This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion
may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails.
Au ho (s):
Ti le:
Yea :
Ve sion:
Copy igh :
Righ s:
Righ s u l:
Please ci e he o iginal e sion:
CC BY 4.0
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
“We ha e a solu ion” : Deli e ing on he p omise o ake na ional esponsibili y o
nuclea was e managemen
© 2022 by he au ho s; licensee oekom.
Published e sion
Kojo, Ma i; Leh onen, Ma kku; Li manen, Tapio; Ki iluoma, Niina
Kojo, M., Leh onen, M., Li manen, T., & Ki iluoma, N. (2022). “We ha e a solu ion” : Deli e ing
on he p omise o ake na ional esponsibili y o nuclea was e managemen . Zei sch i ü
Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis, 31(3), 31-36.
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31
2022
Ö en lichkei in age ges ell wi d. Die un e such en Fälle e anschau-
lichen die Spannungen zwischen denen, die das Ve sp echen abgege-
ben haben, und den Ak eu en, die das Ve sp echen ü un e schiedliche
Zwecke und un e sich ände nden Ums änden in e p e ie en und mobi-
lisie en. Wi un e suchen echnisch-wissenscha liche Ve sp echen an-
hand on Deba en übe (1) die Idee eine na ionalen Lösung, (2) die Ein-
sch änkungen, die das Ve sp echen eine na ionalen Lösung ü in e -
na ionale Geschä smöglichkei en im Ab allbe eich mi sich b ing , und
(3) die He aus o de ungen in Bezug au Glaubwü digkei und äum-
liche An o de ungen bei de En so gung on Ab ällen aus kleinen mo-
dula en Reak o en.
Keywo ds • p omises, nuclea was e, eposi o y, Finland,
esponsibili y
This a icle is pa o he Special opic “The u u e o high-le el adio-
ac i e was e disposal: Wha a e he de elopmen s and challenges a -
e si e selec ion?,” edi ed by U.

Smeddinck, A.

Eckha d and S.

Kupple .
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.10
Abs ac • We examine he ealiza ion o he umb ella p omise o as-
sume na ional esponsibili y o he inal disposal o spen nuclea
uel. Th ee case s udies a e used o illus a e how Finland deli e s on
he p omise o ake ca e o i s own nuclea was e– a p omise ha has
g ea ly con ibu ed o he legi imacy o nuclea powe in Finland. The
a icle shows how his p omise is being challenged by new compe i o s,
business isiona ies, and he public. The case s udies illus a e he en-
sions be ween hose who made he p omise and he ac o s who in e -
p e and mobilize he p omise o a ying pu poses and unde chang-
ing ci cums ances. We in es iga e echno-scien i ic p omises by looking
a deba es abou (1) he idea o a na ional solu ion, (2) he limi a ions
ha he p omise o a na ional solu ion places on in e na ional busi-
ness oppo uni ies in he was e sec o , and (3) he challenges ela ed
o c edibili y and spa ial equi emen s in managing was e om small
modula eac o s.
‚Wi haben eine Lösung‘: Einlösung des Ve sp echens zu na ionalen
Ve an wo ung ü die En so gung nuklea e Ab älle
Zusammen assung • Wi un e suchen die Umse zung des Ve sp echens
zu na ionalen Ve an wo ung ü die Endlage ung on abgeb ann en
Ke nb enns o en. Anhand on d ei Fallbeispielen wi d gezeig , wie Finn-
land das Ve sp echen umse z , sich um seinen eigenen A ommüll zu
kümme n– ein Ve sp echen, das wesen lich zu Legi imi ä de Ke n-
ene gie in Finnland beige agen ha . De A ikel zeig , wie dieses Ve -
sp echen du ch neue We bewe be , un e nehme ische Visionä e und die
RESEARCH ARTICLE
‚We ha e a solu ion’: Deli e ing on
he p omise o ake na ional esponsibili y
o nuclea was e managemen
Ma i Kojo *, 1, Ma kku Leh onen 2, Tapio Li manen 3, Niina Ki iluoma 3
31
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31 · Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36
©2022 by he au ho s; licensee oekom. This Open Access a icle is licensed
unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31
Recie ed: Jun.

10, 2022; e ised e sion accep ed: Oc .

21, 2022;
published online: Dec.

