a e dynamic and
hus adop ing a Ch is ian unde s anding o bodily esu ec ion whe e bones
should p e e ably be in ac in o p ac ices o i ual animal consump ion is no a
con adic ion. These kinds o domes ic i uals co-exis ed oge he wi h Ch is iani y.
Mo eo e , simila i ies be ween he Finnish sheep sac i ices and he Jewish Passo e
lamb ha e caused suspicion ha he Finnish p ac ices we e in luenced by Biblical
s o ies (Haa io 1959, 25–30, 301–302; Sa mela 2009, 125). In any case, he
Ch is ian ai h in luenced he meaning o he p ac ices by associa ing hem wi h
26 I is possible ha Ch is iani y had in luenced he No se s o y abou Tho ’s goa s in he Edda,
bu s ill a chance ha his idea had p e-Ch is ian o igins in he No dic a ea canno be comple ely
dis ega ded.
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
167
he ene a ion o sain s. Ne e heless, he pu pose o he p ac ices was o p ese e
he weal h o he household by ensu ing good luck wi h he li es ock.
Though ch onologically sepa a e om he Mulli si e, he kind o analogical
hinking p esen in he belie s conce ning p ese a ion o he li e o ce o he
lock is e y simple and na u al o human cogni ion (e.g. Pyysiäinen 2004;
Rozin e al. 1986). S ill, e en hough i ual o ms may pe sis o e long pe iods
o ime, i is impo an o emembe ha people in e p e hei p ac ices in he
con ex o hei own ime and socie y and bo h i ual o ms and especially hei
meanings a e hus dynamic (Hukan ai al 2016; see also Jonuks & Ku isoo 2013).
Ma e ial and me hods
The o iginal epo s show ha mos o he bone ma e ial eco e ed om he
Mulli si e consis s o ypical household was e including agmen ed pieces o
bones om se e al species mixed in he laye s (Tupala 1998a; 1998b; Vuo inen
2009, 175). Howe e , 24 samples om he cen al and wes e n pa o he si e
clea ly di e ed om his pa e n (Tupala 1998a; 1998b). These comp ised o
p edominan ly comple e o semi-comple e bones om only one o a ew species
(mos ly sheep, goa , and pig) and all bones in hese samples we e e-analysed
(see Table 1, Bläue 2016).
The e-analysis o he 24 samples con i med many o he ini ial esul s by
Tupala (1998a; 1998b), howe e in se e al cases mo e accu a e iden i ica ions
we e p esen ed. New in o ma ion was also ga he ed abou bu che y ma ks, bone
side and size, oo h wea s ages in mandibles, and he sex o he animals based
on pel ises. The e-analysis p o ided in o ma ion abou species, bone elemen ,
epiphyseal usion, ee h e up ion and wea , pa hological changes, size, and cu
ma ks. I was also no iced ha hese samples de i ed p edominan ly om a ce ain,
limi ed a ea nea one o he buildings in he wes e n a ea (see Fig. 4 below).
C i e ia gi en by Boessneck (1969) and P ummel & F isch (1986) we e used
o di e en ia ing sheep and goa bones, wi h c i icism gi en by Zede & Lapham
(2010) in mind. The ma e ial was quan i ied by using NISP (Numbe o Iden i ied
Specimens) du ing he eco ding phase. Du ing u he analysis, MNE (Minimum
Numbe o Elemen s) we e coun ed and used o es ima e MNI (Minimum Numbe
o Indi iduals). Fo MNI es ima ion, elemen side, epiphyseal usion and appa en
di e ences in size we e u ilized.
Mandibula oo h wea was eco ded as sugges ed by G an (1982) and
O’Conno ’s (2003, 160) me hod was used in classi ying mandibles in age g oups.
Bones we e measu ed acco ding o guidelines p esen ed by on den D iesch
(1976), excep o medial edge o ace abulum whe e V e ema k’s (1997) guidelines
we e used. Tupala (1998b) used alus, a las, and axis when sexing sheep bones.
In his s udy he shape and size o he pel is is used, as well as he shape and size
o ho n co es. Fusing o epiphyses was eco ded as un used, using (wi h he gap
be ween epiphysis and me aphysis open in o e 50% o he diame e ), and used.
