Land 2014, 3, 598-616; doi:10.3390/land3030598
land
ISSN 2073-445X
www.mdpi.com/jou nal/land/
A icle
Assessing he Quali y o Ag icul u al Landscape Change wi h
Mul iple Dimensions
Eija Pou a 1,*, Ioanna G amma ikopoulou 1, Timo Hu me 2, Ka iina Soini 3 and Ma ja Uusi alo 4
1 Economic Resea ch, MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, La oka anonkaa i 9, 00790 Helsinki,
Finland; E-Mail: ioanna.g amm[email p o ec ed]
2 Plan P oduc ion Resea ch, MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, Da um, Tie o ie, 31600 Jokioinen,
Finland; E-Mail: imo.hu m[email p o ec ed]
3 Economic Resea ch, MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, Labo a o ium Uu e ie 2 A, 31600 Jokioinen,
Finland; E-Mail: ka iina.soini@m . i
4 Plan P oduc ion Resea ch, MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, E elä an a 55, 96300 Ro aniemi,
Finland; E-Mail: m[email p o ec ed]
* Au ho o whom co espondence should be add essed; E-Mail: eija.pou a@m . i;
Tel.: +358-29-531-7627.
Recei ed: 19 Decembe 2013; in e ised o m: 18 June 2014 / Accep ed: 24 June 2014 /
Published: 1 July 2014
Abs ac : Be e ecogni ion o public pe cep ions is called o in de eloping policies ha
a ec landscape quali ies, such as ag i-en i onmen al policies. The p esen s udy ocused
on he e alua ion o ypical ag icul u al landscapes in Finland. We u ilized and ope a ionalized
he isual landscape quali y scales in oduced by T ei e al. (2006) and u he explo ed
how hese scales can be applied in ci izen e alua ion o ag icul u al landscapes. F om
landscape da a collec ed ia an In e ne su ey, we analysed whe he and how he a ibu es
o ag icul u al landscapes we e linked o hei e alua ion. The esul s demons a ed ha
isual concep s such as openness, na u alness, species ichness and he imp ession o being
aken ca e o we e signi ican ly associa ed wi h six landscape a ibu es, i.e., g ain, ca le,
bales, a mhouses, buses and dis u bances. A ela ionship be ween key landscape concep s
and no ma i e e alua ion was ound. The no ma i e pleasan ness o he landscape also
signi ican ly associa ed wi h indi idual landscape a ibu es and he socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics o he pe cei e s.
Keywo ds: landscape e alua ion; landscape a ibu es; landscape quali y scales
OPEN ACCESS
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1. In oduc ion
The impo ance o he ag icul u al landscape o u al li elihoods, cul u e and he iden i y o u al
esiden s is well ecognized [1,2]. Al hough u al policies, and ag i-en i onmen al schemes (AES)
in pa icula , impose basic obliga ions on a me s o keep he landscape open and well managed, he
implemen a ion o AES ac i i ies o en comp omises di e en aims in a ming [3,4]. Fu he mo e,
AES do no accoun o pe cep ions o he ag icul u al landscape among he public. Recen policies
ha e emphasised be e ecogni ion o public pe cep ions o landscape quali ies. Fo example, he
Eu opean Landscape Con en ion [5] sugges s ha landscapes and hei changes should be iden i ied
and assessed “by he in e es ed pa ies and he popula ion conce ned” (A icle 6). I also calls o
p ocedu es o he pa icipa ion o he gene al public, local and egional au ho i ies, and o he pa ies
wi h an in e es in he de ini ion and implemen a ion o landscape policies (A icle 5).
Al hough esea ch has ocused on ci izen e alua ion o landscapes and landscape cha ac e is ics,
his esea ch has e y o en conce ned ou ism, he i age o landscapes wi h a speci ic na u al alue.
Howe e , he Eu opean Landscape Con en ion [5] and he Fa o Con en ion on he Value o Cul u al
He i age o Socie y [6] emphasize e e yday landscapes. Acco ding o hese Con en ions, ag icul u al
landscapes wi hou any speci ic alue, such as a high na u al alue o alue as adi ional bio opes,
should a ac equal conce n. In pa icula , i is impo an o de ine hose ag icul u al landscape a ibu es
ha a e changing in esponse o ag icul u al policy and de e mine he e ec s o hese changes on how
he landscapes a e e alua ed.