16, 2022 (pee e iew)
* Co esponding au ho : [email p o ec ed]
1 LUT Uni e si y, Lappeen an a, FI
2 Pompeu Fab a Uni e si y, Ba celona, ES
3 Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, FI
OPEN ACCESS
Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis
Jou nal o Technology Assessmen in Theo y and P ac ice
Changing con ex , changing p omises
The p omise o na ional esponsibili y o he managemen o
spen nuclea uel (SNF) gene a ed in he coun y has helped o
make Finland a o e unne among he de elope s o deep geo-
logical disposal. Posi a1, he nuclea was e managemen (NWM)
company has p oudly announced: “We ha e a solu ion” (Posi a
Oy 2022). O he Finnish ac o s ha e equen ly elayed he mes-
sage. Howe e , back in he ea ly 1980s, he Finnish SNF man-
agemen policy elied on he expo a ion o SNF and hus on in-
e na ional (So ie and Wes e n) nuclea uel cycles. The policy
1The mos ly p i a ely owned ene gy company Teollisuuden Voima (TVO) (60 %)
and he mos ly s a e-owned Fo um ( o me ly ully s a e-owned Ima an Voima,
IVO) (40 %) a e he sha eholde s o Posi a.
ail in e ac ion be ween ‘p omise-make s’ and ‘p omise- ake s’.
The con on a ion o p omises and coun e -na a i es in deba es
be ween hese i al g oups can play a cons uc i e ole as ‘ ials
o s eng h’ ha can s eng hen he p omise and i s social obus -
ness (Al ial-Pala icino 2015, pp.

158–159; Joly 2010).
Van Len e (2012) iden i ied h ee main posi i e unc ions o
p omises: In pa icula , b oad ‘umb ella p omises’ legi imize in-
es men by e e ing o a p omising u u e; hey p o ide di ec-
ion by acili a ing choice among op ions; and hey help coo -
dina e ac ion by p o iding insigh in o he beha io o o he ac-
o s in he sys em. When success ul, p omises c ea e inescapable
‘passage poin s’, a sense ha a pa icula echnology is essen-
ial o achie ing desi ed socie al goals and isions (Joly 2010).
Mo e gene ally, p omises link pas , p esen , and u u e by d aw-
ing hei powe om his o ical p eceden s, on he one hand, and
posi i e o nega i e u u e scena ios, on he o he (Cha eau ay-
naud and Debaz 2017).
The cons uc ion o umb ella p omises
o na ional esponsibili y
To explain why he p omise o na ional esponsibili y o SNF
managemen is c ucial o he Finnish nuclea indus y, we mus
i s examine he o igins and ins i u ionaliza ion o his umb ella
p omise, which can ul ima ely be aced back o Finland’s acces-
sion o he Eu opean Union in 1995. The Finnish bed ock was
epea edly po ayed in he public deba e as a po en ial a ge o
impo ed nuclea was e– he ho o pic u e was a ‘g a eya d’ o
o eign nuclea was e in Finland.
The eme gence o he p omise o na ional esponsibili y was
also ueled by g owing c i icism o SNF expo s om he Lo-
ii sa NPP o Russia. As a esul , an amendmen o he Nuclea
Ene gy Ac banned bo h expo s and impo s o nuclea was e.
This, in u n, p omp ed IVO and TVO o es ablish a join SNF
managemen company, Posi a, in 1995, o help he companies
mee hei legal disposal obliga ion (Da s and Dawson 2010,
pp.

67–69; Sandbe g 1999; Nikula e al. 2012, pp.

37–39, 71).
Wi hou explici ly using he e m, he law essen ially de ines
na ional esponsibili y by p ohibi ing he expo and impo o
nuclea was e. The law s a es ha “nuclea was e gene a ed in
connec ion wi h o as a esul o use o nuclea ene gy in Finland
shall be handled, s o ed and pe manen ly disposed o in Finland”
and ha “nuclea was e gene a ed in connec ion wi h o as a e-
sul o he use o nuclea ene gy elsewhe e han in Finland shall
no be handled, s o ed o pe manen ly disposed o in Finland”2.
The p omise o na ional esponsibili y in Finland was u -
he ad anced by a change in policy, namely he abandonmen
o he ep ocessing op ion. Ini ially, he policy en isioned e-
liance on he in e na ional nuclea uel cycle, i.e., shipmen o
SNF ab oad o ep ocessing. Responsibili y o he p ac ical
implemen a ion and unding o NWM es s wi h licensees. No
2Nuclea Ene gy Ac 990/1987, 6 a, b.
changed in 1994. The e ised Nuclea Ene gy Ac p ohibi ed he
expo and impo o nuclea was e and s ipula ed ha nuclea
was e gene a ed in Finland (wi h he excep ion o was e om e-
sea ch eac o s) mus be pe manen ly disposed o in he coun y
i sel (Sandbe g 1999). Thus, Finland p omised o ake espon-
sibili y o i s own nuclea was e. Eu ajoki, he p oposed epos-
i o y si ing municipali y, also adhe ed o his idea, announcing
in 2000 ha i would accep only Finnish SNF o disposal on
i s e i o y (Kojo 2009, p.