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
168
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
169
In addi ion o os eological analysis, indica o s o i ual ac i i y a e ele an
o he cu en s udy. The s a ing poin in he in e p e a ion is o iden i y an
associa ed bone g oup (ABG), a g oup o bones ha ha e been deposi ed oge he
(Hill 1995, 27; Mo is 2008; 2011). S ill, he ecogni ion o an ABG does no
ye in e a i ual in e p e a ion. In his s udy, signs o in en ional e o in he
disposal o he animal emains a e he main ac o s used in ecognizing i ual
ac i i y. This can be no ed in he con ex , assemblage, o ea men o he animal
emains. Associa ion wi h a e ac s o o he objec s is also ema ked; an aspec
ha is easily o go en when discussing animal emains om a zooa chaeo-
logical pe spec i e.
Un o una ely, he ini ial exca a ion p ocedu e causes some p oblems when
iden i ying deposi s. In he i s exca a ion yea (1994, a chi ed as TYA 619)
documen a ion was ca ied ou using g id squa es (1  1 m) and echnical laye s
(5–10 cm hick). Thus, he s a ig aphic ela ionships o he i s exca a ed deposi s
a e e y di icul o in e p e . La e a s a ig aphic me hod was applied as a
pionee p ojec (see Suhonen 2000; in 1995–1997, a chi ed as TYA 631, 642, 667).
Bo h he change in me hod and he inexpe ience in s a ig aphic documen a ion
cause some con usion when in e p e ing con ex s. Mo eo e , du ing he exca a ions,
cul u al laye s belonging o he same e en we e in some cases eco ded as di e en
uni s. Thus, bones belonging o he same indi idual animal ha e in some cases
ecei ed di e en a chi e numbe s. When agmen s o one single bone elemen
a e ound in wo di e en s a ig aphic uni s, he bones a e ea ed as one deposi
in his s udy. Also bones om he same g id squa e bu om di e en laye s a e
combined i he e a e no o e lapping bone elemen s and, a e isual inspec ion,
i seemed easonable o assume ha he bones de i e om he same indi idual.
Resul s o he os eological analysis
Du ing he analysis, i was no iced ha he ma e ial is ai ly agmen ed and
many agmen s emained uniden i ied (Table 1). Mos o he iden i ied ma e ial
de i es om sheep o goa s. Also pigs a e well ep esen ed and some bones o
domes ic chicken, uniden i ied duck, ca le, dog o wol , pe ch, and pike we e
also iden i ied. The samples o en include bones belonging o he same sheep o
goa indi idual. Fo example, a sheep alus and calcaneus om sample TYA 619:
760 exhibi kni e ma ks ha con inue om one bone o he nex . The e a e also
se e al samples wi h bones ha ha e been cu h ough, and ye bo h agmen s o
he bone a e p esen . The clea es example is he sheep emains om TYA 642:
2316, which includes e.g. he comple e spine ha has been cu in o sec ions (Fig. 3).
When le and igh elemen s a e p esen , hey a e o en i ually iden ical and hus
likely o belong o he same indi idual. Loose epiphyses wi h i ing me aphyses a e
also o en p esen , which is a good indica o o he in eg i y o he deposi ions.
Only one bone shows gnawing ma ks: a ca le pel is agmen (TYA 619: 767,
deposi No. 4).
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
176
The deposi migh consis o one adul and one ju enile sheep, bu no all bones a e
p esen . The e a e also some bones om bi ds (chicken and duck) and a agmen
o a ca le pel is in his assemblage. In si u pho og aphs o he squa es and laye s
o deposi s numbe 3 and 4 (TYA D 260: 46–49) show bone clus e s oge he
wi h agmen s o ce amics and clay loom weigh s inside a hollow le by he
emains o a log o plank. I appea s ha he bones ha e been delibe a ely placed
in clus e s on op o some wooden s uc u e. Numbe 6 includes emains o a leas
ou indi iduals, bu mos o he bones a e likely o belong o one adul sheep.
Some bones belong o ano he adul sheep and o one ju enile and one in an
sheep o goa . The ela ionship o his deposi o deposi numbe 9 ound pa ly in
he same g id squa e is unde e mined.
Deposi numbe 10 is s a ig aphically oldes o he con ex s by he wes e n
building complex. The con ex uni illed a pi ha Vuo inen es ima ed o ha e
been dug in he 10 h o ea ly 11 h cen u y. The pi si ua ed unde he emains o
a wooden loo o he wes e n building’s oldes phase. Howe e , acco ding o
Vuo inen i migh also cu he oldes building phase (Pie ikäinen 1996, 17 .;
Vuo inen 2009, 100, 152). Two me aca pal sheep bones o his deposi ha e
been adioca bon da ed o 1040 ± 31 BP and 955 ± 30 BP (Hela-2326: 2-sigma
AD 898–920 o 945–1033, and Hela-2327: 2-sigma AD 1022–1155; Niemi e al.