Some esea che s ha e aimed o cap u e he mul idimensionali y o landscape quali ies wi h a
limi ed numbe o measu es [7–10]. These measu es a emp o combine a ious aspec s o he landscape
ha a e assumed o a ec subjec i e landscape assessmen . Based on he li e a u e, T ei e al. [10]
iden i ied nine key concep s ha desc ibe di e en cha ac e is ics o he landscape: s ewa dship,
cohe ence, dis u bance, his o ici y, he isual scale, imageabili y, complexi y, na u alness and epheme a.
These key isual concep s ocus on di e en aspec s o he landscape, and oge he esul in he holis ic
expe ience o i s isual quali y. The concep s o T ei e al. [10] sugges ha some uni e sal ways
exis o e alua e a landscape, e en hough cul u al and gene ic ac o s in luence ou pe cep ions,
implying ha he concep s and con ex a e obse e dependen .
T ei e al. [10] demons a ed wi h he help o ag a ian landscape pho og aphs he impo ance o he
key concep s. They p o ided objec i e illus a ions o quali y bu did no use he concep s in measu ing
ci izen pe cep ions o he landscape. The key isual concep s we e no e alua i e on a posi i e o
nega i e scale, i.e., high o low quali y landscapes, bu as exp essed by T ei e al. [10], some o hese
concep s may inc ease isual quali y. They s a ed ha empi ical esea ch is needed on he ela ionship
be ween he concep s and landscape p e e ences. Al hough s uc u ed wi h key concep s, landscape
quali y can be subjec i ely pe cei ed. Se enan and An op [11,12] measu ed indi idual pe cep ions
o quali y, and demons a ed a co ela ion be ween some o he key isual concep s and he aes he ic
quali y o he landscape in he case o Belgium. Howe e , only hal o hese concep s we e ound o
be eliable p edic o s. Hence, mo e empi ical s udies a e needed on he ela ionship be ween key
landscape concep s and no ma i e e alua ion o he landscape.
E e yday ag icul u al landscapes a e mul idimensional, bo h in spa ial and empo al e ms [13].
Besides cul i a ed landscapes and semi-na u al bio opes (such as g azing lands), ag icul u al landscapes
Land 2014, 3 600
a e comp ised o a ious elemen s, including wild na u e (plan s, ocks, wa e ), man-made elemen s
such as buildings o di e en ages, oads and ansmission lines, and animals (wild and domes ica ed),
as well as signs o a ming (bales, ences). P e ious li e a u e has demons a ed ha he p esence o
a single landscape a ibu e may cause a ma ked change in he o e all subjec i e assessmen o he
landscape s uc u e and quali y (e.g., [14–16]). Howe e , he ela ionship be ween landscape a ibu es,
pa icula ly ag icul u al a ibu es, and key cha ac e is ics o landscape quali y, such as hose p esen ed
by T ei e al. [10], is open o ques ion. Fu he mo e, esea ch has e ealed ha pe cep ions o
expe iences o ag icul u al landscape quali y e lec a numbe o socio-economic, psychological
and cul u al ac o s, such as age, p o ession, educa ion, and he sense o place o he pe cei e .
A dis inc ion can he e o e usually be made, o example, be ween a me s, ci y dwelle s, expe s
and conse a ionis s [17–20].
Pho og aphs ha e inc easingly been used o explo e landscape e alua ions (e.g., [18,19,21–25]).
I pho og aphs a e used o e alua e he quali y o he landscape, he quali y o he pho og aphs
hemsel es may a ec he e alua ion [26]. As a gued by Rose [27], an image has pa icula
e ec s upon us, depending on i s con ex ual in o ma ion (ac ual and exp essi e con en s, colou ,
spa ial o ganiza ion and ligh ). Colou pho og aphs p o ide mo e in o ma ion on he landscape han
black-and-whi e pho og aphs [28,29], bu hey can be mo e sensi i e o he di e ences caused by
he wea he condi ions o he pe iod du ing he g owing season, o example. An expe imen by
Shu lewo h [26] indica ed ha black-and-whi e pho og aphs end o induce mo e ex eme and mo e
highly di e en ia ed esponses han colou pho og aphs, and ha he la e ela e mo e closely o ield
esponses. In using pho og aphs o in es iga e landscape e alua ions, we also ook he oppo uni y o
examine he e ec o he ype o pho og aph on e alua ions o a ious con ex s.