184).
This a icle examines he ways in which he p omise o na-
ional esponsibili y has been g adually ans o med, in esponse
o he changing con ex and as a esul o ac i e p omise-con-
s uc ion wo k by he key ac o s. Th ee case s udies om he
pos si e selec ion phase in Finland se e as illus a ion. Doc-
umen analysis and opinion su eys a e used o illus a e he
p omises and hei consequences, including he implica ions o
he c edibili y o he p omise in he eyes o esiden s.
The go e nmen issued a decision in p inciple (DiP) in 2000
o he inal geological disposal o 4000 U ( om he Olkiluo o
1-2 and Lo iisa 1-2 nuclea powe plan (NPP) uni s), and con-
i med Olkiluo o, in he municipali y o Eu ajoki as he si e o
he eposi o y. In 2002, as pa o he DiP o he new Olkiluo o
3 uni , he go e nmen app o ed he expansion o capaci y by
he 2500 U ha he new eac o was expec ed o p oduce. The
cons uc ion pe mi o he encapsula ion plan and he epos-
i o y wi h a capaci y o 6500 U was g an ed in 2015. In 2021,
Posi a submi ed i s applica ion o ope a e he eposi o y om
2024 un il 2070.
The pe spec i e o echno-scien i ic
p omises
The ‘success s o y’ o he Finnish nuclea was e managemen
(Leh onen 2021) can be desc ibed as a p ocess o success ully
cons uc ing p omises ha a e collec i ely expe ienced as c ed-
ible and legi ima e. P omises and expec a ions a e i al o he
de elopmen and deploymen o echno-scien i ic inno a ions.
They se hings in mo ion by aligning ac o s, ins i u ions, and
capi al; hey “guide ac i i ies, p o ide s uc u e and legi ima-
ion, a ac in e es and os e in es men ” (Bo up e al. 2006,
pp.

285–286; see also Joly 2010; an Len e 2012).
In his a icle, we ocus on he con inuous need o eshape
and e en adically ans o m he p omise o ensu e i s legi i-
macy and c edibili y. We use he e m echno-scien i ic p om-
ise o encompass 1. he ela i ely ague isions (‘umb ella p om-
ises’), 2. mo e speci ic s a emen s abou he u u e o a gi en
echnology, and 3. he ins i u ionaliza ion and ma e ializa ion
o p omises in policies, laws and egula ion, unding decisions,
p ojec s, and comme cial applica ions (Pa andian e al. 2012).
P omises a y in hei deg ee o sel -e idence and in hei con-
en (e.g., echnical, comme cial, socie al, symbolic, and ma e-
ial aspec s). P omises di e om o he expec a ions in ha hey
a e, by de ini ion, posi i e, as well as ela ional, ha is, hey en-
32
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31· Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36
pany announced ha i would manage i s SNF join ly wi h Po-
si a. In doing so, Fenno oima emphasized na ional esponsibil-
i y, a guing ha Posi a had been es ablished o manage all SNF
gene a ed in Finland in a single Finnish eposi o y in Olkiluo o
(Fenno oima 2009, p.

11). Posi a, howe e , de eloped a coun-
e -na a i e by in oking he p inciple o licensee-speci ic e-
sponsibili y– he obliga ion o each ene gy company o ake
ca e o i s own SNF. Posi a also a gued ha i s owne s would
need he limi ed space in Olkiluo o o u u e ene gy p oduc ion.
I was also unwilling o dig disposal unnels ha would un un-
de he sea o he NPP (Kojo and Oksa 2014 b, p.

32.)
The p omise o na ional esponsibili y has no only unde -
pinned he ejec ion o ep ocessing and long- e m in e im s o -
age as unaccep able NWM solu ions, bu also helped o consol-
ida e he posi ion o nuclea powe as a co ne s one o Finnish
ene gy and clima e policy. In i s DiP applica ion, Fenno oima
(2009, p.

11) announced ha i would de elop and implemen
SNF disposal oge he wi h o he Finnish u ili ies bound by he
nuclea was e managemen obliga ions, o imp o e ope a ional
sa e y and educe cos s. Fenno oima u he no ed ha he s a e
could equi e licensees o coope a e i necessa y o ensu e he
gene al wel a e o socie y, as s ipula ed in he Nuclea Ene gy Ac .
Pa liamen a i ied he DiP o Olkiluo o 3 in 2002 and o
Olkiluo o 4 and Fenno oima’s Hanhiki i 1 in 2010. A he same
ime, he go e nmen app o ed Posi a’s applica ion o expand
he inal disposal capaci y o accommoda e SNF om Olkiluo o
3 and 4. The go e nmen ga e Fenno oima six yea s o ei he
ag ee on inal disposal o SNF wi h TVO and Fo um o launch
an En i onmen al Impac Assessmen (EIA) p ocedu e o i s
own eposi o y (Finnish Go e nmen 2010, p.

16). Fenno oima’s
EIA p og am (Fenno oima 2016, pp.

16–17) indica ed Eu ajoki,
albei excluding he Olkiluo o si e, as he i s choice o epos-
i o y, and he municipali y o Pyhäjoki– he hos o i s planned
new NPP– as he second op ion.
The p omise o na ional esponsibili y ailed o coo dina e
ac ions when a new playe appea ed on he scene. Posi a’s sha e-
holde s, TVO and Fo um, epea edly indica ed ha hey we e
no in e es ed in discussing inal disposal wi h Fenno oima.
They desc ibed Posi a as ‘ou solu ion’, and he eposi o y as
designed o ecei e was e only om i s owne s’ plan s, includ-
ing he possible new Olkiluo o 3 and 4 uni s– al hough he s a e
is he majo i y owne o Fo um, i did no exe cise i s s ee ing
powe on his issue (Kojo and Oksa 2014 b, p.