2013). The da es sugges deposi ions made a di e en imes. Acco ding o he
ini ial epo (Tupala 1998b, 46) his ea u e con ains bones om eigh sheep.
The e-analysis e ealed bones om a leas se en sheep o goa s and one pigle .
Mos bones could be iden i ied as belonging o sheep bu one o he bones de i es
ce ainly om a goa . The bone sample is hus likely o consis o one goa and
six sheep o se en sheep wi h one loose goa bone included in he sample. Bo h
adul and ju enile sheep a e p esen in he ma e ial and all he bones o which sex
could be de e mined de i e om emales.
In addi ion o comple e o semi-comple e animals, he deposi s include some
mo e a bi a y bones o adul pig, ca le, and ish. These may ep esen e use auna
mixed in wi h he deposi s as a esul o he me hod o documen a ion du ing he
exca a ion. Acco ding o he o iginal bone epo , domes ic e use is p esen in
he cen al and wes e n a eas (Tupala 1998a; 1998b; also Vuo inen 2009, 175)
so unin en ional mixing o some loose bones in o he deposi s is possible.
Al e na i ely, hey may ha e had some unde e mined signi icance. I he
Mulli bone ma e ial is conside ed as one en i y, a minimum o 12 sheep (le
me aca pal) and wo goa s (le me aca pal) can be iden i ied. Howe e , he
numbe o indi iduals can be es ima ed e en highe when he ma e ial is
di ided acco ding o con ex s. The in e p e a ion o he possible clus e s is
p esen ed in Table 3. This in e p e a ion esul s in a o al o 19 sheep, ou
goa s, wo pigs, and possibly wo chickens p esen in he ma e ial. The sheep
and goa s we e no deposi ed as in ac ca casses since he bodies ha e been cu
in o sec ions.

Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
177
Table 3. The Mulli ma e ial di ided and in e p e ed acco ding o samples. (x) = species is
p esen , bu bones a e likely o be pa o ano he deposi . Comple eness: *** = i ually comple e
skele on, only some elemen s missing, ** = pa ial skele on wi h all ana omical egions ep esen ed,
* = om small collec ion o bones o single elemen . Radioca bon da es om Niemi e al. 2013,
see ex o ull in o ma ion
Deposi
No.
A chi e
No.
Sample(s) Sheep Goa Pig Chicken Comple eness Radioca bon da e
(2 sigma)
1 TYA 619 427 (x) *
2 TYA 619 753 1 *
3 TYA 619 428, 758, 760 1 ***
4 TYA 619 429, 430, 767 2 **/* 986–1053 AD o
1080–1154 AD
5 TYA 619, 642 432, 771; 244, 246 1 ** 894–1018 AD
6 TYA 619 780, 781 4 **/*
7 TYA 619 965 1 **
8 TYA 631 1030, 1155 3 1 **/*
9 TYA 642 215, 221 3 **/*
10 TYA 642 371 6 1 1 1 **/* 898–920 o 945–
1033 and 1022–
1155AD
11 TYA 642 2316, 2319 1 *** 1018–1155 AD
Discussion: Remains o i ual
The bones o 19 sheep ep esen epea ed deposi ional p ac ices o e a long
pe iod o ime (ca AD 900–1150). When de e minable, he animals we e mos ly
adul emales. The p ac ices include handling o he animals/o pa s o hem
be o e deposi ion. The e idence o cu ing he animal in o chunks could indica e
ha he pieces we e supposed o i in a cooking po . I is also possible ha some
bones we e b oken o ge access o he ma ow. Howe e , e en i he animals
ha e been consumed, he bones, including he no ypically ea en pa s (such as
he ail), ha e been ca e ully collec ed o be deposi ed in a pi a e he meal a
leas in some o he cases.