The p esen s udy ocused on landscape e alua ions by ci izens based on pho og aphs ep esen ing
i e ag icul u al landscapes in Finland wi h changing a ibu es. The i s objec i e was o use
he indica o s sugges ed by T ei e al. [10] o measu e ci izen pe cep ions o landscape quali y om
se e al landscape pho og aphs, as a limi ed amoun o space is a ailable in a su ey and esponden
e o needs o be kep on mode a e le el. A second objec i e was o iden i y he ela ionships be ween
he key concep s ( hose de eloped by T ei e al. [10]) measu able isual a ibu es o he ag icul u al
landscape, and hei no ma i e (posi i e and nega i e) a ings. Fu he mo e, we compa ed landscape
e alua ions be ween black-and-whi e and colou e sions o he same landscape pho og aphs o
de e mine whe he measu es o key concep s a e sensi i e o he pho og aph ype.
2. Me hods
2.1. Su ey Design
2.1.1. Selec ion o Pho og aphs
In he su ey, we illus a ed he landscape using pho og aphs. In landscape e alua ion s udies,
he landscapes and hei a ibu es ha e mos o en been isualized wi h ae ial o landscape
pho og aphs (e.g., [18,19,21–25]). He e, we also op ed o use pho og aphs a he han on-si e me hods,
as hey allow mo e people o pa icipa e in he esea ch, make he esea ch less expensi e [19,30] and
enable compa isons be ween di e en landscape ypes, since hey di ec he obse e ’s ocus o isual
Land 2014, 3 601
quali ies ins ead o assessmen s based on o he senses [31]. A numbe o esea che s ha e epo ed high
co ela ions be ween pho o-based and on-si e e alua ions o landscapes [32]. Pho og aphic isualiza ion
is also an easily applicable me hod in landscape e alua ions ia In e ne ques ionnai es [33,34].
In ou In e ne su ey ques ionnai e, esponden s we e p esen ed pho og aphs o i e ag icul u al
landscapes, wi h wo pho os o each landscape aken a di e en imes o he yea : in mid- and
la e summe (Figu e 1). Fo hal o he esponden s, he pho os we e p esen ed in black and whi e,
while colou pho os we e p esen ed o he o he hal in o de o examine he e ec o image ype on
he assessmen s.
Figu e 1. (1–10) Pho og aphs used in he su ey (colou e sions, la e summe on he le ,
mid-summe on he igh ).
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
(9) (10)
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The pho og aphs we e selec ed om an a chi e o 2950 images o ag icul u al landscapes in
Finland om 13 di e en a eas ep esen a i ely a ound he coun y [35] aken in he yea s 2000, 2007
and 2010.
2.1.2. Selec ion o A ibu es
P e ious esea ch p o ided u he guidelines o iden i ying he landscape a ibu es and selec ing
he pho og aphs. Summa izing pas li e a u e guidelines [36], landscape cha ac e is ics may be g ouped
in o wo main ca ego ies: he le el o managemen o ege a ion, and he s a us and condi ion o man-made
elemen s in he landscape. Rega ding he cul i a ion s yle, Howley [37] and Howley e al. [38]
concluded ha people p o ide highe e alua ions o adi ional, mo e ex ensi e a ming landscapes
han mo e mode n, in ensi e a ming ones. In gene al, e alua ions a e lowe i landscapes consis
o homogeneous monocul u es [18,39–41]. A iaza e al. [42] epo ed ha he isual quali y o he
landscape inc eases as a unc ion o he pe cen age co e o ege a ion. Benjamin e al. [40] also
demons a ed ha ege a ion ma e s, as abandoned a mland was ound o be he mos un a ou able
landscape, ollowed by co n ields. Rech man [43] s udied he e ec o he c op ex u e and ound ha
he p esence o ege a ion had a posi i e impac on p e e ences, bu also ha a mix u e o ield c ops
and o cha ds was app ecia ed mo e han a homogeneous c op ex u e.
P e ious s udies ha e shown ha man-made a ibu es ha e a powe ul e ec on e alua ions. Ru al
buildings [44], pa icula ly a m buildings [45,46] and cul u al buildings [47,48], a e posi i ely ela ed
o landscape e alua ions, especially when hese buildings a e old [41], adi ional [16,37,49] o well
p ese ed [42]. Mo eo e , esponden s app o e o he p esence o isual di ide s, i.e., bu e zones
ha con ain g assy o ee-co e ed a eas, hedge ows o e aces [15,45,50,51], and he p esence o
g azing animals [37,46,49].