18). Posi a explic-
i ly uled ou na ionaliza ion and sough o s eng hen i s image
as a p i a e company accoun able solely o i s owne s.
The minis y s uggled o o ce he companies o coope a e
on NWM. Coope a ion in he o m o know-how and p o i-
sion o se ices came abou only a e he minis y es ablished
a join wo king g oup wi h he companies in 2012 (Kojo and
Oksa 2014 b, pp.

33–38). La e , in 2016, Posi a’s subsidia y Po-
si a Solu ions signed an ag eemen wi h Fenno oima on echni-
cal expe se ices ela ed o si e selec ion (Leh onen e al. 2021,
p.

135), bu Fenno oima was ne e allowed o pa icipa e in Po-
si a’s SNF eposi o y p ojec .
s a e nuclea was e agency has e e been es ablished, al hough
his op ion was included in he A omic Ene gy Ac in 1978 (Ni-
kula e al. 2012, pp.

58–59, 64).
In 1981–1996, IVO anspo ed SNF om i s So ie Lo ii-
sa- ype NPP uni s o he So ie Union and la e o Russia, as
ag eed by he Finnish and So ie go e nmen s in 1969 (Sand-
be g 1999, pp.

45–46). TVO also inqui ed abou he a ailabil-
i y o ep ocessing se ices in se e al coun ies. The si ua ion
changed in he mid-1970s when he companies p o iding ep o-
cessing se ices changed he e ms o he con ac and equi ed
ha was e p oduce s such as TVO commi o aking back and
disposing o he emaining high-le el was e a e ep ocessing.
TVO also ound he con ac oo expensi e (Da s and Dawson
2010, pp.

65–66; Nikula e al. 2012, pp.

58, 79). In 1976, he
Minis y o T ade and Indus y es ablished a wo king g oup o
in es iga e NWM in Finland, and in 1978 and 1983, he go e n-
men adop ed he policy (Suominen 1999, pp.

25–26, 30–31).
Howe e , IVO could con inue expo ing SNF, because he So-
ie Union did no equi e he e u n o esidual was e.
Un il he 1994 amendmen o he Nuclea Ene gy Ac , e-
p ocessing was he p ima y objec i e o licensees, as de ined
in he 1983 policy decision. In he ea ly 1980s, TVO s a ed
planning di ec disposal o SNF in Finland, based on he Swed-
ish KBS3 concep (Kojo and Oksa 2014 a, pp.

24–25). A ha
ime, he cos o ep ocessing was es ima ed o be wice ha o
di ec geological disposal (Nikula e al. 2012, pp.

77, 88). The
impo and expo ban ins i u ionalized he p omise o na ional
esponsibili y. In he ollowing yea s, Posi a in oked his p om-
ise in i s communica ions by emphasizing ha i managed he
nuclea was e gene a ed by Finland’s NPPs. The company p e-
sen ed i sel as gua dian o he na ion’s in e es s, no jus hose
o i s owne s (Kojo 2002, p.

41). In addi ion, he Eu ajoki hos
municipali y announced in 2000 ha i would only allow SNF
om he Finnish NPPs a he Olkiluo o si e (Kojo 2009, p.

184).
The case s udies
Ou i s case s udy examines he ans o ma ion wo k and he
dispu e o e he meaning o he ela i ely ague and isiona y
umb ella p omise (Pa andian e al. 2012). The case shows how
his ision o ‚ou solu ion’ was i s challenged by he Finnish
ene gy companies. I illus a es he di icul ies aced by a new
en an ha wan ed o join Posi a’s eposi o y p ojec , and how
he iews o Posi a’s owne s abou a possible expansion o he
Olkiluo o eposi o y unde pinned he need o a second eposi-
o y in Finland. To p o ec hei in e es s, Posi a and i s owne s
had o speci y he umb ella p omise.
Speci ying he umb ella p omise: he dispu e o e
he p omise o na ional esponsibili y
In 2007, he newly es ablished ene gy company Fenno oima ap-
plied o a pe mi o build a new NPP and he e o e needed
o demons a e ha i had a eliable NWM solu ion. The com-
33
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31 · Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36
Fo A alon Ene gia, a ne wo k o eposi o ies would pa e he
way o u he cons uc ion o nuclea powe . I p edic ed ha
“public suppo o nuclea ene gy sky ocke s i he was e issue
is sol ed” (Nemlande 2019, p.

22). A alon desc ibed Finland
as “ he bes chance o in e na ional HLW [high-le el was e] e-
posi o ies due o poli ics, geology, ech and limi ed ime” (Nem-
lande 2019, p.