No a icula ion o he bones was obse ed du ing he exca a ions, and also he
in si u pho og aph o deposi numbe 11 (Fig. 2) shows ha he bones ha e no
been placed in an ana omic o de in he pi . Howe e , he pho og aph also e eals
ha some o he bones ha e emained oge he , as i hey ha e been s ill connec ed
by so issue when placed in he pi . The h ee e eb ae bo h o he le and igh
on he pic u e sugges his. The ac ha no signs o gnawing on he bones a e
isible sugges s ha he bones we e bu ied well and immedia ely. The eason
why he animals we e no dismembe ed he easy way ins ead o cu ing h ough
he hickes pa s o he bones is likely o bea some signi icance. In some cases i
is possible ha he bones ha e been placed in o sepa a e clus e s, unless his
pa e n is a esul o dis u bed deposi s. Mo eo e , some o he deposi s included
sha ds o ce amic essels, agmen s o clay loom weigh s, bu n clay, and some
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
178
i on objec s. These kind o agmen ed objec s ha e e iden ly been used in la e
i ual p ac ices (Hukan ai al 2016, 198). The ea men o he wo pigle s bu ied
whole di e s om ha o he sheep. They may be pa o a di e en p ac ice, bu
since he e a e only wo cases, in e p e a ion o hese emains is di icul .
As discussed abo e, he known local his o ical annual sheep sac i ice- eas s
included special ea men o he emains o he meal. Howe e , he olklo e
o en speci ies a aboo agains b eaking he bones o he sac i icial animal. Two
hings should be kep in mind when discussing his aboo: i s , hese kinds o
olk p ac ices a e no dogma ic, and adi ions may a y egionally. Secondly, as
men ioned, he in o ma ion on he annual sac i ice eas s de i e om a pe iod
be ween he 17 h and la e 19 h cen u y, which is mo e han 500 yea s la e han
he Mulli inds. I is no able ha no simila pa e n in sheep bones has been
epo ed in s udies o neighbou ing Scandina ian a eas con empo a y o Mulli
(Ca lie 2004, 120 .). Howe e , a chaeological e idence om No way and Sweden
show ha , in con adic ion o na a i es, i ually bu ied bea bones ha e o en
been chopped and spli (Zach isson & I eg en 1974, 84; B oadben 2010, 180;
Magnell 2013). I has been no iced ha comple e bea skele ons da e mos ly o
he 18 h and 19 h cen u y (B oadben 2010, 180), which could poin o a la e
de elopmen in he belie s. I seems likely ha he aboo agains b eaking he
bones o he sac i icial animal has no been a ule, a leas no in all egions
and pe iods.
F om he pe spec i e o he wide socie al con ex , one majo change
happened app oxima ely a he ime o he Mulli sheep: he adop ion o Ch is iani y.
Among o he hings, new belie s a ec ed he way people we e bu ied: he
adi ional c ema ion ceme e ies whe e he emains o he une al py e we e
mixed and sca e ed (see e.g. Ka onen 1998; Wickholm 2005; Wessman 2010),
we e g adually eplaced by eas –wes -o ien ed inhuma ion bu ials (e.g. Hiekkanen
2002, 490). The La e I on Age c ema ion ceme e ies included sca e ed bu n
and unbu n animal bones and some imes g a e-goods we e delibe a ely b oken
(e.g. Ka onen 1998; Wessman 2010, 54, 93). Thus, he e is e idence o b eaking
as a pa o local La e I on Age i ual p ac ices (e.g. Ka onen 1998; see also
O as 2013, 135 .). The ea men o he Mulli sheep could be connec ed o a
simila idea. The agmen ed domes ic objec s some imes included in he deposi s
ag ee wi h his hypo hesis, e en hough i is unde e minable i hey we e in ac
delibe a ely b oken.
In na a i es, he sac i icial animals a e usually speci ied as chosen when
new-bo n in sp ing and slaugh e ed he same au umn.27 The Mulli sheep, howe e ,
we e mos ly adul animals. This also poin s o a di e ence in he adi ions. S ill,
i is likely ha he La e I on Age i uals pe o med in he domes ic sphe e had
a pu pose closely connec ed o he e e yday conce ns o he people; simila ly as
he equi alen i uals in his o ical olk eligion (e.g. Sa mela 2009, 18 .; see also
27 Howe e , he S . Ola lamb was slaugh e ed in summe (Sa mela 2009, 122).
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
179
Hukan ai al 2013; 2016). Some o he sheep emains a Mulli we e associa ed
wi h inds o clay loom weigh s. This could gi e an addi ional hin o he
signi icance o he sheep a he si e. As Vuo inen (2009, 176) has no ed, ex ile
p oduc ion was e iden ly impo an a Mulli. I he sheep i uals we e aimed o
ensu e good wool luck, i is possible ha an animal wi h ou s andingly high-quali y
wool would be chosen o i ual ea men in o de o ensu e he ecu ence o
his ai in he he d. Ancien -DNA s udied o some o hese sheep e eals ha
hey mos ly belonged o he same ma e nal lineage, so hey a e likely o ha e
belonged o he local he d (Niemi e al. 2013). The ende ness o he mea may
ha e had a lesse ole in hese i uals han in he la e ones.