Beyond he p e ious li e a u e, ou aim was o ocus on hose a ibu es ha had ypically changed
in he Finnish ag icul u al landscape due o policy and echnological changes: a dec ease in ca le
p oduc ion in he sou he n pa o Finland, less equen u n-ou o ca le o pas u e, echnological
changes in odde p oduc ion/hay s o age sys ems, he inc easing size o a m compounds and enla ged
ield plo s leading o a dec ease in ield edges. The 10 pho og aphs om i e si es we e selec ed so ha
isual cha ac e is ics in he ag icul u al landscapes could be iden i ied wi h landscape a ibu es. By
applying he ideas om p e ious s udies o Finnish condi ions [35], some o he pho og aphs
ep esen ed he g ain p oduc ion landscape, and some depic ed g ass p oduc ion o ca le a ming.
Ca le a ming was also isible in wo pho og aphs as he p esence o ca le o silage bales. A one
o he si es, he landscape a ia ion esul ed om he managemen o di ch edges by ei he emo ing o
allowing bushes and small ees o g ow (pho os 1 and 2). The e was also a ia ion in he p esence o
ag icul u al buildings, which we e included in i e o he pho og aphs. One o he pho og aphs
(pho o 7) included a landscape dis u bance in he o m o a pile o b ushwood. The cha ac e is ics o
he pho os could be con e ed in o nume ical in o ma ion on he landscape. The image con en could
be exp essed in e ms o landscape cha ac e is ics ha we e coded in he da a as six dicho omous
a iables: g ain/g ass, ca le, bales, a mhouses, bushes and dis u bances. These a iables a ied
be ween he pho og aphs and si es.

Land 2014, 3 603
A e iewing each pho og aph, he esponden s we e asked o e alua e he landscape. This was
done by u ilizing he key concep s in oduced by T ei e al. [10], complemen ed wi h e alua ion o
pleasan ness and biodi e si y. Using he concep s o T ei e al. as a s a ing poin , we applied he idea
o seman ic di e en ial scales [52] and aimed o ind adjec i e pai s ha desc ibed and ope a ionalized
each dimension in a way ha could be easily p esen ed o Finnish esponden s in he Finnish language.
Consequen ly, he English ansla ions o he adjec i e pai s measu ed we e: pleasan –unpleasan ,
aken ca e o /main ained–no aken ca e o /no main ained (“s ewa dship”), consis en –di use
(“cohe ence”), ha monious–dis u bing (“dis u bance”), in ol e his o y-only e lec he p esen
(“his o ici y”); open–closed (“ isual scale”), o iginal– ypical (“imageabili y”), di e se–mono onous
(“complexi y, di e si y”), na u al–human modi ied (“na u alness”), s able–changing (“epheme a”) and
ich in species–poo in species (“biodi e si y”). The e alua ion was measu ed by asking esponden s o
a e each pho og aph on a i e-poin scale be ween each wo d pai . These adjec i e pai s we e es ed in
a pilo s udy, and as an adequa e sp ead o he da a o each measu e was ob ained and no indica ion o
misunde s anding o he wo d pai s was obse ed, he adjec i e pai s we e accep ed in he inal su ey
as such. In he ollowing, we use he i s adjec i e in each pai o desc ibe he dimension.
2.1.3. Measu es o Socio-Demog aphic P o ile
P e ious esea ch has demons a ed ha he socio-demog aphic p o ile o he pe cei e , whe he a
esiden o isi o , is associa ed wi h landscape pe cep ions. In pa icula , landscape e alua ions ha e
been ound o be a ec ed by he pe cei e ’s educa ional le el [38,53–56] and gende [37,49,55].