22) bu saw pe manen geological disposal only
as a s ep owa ds he ul ima e goal o ecycling o HLW, once
he echnology would become a ailable.
Like A alon Ene gia, he ESF s essed he impo ance o
was e managemen in he nuclea echnology se ice packages
(ESF 2021 b). The Socie y’s sugges ions aligned wi h calls om
Finnish Ene gy, he Finnish ene gy-sec o ad ocacy g oup, o a
ma ke -based and echnology-neu al app oach o NWM om
small modula eac o s (SMRs) o keep he doo open o a -
ious disposal op ions, including ep ocessing and SNF expo .
“The egula ion should enable business in new a eas o nuclea
ene gy” and “guide solu ions only o he ex en necessa y o
ensu e sa e y, secu i y, and non-p oli e a ion” (Finnish Ene gy
2021, p.

5).
C edibili y o he p omise: NWM o small modula
eac o s
A hi d challenge o he ini ial p omise o na ional esponsibil-
i y s ems om he planned SMRs, and local esiden s’ iews on
he op ions o managing SNF om such eac o s. A posi i e ex-
pec a ion o ci izens ega ding SMR was e would be an indica-
ion ha p omise-building has succeeded in con incing a s ake-
holde g oup ha is impo an o he de elopmen o he ech-
nology. C ucially, he decen alized nuclea powe p oduc ion
model en ailed in he SMR ision ques ions he p omise o na-
ional esponsibili y. As nuclea powe is inc easingly amed as
a key con ibu o o ene gy secu i y and comba agains clima e
change, SMRs ha e been sugges ed as a means o deca boniz-
ing dis ic hea ing, necessa y o he ci ies in he Helsinki Me -
opoli an a ea o each i s CO22 emission educ ion a ge s. How-
e e , li le a en ion has been paid o he managemen o nuclea
was e om SMRs– a po en ial obs acle o he ul ilmen o he
SMR p omise. C ucially, he op ion o si ing he was e locally
challenges he ision o a cen alized na ional solu ion. Resul s
om a esiden su ey conduc ed in he Helsinki me opoli an
a ea in No embe 2021 e lec he ambigui ies, hesi a ions and
con adic ions in ol ed. Indeed, ci izen’s opinions we e di ided,
bo h on he possible cons uc ion o SMRs and on he associa ed
was e managemen op ions (Kojo e al. 2022).
Mos esponden s exp essed eluc ance o he idea ha SNF
acc uing in SMRs should be handled a he local le el. Nea ly
S e ching he na ional esponsibili y o c ea e
business oppo uni ies
Ou second case s udy desc ibes ano he shi in p omise, p o-
oked by ecen ini ia i es ha p opose o u n NWM in o a ma-
jo business oppo uni y, building on Finland’s epu a ion as a
pionee . Fo example, he o me depu y di ec o gene al o he
In e na ional A omic Ene gy Agency, Olli Heinonen, p oposed
building a ew addi ional eposi o ies in Finland o was e om
ab oad o make he coun y a model o o he s and educe he
isks o e o ism and p oli e a ion (Heinonen 2012). To make
his p omise a eali y, economic isiona ies sough o ex end
he scope o he p omise om na ional o in e na ional espon-
sibili y. This, in u n, would equi e li ing o so ening he ban
on was e impo s.
Two ecen co po a e ini ia i es illus a e he ans o ma-
ion: One launched by he s a -up A alon Ene gia es ablished
in 2017, and ano he by he Ecomode nis Socie y o Finland
(ESF), a p o-nuclea NGO ounded in 2015. To legi imize he
p omise, which he desc ibed in his LinkedIn-p o ile as sa ely
disposing o “global high-le el nuclea was e in a ne wo k o
deep geological eposi o ies in he bed ock o Finland”, Rob-
e Nemlande a gued his would b ing economic bene i s o
he hos municipali ies, he company, he go e nmen , and so-
cie y a la ge, bu would also help o c ea e a be e wo ld o
ou child en by comba ing clima e change ia g ea e use o
nuclea powe (Nemlande 2019, pp.

36–37). Impo ing was e
would gene a e p o i s o some en billion eu os pe yea , ha is,
one illion eu os o e he hund ed yea s o he eposi o y ope -
a ion; enough o allow Finland o in oduce uni e sal basic in-
come. I ep ocessed, Nemlande a gued on LinkedIn, he im-
po ed SNF could “powe he en i e plane wi h clean ene gy
o o e 70 yea s”. A alon’s ac ion plan highligh s gaining pub-
lic suppo and iden i ying eposi o y si es as impo an s eps on
he pa h o Finnish NWM business.
In 2021, he ESF sugges ed legisla ion and esea ch and de-
elopmen as ools o ad ancing Finnish NWM expo s. The
ESF p oposed amending he Nuclea Ene gy Ac o allow ade
in SNF, as his would emo e ba ie s o a ional clima e solu-
ions and as expo oppo uni ies o Finland in echnologies
such as nuclea -powe ed dis ic hea ing. In addi ion, he amend-
men would help o he coun ies o clean hei ene gy sys ems,
consolida e Finland’s epu a ion as a low-ca bon coun y, and
enable Finland o expo se ice packages o he en i e nu-
clea ene gy li e cycle including he handling o nuclea was e.
Gi en Finland’s pionee ing ole in esponsible nuclea was e
managemen , he change would also be e hically jus i ied (ESF
2021 a).
Nea ly hal (43 %) opposed inal disposal,
and 46 % opposed long- e m s o age in hei neighbo hoods.
34
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31· Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36