As e ealed, in la e olklo e he sac i iced sheep is some imes men ioned as
bu ied unde he sheep house, whe e i would ensu e he con inued e ili y and
o e all luck wi h he he d (SKMT IV, 2, 1933, XII 13 §, 20 §, 144 §). Since mos
o he Mulli sheep (and o he animals) a e ound by he wes e n building(s),
which did no show signs o a hea h, i would be emp ing o in e p e his building
as an animal shel e . Howe e , since s a ig aphy is only pa ly documen ed,
i is no ob ious ha all he deposi s belong oge he wi h he building(s).
Mo eo e , some olklo e accoun s do speci y a special connec ion be ween
annual sheep sac i ices and good ela ions wi h he gua dian spi i o he house
(Va onen 1898, 158), so in his ligh , deposi s in connec ion wi h a dwelling
building a e also possible. This seems o be he case wi h deposi numbe 11 a
Mulli as well.
In addi ion o animal emains, he Mulli si e exhibi signs o o he domes ic
deposi ional p ac ices. As men ioned, a piece o polished g een G eek po phy y
in e p e ed as a agmen o a po able al a was ound concealed by he hea h
o he eas e n building da ed o a e AD 1050 (Pihlman 2005, 215; Vuo inen
2009, 73, 164, 182, 212 .). None o he e-analysed animal emains de i e om
con ex s by his building, which migh poin o a di e ence in i ual ac i i y a eas.
Mo eo e , a lead-b onze ingo wi h eas e n p o enance was ound concealed
unde he sou h-eas e n co ne o he same building whe e mos o he animal
emains we e si ua ed (in he no h-eas e n a ea). The ingo has been in e p e ed
as a weal h deposi , bu he e idence o plan emains inside i and a bi d’s egg
unde i (Suhonen 1998, 73) gi es eason o conside a i ual signi icance o his
deposi as well.
E en hough he new eligion a ec ed bu ial p ac ices qui e p ominen ly,
changes in domes ic i uals may ha e been sub le and p oceeding a a slowe
pace. In he ligh o domes ic i uals p ac iced as la e as he ea ly 20 h cen u y in
Finland, his is no su p ising. S ill, he Mulli si e o e s aluable e idence o his
aspec in his ea lie pe iod in he a ea o Finland. Since he Mulli sheep a leas
pa ly p eda e he canoniza ion o S . Ola ,28 i is unlikely ha he i ual has been
in oduced as S . Ola sheep. Howe e , an exis ing cus om o cu ing he sac i icial
28 King Ola was sanc ioned in No way al eady in AD 1031 (Knuu ila 2003, 79).
Sonja Hukan ai al and Auli Bläue
180
animal o small chunks could ha e b ough he sain ’s iolen dea h in mind,
which migh ha e con ibu ed o la e assimila ing he p ac ice wi h he cul o
his pa icula sain (c . Sa mela 2009, 122). The la e aboo agains b eaking he
bones migh ha e become popula when ideas o he esu ec ion o a comple e
body we e mo e widely adop ed.
Conclusion
This a icle is he esul o a e-analysis o a p e iously analysed bone ma e ial
om Mulli a Raisio. The need o a e-analysis was ealized since his bone
ma e ial is no a case o ypical e use auna; a ac ha has no been discussed
p e iously. Only one comple e sheep skele on deposi ed singly was ini ially
in e p e ed as he emains o i ual ac i i y a he si e. This sheep bu ial was
o iginally published as i i was an animal ha had been bu ied as an in ac
ca cass. Howe e , e-analysis con i med ha he animal was cu in o small chunks
be o e ca e ully deposi ing all bones in he pi . The ea men o he body in his
e iden deposi ion, and ano he one ecognized du ing he e-analysis, p o ed o
be he elemen ha enabled u he discussion since simila ly ea ed bones a e
included in he mo e mixed con ex s as well.
In ac , he Mulli si e exhibi s e idence o epea ed i uals in ol ing sheep cu
o small pieces and bones bu ied a he homes ead. I is possible ha annual
sheep sac i ices known om his o ical imes a e a la e de elopmen o simila
p ac ices as he ones isible a Mulli. In addi ion, some i ually handled goa s a e
p esen as well as pigle s deposi ed as whole ca casses. I also seems ha some
bi d bones belong o he deposi ions. Mo eo e , some o he animal emains we e
connec ed wi h agmen ed domes ic a e ac s such as sha ds o ce amic essels,
agmen s o clay loom weigh s, bu n clay, and i on objec s.