Mo eo e , he leng h o esidence [57,58] and age o he pe cei e s [14,16,37,49,55,56] can be o
impo ance, as hey ela e o p e ious expe iences and knowledge o he his o y o a landscape. The
childhood en i onmen ( a m, u al o u ban) [37,49,51] signi ican ly a ec s people’s e alua ion o
scenic beau y. People who a e mo e acquain ed wi h a landscape expe ience he landscape di e en ly
and hus exp ess di e en p e e ences (e.g., [37]). Ru al dwelle s, i.e., people who li e in he coun yside
bu whose li elihoods do no depend on ag icul u e, show di e en p e e ences compa ed o expe s o
a me s [18]. Fu he mo e, a p o ession ela ed o he economic use o na u al esou ces has been
ound o ha e an e ec on he e alua ion o landscape u iliza ion (e.g., [20,24,59–62]). Based on hese
ideas om p e ious s udies, in addi ion o gende and age, he socio-demog aphic backg ound o he
esponden s, such as educa ion, p o ession and income, and a iables ela ed o he li ing en i onmen ,
i.e., cu en and childhood li ing en i onmen , we e measu ed a he end o he su ey.
2.2. Da a
An online In e ne su ey conduc ed in Ap il 2011 p o ided in o ma ion on he e alua ion o he
ag icul u al landscape. The da a we e collec ed om he In e ne panel o a p i a e su ey company,
Talous u kimus. The panel comp ised 30,000 esponden s who had olun ee ed o pa icipa e in he
panel [63]. A e he pilo su ey o 100 people, a andom sample o 3016 esponden s was selec ed,
and 800 people comple ed he su ey, esul ing in a esponse a e o 27%. The da a we e close o
ep esen a i e o he gene al popula ion [64] ega ding gende (45% emales in he da a, 51% in
he popula ion) and age (mean 48 yea s in he da a, 42 in he popula ion). The educa ional le el was
somewha highe in he sample, as 32% o esponden s had a highe educa ion, while in he popula ion
Land 2014, 3 604
hei sha e was 27%. The p opo ion o indi iduals wi h child en in he amily was clea ly highe in
he sample (29%) han in he gene al popula ion (16%). The da a we e also somewha skewed o
o e - ep esen people om o he pa s o he coun y han he mo e popula ed sou he n Finland (62%
in he da a, 50% in he popula ion).
2.3. S a is ical Me hods
Fi s , we analysed he ope a ionaliza ion o he scales de eloped by T ei e al. [10]. This was done
wi h desc ip i e analysis and by calcula ing he Spea man ank co ela ions be ween measu es. The
assump ion o mono onic ela ionships be ween a iables in Spea man co ela ion was in es iga ed
wi h c oss abula ions and obse ed o be me in a clea majo i y o ela ionships. By co ela ing he
measu es wi h he e alua ion o pleasan ness (pleasan –unpleasan ), we could also examine he
associa ion o he measu es wi h no ma i e e alua ion.
Nex , linea mixed models we e selec ed o explain he a ia ion in key isual concep s due o
landscape a ibu es [65]. The e ec s o he i e si es and o each indi idual we e aken in o accoun as
andom e ec s. All he landscape cha ac e is ics and socio-demog aphic a iables we e examined as
po en ial explana o y a iables ( ixed e ec s) in hese models. The models we e buil so ha all he
indi idually signi ican and consequen ly p omising a iables we e included in he model oge he .
Then, he non-signi ican a iables we e dele ed om he model one by one based on he highes
p- alue (Type 3 F- es s) in each educed model. The a iable elimina ion was con inued un il all
he p- alues we e signi ican o e y close o signi ican . The model o no ma i e e alua ion is
p esen ed in de ail, bu he 10 models o quali y scales a e only p esen ed wi h indica i e coe icien
signs and signi icances o sa e space. Al hough no op imal o he si ua ion, as he esponse a iables
we e measu ed on an o dinal i e-poin scale ins ead o as a con inuous measu e, he me hod was
conside ed as he bes possible al e na i e, because i yields esul s in a use iendly o m. O he
assump ions o he model we e es ed using g aphical me hods: esiduals we e plo ed agains he i ed
alues and he no mali y o he esiduals was checked h ough quan ile-quan ile plo s, and
he assump ions we e easonably me .
The inal models o key isual concep s o he landscape we e cons uc ed so ha he po en ial
explana o y a iables we e i s es ed indi idually wi h he andom e ec s in he model. Based on
hese ini ial models, he signi ican a iables we e simul aneously added o he combined model, and
he model was educed by elimina ing non-signi ican a iables one a a ime. The s a is ical modelling
was pe o med using he MIXED p ocedu e o SAS 9.3 (SAS Ins i u e Inc., Ca y, NC, USA).