SMR ision in he eyes o he public a e e lec ed in he ela-
i ely posi i e iews among local esiden s conce ning possible
SMRs. Howe e , he un esol ed issue o how o deal wi h he
was e om a possible decen alized SMR lee di ides esiden s’
opinions and o ces u he changes o he ini ial e sion o he
na ional esponsibili y p omise, buil on he ision o cen al-
ized was e managemen .
Ea lie esea ch on echno-scien i ic p omises ha e o en ei-
he s essed he ole o hype-disappoin men cycles (Pa andian
e al. 2012) o analyzed he a ious unc ions o p omises (Van
Len e 2012). Ou case s udies highligh he need o comple-
men such analysis o he pe o ma i e powe o a gi en p omise
wi h mo e ine-g ained s udies o he ways in which he ini ial
p omise ge s ans o med h ough ac i e ans o ma ion wo k
unde aken by he in ol ed ac o s, and how policy, inno a ion,
p omises as well as ac o beha io and p e e ences co-e ol e. In
cu en Finnish NWM policy, such ans o ma ion e o s im-
ply p essu es owa ds mo e ma ke -o ien ed policy app oaches.
Funding • This wo k ecei ed unding om he KONE Founda ion, p ojec
numbe 202105388 and om he Academy o Finland, p ojec numbe 351173.
Compe ing in e es s • The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
Re e ences
Aa nio, Anna-Riikka; Kojo, Ma i; Li manen, Tapio (2017): Fenno oiman loppusi-
joi uslai oksen yh eiskunnallinen hy äksy ä yys. Mi en suomalaise suh au-
u a aih oeh oisiin paikkoihin? In: ATS Ydin ekniikka 46 (3), pp.

16–20.
Al ial-Pala icino, Ca la (2015): The u u e as p ac ice. A amewo k o unde s and
an icipa ion in science and echnology. In: Tecnoscienza– I alian Jou nal
o Science

&
Technology S udies 6 (2), pp.

135–172. A ailable online a h p://
www. ecnoscienza.ne /index.php/ sj/a icle/ iew/239/159, las accessed
on 08.

11.

2022.
Bo up, Mads; B own, Nick; Kon ad, Ko nelia; Van Len e, Ha o (2006): The soci-
ology o expec a ions in science and echnology. In: Technology Analysis
and S a egic Managemen 18 (3–4), pp.

285–298. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/
09537320600777002
Cha eau aynaud, F ancis; Debaz, Josquin (2017): Aux bo ds de l’i é e sible.
Sociologie p agma ique des ans o ma ions. Pa is: Edi on Pé a.
Da s , Robe ; Dawson, Jane (2010): Wai ing o he nuclea enaissance. Explo ing
he nexus o expansion and disposal in Eu ope. In: Risk, haza ds

&
c isis
in public policy 1 (4), pp.

41–82. h ps://doi.o g/10.2202/1944-4079.1047
ESF– Ecomode nis Socie y o Finland (2021 a): Käy e yn ydinpol oaineen
ja adioak ii isen jä een huollon kansallisen ohjelman luonnos ja
ympä is öselos us. In: Lausun o, 10.

09.

2021. A ailable online a h ps://www.
lausun opal elu. i/FI/P oposal/Pa icipa ion?p oposalId=e01c4855-5b1 -
4768-b41e-7e3392e07ad4, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
ESF (2021 b): Uu a Ydin oimaa. Ny ! A oin ki je yö- ja elinkeinominis e iölle.
In: ekomode nismi. i, 10.

9.