The La e I on Age si e o Raisio Mulli is excep ional in Finland since o ganic
ma e ial has p ese ed on his si e unlike in mos p ehis o ic con ex s. Thus i
o e s a unique glimpse in o he i ual p ac ices in ol ing animal emains in La e
I on Age Finland. I seems ha hough Ch is ian belie s had al eady changed he
bu ial p ac ices o he Mulli dwelle s, domes ic i uals emained in an olde o m
in ol ing agmen a ion as i ual ea men .
Acknowledgemen s
We hank Ha kko Museum o Raisio & Ja i Nä änen, Taina Pie ikäinen,
Tõnno Jonuks, Timo Muhonen, and he wo anonymous e e ees. This a icle has
been unded by The Ella and Geo g Eh n oo h Founda ion and Academy o
Finland (SA286499). The publica ion cos s o his a icle we e co e ed by he
Es onian Academy o Sciences and he Academy o Finland.
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
181
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Sonja Hukan ai al ja Auli Bläue
RITUAALSED LOOMAOHVRID HILISRAUAAJA SOOMES
RAISIO MULLI ASULAKOHA NÄITEL
Resümee
On uu i ud i uaalsel mae ud loomi hilis auaaja ja a akeskaja (900–1200 AD)
Raisio Mulli asulakohas Edela-Soomes. Algsel , kui asulakoh a uu i i 1990. aas ail,
õlgenda i üh hoone seina al lei ud lammas i uaalsel peide una. Valides p oo e
ühe eise uu imuse jaoks, päl is au o i e ähelepanu koduloomade kummaline
ma mine selles asulakohas ja loomaluid analüüsi i uues i. Selles a iklis on esi a ud
os eoloogilise analüüsi uued ulemused ja a u le ud i uaalse ege use üle.
Kui Mulli luuma e jali üh se e ikuna aada a, õib e is ada ähemal 12 lam-
mas ( asak kämblaluu) ja 2 ki se ( asak kämblaluu). Kuid leiukon eks ide jä gi
o sus ades oli üksiku e loomade a ilmsel mä ksa suu em. Nii õib asulakoha
leiuma e jalis e is ada 19 lammas , 4 ki se, 2 siga ja ilmsel 2 kana. Lambad ja ki sed
ei olnud mae ud e e e loomadena, aid kehad olid osadeks lõiga ud.
Kaks looma lei i e ena: u kon eks is n 11 ja peaaegu e e lammas kon-
eks is n 3. Mõlemad loomad olid äiksema eks ükkideks lõiga ud. Need kaks
puu uma ul säilinud kon eks i peegelda ad õenäolisel ka ülejäänud loomade
käsi semis selles asulakohas: loomad lõiga i äiksema eks ükkideks, mae i auku
( e ena õi osalisel ) õi e aldi kogumina samale alale, kus asulakoh oli sadu
aas aid olnud. Ilmsel sega i sellis e ma mis e käigus a asemaid luude lades usi.
Ri ual deposi ion o animals in La e I on Age Finland
185
Mulli asulakoh pakub näi eid ko du a es i uaalides , mille käigus on lambaid
aiu ud äiksema eks osadeks ja mae ud majapidamis e ümb usse. On õimalik,
e iga-aas ased lammas e oh e damised, mille koh a on ii eid ajaloolis es alli-
ka es, on hilisemad a engud sellis es ege us es , mida saame Mulli asulakohal
jälgida. Lisaks lammas ele on i uaalsel käideldud ka ki si ja põ said on mae ud
e ikliku kehana. Samu i näib, e ka linde on sellis esse i uaalidesse kaasa ud. Veel
enam, mõne loomaluude kogumiga seondu ad ka pu us a ud majapidamis-
esemed, näi eks sa inõude killud, kangas elgede askus e ka ked, põlenud sa i
ja audesemed.
Raisio Mulli hilis auaaegne asula on Soomes e ako dne, kuna e ine al eis es
esiajaloolis es paikades on seal säilinud o gaaniline ma e jal. Seega pakub see
ha uko dse õimaluse jälgida Soome hilis auaaegseid i uaalseid p ak ikaid, mis
muuhulgas hõlma ad ka loomi. Näib, e ehkki k is likud uskumused olid juba
muu nud Mulli elanike ma miskombeid, olid kodused i uaalid säili anud oma
a asema o mi, muuhulgas ka ükeldamise kui i uaalse ege use.