The e ec o pho og aph ype (black and whi e s. colou ) was u he analysed by compa ing he
means o e alua ions be ween ypes.
Linea mixed models we e also used o analyse he e ec s o he pho og aph i sel , he pho og aph
ype (black and whi e s. colou ) and hei in e ac ion in a ious concep s. In hese models, he e ec s
o each indi idual we e conside ed as andom e ec s.
Land 2014, 3 605
3. Resul s
3.1. E alua ing Measu es o Key Visual Concep s
In Table 1, we p esen desc ip i e in o ma ion on he measu es o key isual concep s de eloped by
T ei e al. [10], as well as on he measu es o pleasan ness and biodi e si y. The means o he
measu es indica ed he pa icipan s’ pe cep ions o he openness o he ag icul u al landscape, as he
openness quali y measu e was a ed highe in all pho og aphs han o he concep s. The means also
exp essed he esponden s’ a he high pe cep ion ha he landscapes had been aken ca e o and ha
hey we e ha monious and consis en . App oxima ely in he middle o he scales om 1 o 5 we e
e alua ions o he na u alness, s abili y and o iginali y. No ma i ely, he landscapes we e pe cei ed as
a he pleasan wi h a mean o 4.1 o all pho og aphs. The F- es showed ha he concep s we e able
o e eal di e ences in landscapes be ween he pho og aphs, as he means di e ed signi ican ly o all
concep s. Table 1 p esen s he lowes and highes e alua ions, showing ha he highes e alua ions, in
pa icula , accumula e in indi idual pho og aphs (5).
Table 1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he key isual concep s measu ed on a scale om 1 (low)
o 5 (high). The di e ences be ween pho og aphs we e s a is ically signi ican o all he
measu ed concep s acco ding o he F- es (p < 0.001).
Pho og aph 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Means, Scale 1, ..., 5
Pleasan ness 4.41 4.29 4.20 4.26 4.31 4.12 3.81 3.96 3.63 3.89
Species ichness 3.39 3.18 3.47 3.06 3.88 3.30 3.88 3.06 3.21 3.43
Taken ca e o 4.15 4.29 3.93 4.42 3.02 4.22 2.34 4.17 3.37 3.87
Consis ency 3.77 3.92 3.63 3.87 3.47 3.62 3.08 3.47 3.26 3.30
Ha mony 4.07 4.00 3.81 3.95 3.89 3.56 3.27 3.31 3.33 3.39
In ol e his o y 3.50 3.30 3.55 3.32 3.74 3.18 3.68 3.02 3.53 3.37
Openness 3.97 4.24 3.76 3.78 3.66 3.68 3.77 3.83 3.73 3.82
O iginali y 2.93 2.75 2.93 2.85 3.09 2.68 2.92 2.73 2.76 2.79
Di e si y 3.58 3.20 3.55 3.34 3.80 3.31 3.48 3.27 3.04 3.40
Na u alness 2.63 2.38 2.65 2.16 3.70 2.38 3.84 2.22 2.70 2.41
S abili y 2.99 2.92 3.01 3.02 3.09 2.86 2.99 2.84 2.89 2.84
Bold highes alue; bold i alics lowes alue in each concep . SD—S anda d de ia ion.
The co ela ions be ween key isual concep s (Table 2) indica ed ha nea ly all o hese, as well as
he no ma i e measu es, we e signi ican ly associa ed wi h each o he . This implies ha as s a ed by
T ei e al. [10], he concep s a e in e ela ed and wo k oge he o o m he o ali y o isual
landscape. The a ia ion in co ela ions also indica ed ha some concep s a e mo e closely linked
han o he s.
The co ela ions we e especially weak be ween na u alness and o he measu es. Howe e , hey we e
pa icula ly s ong be ween he measu e o di e si y and o he scales, and be ween ha mony and o he
scales, as well as be ween ha mony and consis ency (0.534) and also be ween species ichness
and di e si y (0.502).
Land 2014, 3 606
F om he co ela ions wi h he e alua ion o pleasan ness (pleasan –unpleasan ), we we e also able
o examine he associa ion o key concep s wi h he no ma i e posi i e–nega i e dimension. All o he
measu es o key concep s co ela ed posi i ely and signi ican ly wi h pleasan ness. Rega ding some
concep s, his was ob ious, as concep s such as ha mony can be easily in e p e ed o ep esen posi i e
and nega i e e alua ions. The co ela ions wi h he no ma i e scale we e weakes o he concep o
na u alness, which ne e heless had a signi ican posi i e associa ion wi h pleasan ness.