2021. A ailable online a h ps://ekomode nismi. i/
uu a-ydin oimaa-ny /, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Fenno oima (2009): Ydin oimalai oksen pe iaa epää öshakemus. s.l.: s.n. A ail-
able online a h ps:// em. i/documen s/1410877/2610955/Pe iaa ep%C3%A4
%C3%A4 %C3%B6shakemus, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Fenno oima (2016): Käy e yn ydinpol oaineen kapseloin i- ja loppusijoi uslai-
oksen ympä is ö aiku us en a ioin iohjelma. s.l.: s.n. A ailable online a
hal (43 %) opposed inal disposal, and 46 % opposed long- e m
s o age in hei neighbo hoods.
Howe e , in appa en con adic ion wi h his eluc ance o ac-
cep local solu ions, 57 % o he esponden s ag eed ha ans-
po ing was e gene a ed by SMRs would be dange ous. The pos-
sibili y o ansna ional was e ade aced mixed iews: 45 %
opposed he idea o disposing o impo ed nuclea was e a he
Eu ajoki si e, while 48 % held a neu al opinion ega ding a pos-
sible amendmen o he Nuclea Ene gy Ac ha would allow
SMR was e o be e u ned o he p oduce ab oad.3 Mos e-
sponden s (60 %) a o ed a cen alized solu ion o he inal dis-
posal o SMR was e. Howe e , he p e e ed loca ion o SMR
was e managemen emained unclea , as hal o he esiden s
we e nei he clea ly in a o no agains disposing o he was e
in Eu ajoki, he si e o he o iginal ‚na ional solu ion’.
Conclusions
In he pas decades, he p omise o na ional esponsibili y was a
poli ical s a emen used o allay ea s ha nuclea was e would
be impo ed o Finland (a e he coun y joined he Eu opean
Union) and o demons a e ha nuclea was e om new NPP
uni s would be managed esponsibly. In he 1990s, he nuclea
indus y s ill belie ed ha he cons uc ion o mul ina ional e-
posi o ies would con lic wi h he na ional disposal plan (Nikula
e al. 2012, p.

92). Since hen, he si ua ion has changed. Some
ac o s ha e sugges ed legisla i e changes ha would allow im-
po s and expo s o nuclea was e, gene a e business oppo u-
ni ies, and di e si y he op ions o managing was e om pos-
sible SMRs.
This a icle desc ibed he g adual ans o ma ion, in eac-
ion o changing ci cums ances, o he umb ella p omise ha has
unde pinned he con inui y and legi imacy o nuclea powe in
Finland, namely ha he coun y akes ca e o i s own nuclea
was e. Changing policy ci cums ances and p essu e om di e se
in ol ed ac o s ha e led o u he speci ica ion and con inuous
dispu es o e he e y na u e o he p omise o na ional espon-
sibili y, wi h a emp s o ede ine his esponsibili y in in e na-
ional a he han na ional e ms. This p omise- ans o ma ion
wo k in ol ed, i s , he en y o a new playe in he ield. The
incumben playe s we e unwilling o accep he new en an , and
p io i ized licensee esponsibili y o SNF managemen o e a
na ional cen alized eposi o y solu ion. Second, he ans o ma-
ion o he business landscape u he spu ed a mo e away om
he na a i e o a cen alized na ional solu ion, as he ene gy in-
dus y, s a -ups, and ecomode nis s b ough o he able isions
in which was e ade and SMRs would open luc a i e new busi-
ness oppo uni ies, in he spi i o na ional in e es . Thi d, he
incipien e o s o bols e he legi imacy and c edibili y o he
3 In 2016, almos h ee ou o ou o Finns disag eed wi h he s a emen
“I accep he inal disposal o nuclea was e gene a ed ab oad in Olkiluo o, i i is
ound o be sa e”, Aa nio e al. 2017, p.

19
35
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31 · Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36
Posi a Oy (2022): We ha e a solu ion which is an example o he whole wo ld.
Eu ajoki: Posi a Oy.
Sandbe g, Jo ma (1999): Pää ikö eduskun a geologises a loppusijoi ukses a
jo uonna 1994? Käy e yn ydinpol oaineen huol oa koske a lainsäädän ö
ja i anomaispää ökse . In: Tapio Li manen, Pekka Hokkanen and Ma i
Kojo (eds.): Ydinjä e käsissämme. Suomen ydinjä ehuol o ja suomalainen
yh eiskun a. Jy äskylä: SoPhi, pp.

43–64.
Suominen, Pe e i (1999): Ydinjä epoli iikan muo ou uminen Suomessa. In: Tapio
Li manen, Pekka Hokkanen and Ma i Kojo (eds.): Ydinjä e käsissämme.
Suomen ydinjä ehuol o ja suomalainen yh eiskun a. Jy äskylä: SoPhi,
pp.

15–42.
Van Len e, Ha o (2012): Na iga ing o esigh in a sea o expec a ions. Lessons
om he sociology o expec a ions. In: Technology Analysis

&
S a egic
Managemen 24 (8), pp.

769–782. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09537325.2012.715478
h ps:// em. i/documen s/1410877/3326762/YVA-ohjelman+yh een e o+2016,
las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Finnish Ene gy (2021): Pien eak o i (SMR) saa a a pian osaksi uu a ene giajä -
jes elmää. Posi iopape i 2021. s.l: s.n. A ailable online a h ps://ene gia. i/
iles/6320/ET_SMR-posi iopape i_092021.pd , las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Finnish Go e nmen (2010): Val ioneu os on pe iaa epää ös 6. päi änä ouko-
kuu a 2010 Fenno oima Oy:n hakemukseen ydin oimalai oksen aken ami-
ses a. A ailable online a h ps://www.eduskun a. i/FI/ aski/Documen s/
m_4+2010.pd , las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Heinonen, Olli-Pekka (2012): Ydin u a uusiksi. In: Talouselämä, 11.

09.

2012.
A ailable online a h ps://www. alouselama. i/uu ise /ydin u a-uusiksi/
4 c566 0-d88d-3475-a685-012b41c5a321, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Joly, Pie e-Benoî (2010): On he economics o echno-scien i ic p omises. In:
Madeleine Ak ich, Yannick Ba he, Fabian Muniesa and Philippe Mus a
(eds.): Débo demen s. Mélanges o e s à Michel Callon. Pa is: P esse des
Mines, pp.

203–221. h ps://doi.o g/10.4000/books.p essesmines.747
Kojo, Ma i (2002): Lahjoma omien haukansilmien al onnassa. Ydinjä een
loppusijoi ushankkeen hy äksy ä yyden aken aminen Posi a Oy:n iedo-
usma e iaalissa. In: Pen i Rai ila, Pekka Hokkanen, Ma i Kojo and Tapio
Li manen (eds.): Ydinjä eihme suomalaisi ain. Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y
P ess, pp.

36–66.
Kojo, Ma i (2009): The s a egy o si e selec ion o he spen nuclea uel
eposi o y in Finland. In: Ma i Kojo and Tapio Li manen (eds.): The enewal
o nuclea powe in Finland. Basings oke: Palg a e Macmillan, pp.

161–191.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1057/9780230237032_6
Kojo, Ma i; Ki iluoma, Niina; Li manen, Tapio (2022): Kaukolämpöä pienydin-
oimalla? Pääkaupunkiseudun asukkaiden näkemykse osallis umises a ja
pää öksen eos a. In: ATS Ydin ekniikka 51 (2), pp.

39–43.
Kojo, Ma i; Oksa, Anna (2014 a): Adap ion o he Swedish KBS disposal concep
o Finland. A echnology ans e case s udy. Tampe e: Uni e si y o Tampe e.
A ailable online a h ps://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-951-44-9515-1, las accessed
on 08.

11.

2022.
Kojo, Ma i; Oksa, Anna (2014 b): The second eposi o y o disposal o spen
nuclea uel in Finland. An analysis o he in e es s, esou ces and ac ics
o he key ac o s. Tampe e: Uni e si y o Tampe e. A ailable online a
h ps://u n. i/URN:ISBN:978-951-44-9514-4, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Leh onen, Ma kku (2021): Das Wunde on ONKALO? Zu une äglichen Leich ig-
kei de innischen Suche nach einem Endlage . In: APuZ– Aus Poli ik und
Zei geschich e 71 (21–23), pp.

32–37.
Leh onen, Ma kku; Kojo, Ma i; Ka i, Mika; Li manen, Tapio (2021): Heal hy mis-
us o complacen con idence? Ci ic igilance in he epo ing by lead-
ing newspape s on nuclea was e disposal in Finland and F ance. In: Risks,
Haza ds

&
C isis in Public Policy 12 (2), pp.

130–157. h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/
hc3.12210
Nemlande , Robe (2019): In e na ional nuclea was e eposi o y ne wo k. s.l.:
s.n. A ailable online a h ps://www.slidesha e.ne /Robe Nemlande /
a alon-ene gia-business-deck, las accessed on 08.

11.

2022.
Nikula, Anneli; Raumolin, Heikki; Ryhänen, Veijo; Seppälä, Timo; Vi a, Juhani;
Äikäs, Timo (2012): Koh i u allis a loppusijoi us a. Ydinjä ehuollon neljä
uosikymmen ä. Eu ajoki: Posi a Oy.
Pa andian, Ali eza; Rip, A ie; e Kul e, Haico (2012): Dual dynamics o p omises,
and wai ing games a ound eme ging nano echnologies. In: Technology
Analysis

&
S a egic Managemen 24 (6), pp.

565–582. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/
09537325.2012.693668
ASSOCIATE PROF.

MATTI KOJO
has o e wo decades long expe ience in s udy-
ing nuclea was e policy issues. He wo ks a he LUT
Uni e si y.
DR.

MARKKU LEHTONEN
is a social scien is a he Pompeu Fab a Uni e si y
in Ba celona. His ecen esea ch ocuses on
megap ojec s, echno-scien i ic p omises, and pub-
lic con o e sies in he nuclea ene gy sec o .
PROF.

TAPIO LITMANEN
is an en i onmen al sociologis whose esea ch
has ocused on en i onmen al and heal h isks,
pa icula ly hose ela ed o nuclea echnology.
He wo ks a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä.
NIINA KIVILUOMA
is a esea ch assis an a he Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
whe e she is a he inal s ages o he mas e ’s
deg ee in sociology.
36
SPECIAL TOPIC · ThE uTu E O AdIOACTI E wASTE dISPOSAL
h ps://doi.o g/10.14512/ a up.31.3.31· Zei sch i ü Technik olgenabschä zung in Theo ie und P axis (2022) 31/3: 31–36