Table 2. Spea man co ela ion coe icien s be ween 11 landscape e alua ion scales.
Pleasan ness
Taken
Ca e o
Consis ency Ha mony
In ol e
His o y
Openness O iginali y Di e si y Na u alness S abili y
Species
Richness
Pleasan ness 1
Taken ca e o 0.488 ** 1
Consis ency 0.451 ** 0.459 ** 1
Ha mony 0.645 ** 0.440 ** 0.534 ** 1
In ol e his o y 0.226 ** −0.054 ** 0.137 ** 0.193 ** 1
Openness 0.428 ** 0.312 ** 0.456 ** 0.437 ** 0.245 ** 1
O iginali y 0.239 ** 0.058 ** 0.166 ** 0.214 ** 0.241 ** 0.171 ** 1
Di e si y 0.450 ** 0.165 ** 0.252 ** 0.430 ** 0.306 ** 0.277 ** 0.337 ** 1
Na u alness 0.069 ** −0.356 ** −0.105 ** 0.060 ** 0.179 ** −0.048 ** 0.192 ** 0.253 ** 1
S abili y 0.165 ** 0.079 ** 0.128 ** 0.216 ** 0.063 ** 0.097 ** 0.059 ** 0.173 ** 0.269 ** 1
Species ichness 0.310 ** −0.012 0.144 ** 0.286 ** 0.308 ** 0.193 ** 0.264 ** 0.502 ** 0.388 ** 0.208 ** 1
** Co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.01 le el (2- ailed). Co ela ions o e |0.4| wi h bold.
3.2. Modelling Landscape E alua ions
The esul s o he linea mixed model o pleasan ness a e epo ed in Table 3. The model akes
in o accoun he simul aneous e ec s o he ime o yea , pho og aph ype (black and whi e o colou ),
landscape cha ac e is ics, socio-demog aphic a iables and andom e ec s o he si e and indi idual.
Table 3 p o ides leas squa e means es ima es, which a e model-based means o each class ( o example,
means o pleasan ness on a scale om 1 o 5 o black-and-whi e and colou ed pho os), o he wise
assuming a e age indi idual and pho og aph cha ac e is ics.
As can be seen in Table 3, i o he a iables we e held a he a e age le el, bushes by di ches
imp o ed he e alua ion, while dis u bances (piles o b ushwood) educed he le el o pleasan ness.
The p esence o ca le had a s a is ically signi ican , bu mino posi i e e ec on he gene al pleasan ness
e alua ion. O he a ibu es (g ain, bales, a mhouses) had no signi ican e ec on pleasan ness. These
non-signi icances may also ela e o co ela ions wi h o he mo e signi ican a iables in he model,
o example in he case o a mhouses wi h he ca le, and in he case o bales wi h he ime o he yea ,
i.e., mid-summe .
The pe cei ed pleasan ness o he pho og aphs nega i ely associa ed wi h hem being aken in
la e summe , as he es ima ed means we e lowe wi h a somewha signi ican p- alue o 0.0498.
Pleasan ness was a ec ed by he pho og aph ype, wi h black-and-whi e landscapes ecei ing sligh ly
highe e alua ions. The model also e ealed a signi ican in e ac ion be ween pho og aph ype and he
season. In mid-summe pho og aphs, he colou ed e sions we e pe cei ed as mo e pleasan han black
and whi e, bu he e ec was opposi e in la e summe pho og aphs.
Land 2014, 3 613
Au ho Con ibu ions
Eija Pou a pa icipa ed in planning he su ey, analyzing Tables 1, 2 and 5, w i ing he esul s
sec ion and inalizing he a icle. Ioanna G amma ikopoulou e iewed he p e ious li e a u e on
ag icul u al landscape e alua ions. Timo Hu me desc ibed he linea mixed models and p o ided
he analysis o Tables 3 and 4. Ka iina Soini pa icipa ed in planning he su ey and w i ing he
In oduc ion and he Discussion and conclusions. Ma ja Uusi alo ook pa in planning he su ey and
e iewed he li e a u e on landscape e alua ion me hods.
Con lic o In e es
The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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