sys ems
Concep Pape
New Resou ce-Wise Planning S a egies o Sma
U ban-Ru al De elopmen in Finland
Emilia Rönkkö 1,*, Anna Luusua 1, Ee a Aa e aa a 2, Aulikki He neoja 1and Toi o Muilu 3
1Oulu School o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Oulu, Oulu FI-90014, Finland; [email p o ec ed] (A.L.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.H.)
2Facul y o Technology, Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Lah i FI-15110, Finland; ee a.aa [email p o ec ed]
3Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e (Luke), Economics and Socie y, Oulu FI-90014, Finland; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +358-44-9763-620
Academic Edi o s: Ch is ina Kakde i, Nicos Komninos and Panagio is Tsa chopoulos
Recei ed: 28 No embe 2016; Accep ed: 2 Feb ua y 2017; Published: 7 Feb ua y 2017
Abs ac :
This a icle discusses he oppo uni ies and challenges o esou ce-wise de elopmen
s a egies in egional planning. Spa ial planning in eg a es he key aspec s, anspo a ion, housing,
and ood p oduc ion which a e, on many occasions, s a ed as he mos signi ican consump ion ac o s
causing en i onmen al impac s. In ligh o he challenges ha egions a e cu en ly acing in Finland,
we a e d awing a en ion o he ole o s a egic spa ial planning as demand- esponsi e esou ce
managemen , a heme which is s ill inadequa ely add essed wi hin egional de elopmen and
planning in Finland. In many o he ields o socie y, inno a i e da a-based p oduc s and demand- and
use -d i en se ices a e conside ed impo an sou ces o success in he u u e. Such s a egies combine
di e en ypes o se ice p o ide s, like deli e ies o g oce ies o es au an meals, mobile heal hca e
se ices, o public anspo wi h on-demand se ices. We highligh he ac ha a egionally
la ge and spa sely popula ed coun y, such as Finland, canno achie e success solely h ough
cen alisa ion. Ins ead, sma ne wo king, co-c ea ion, and inno a i e cybe -physical solu ions
a e i al o he u ilisa ion o he en i e coun y’s esou ce po en iali y. In conclusion, we unde pin he
need o a amewo k, which would o e a s a egic suppo scheme o esou ce-wise de elopmen ,
esou ce op imiza ion, and closu e o yield gaps. In ou iew i is necessa y o begin o en ision,
s a egise, and de elop use - and demand- esponsi e de elopmen s a egies wi h a speci ic aim o
sus ainable, esou ce-wise ways o li e in no he n egions, also ou side he g owing u ban cen es,
and inno a e solu ions ha help indi iduals, communi ies, and he whole socie y o enew and
manage esou ces wisely.
Keywo ds:
esou ce-wise spa ial planning; on-demand economy; u ban- u al in eg a ion; co-c ea ion
1. In oduc ion
I is a well-known ac ha mos pa s o No he n and Eas e n Finland a e aca ing almos a
he same speed as he sou he n me opoli an egion is g owing [
1
]. This (p esumably ine i able)
endency has gained much a en ion in he Finnish media, and he a gumen a ion o me opoli an
de elopmen as an o e all gain o he en i e coun y is suppo ed by many ad oca es who see he
oppo uni ies his b ings o sec o s, such as he housing cons uc ion indus y, o ins ance. In ligh
o he global mega ends, such as in ensi ied compe i ion o esou ces and g owing p essu es on
sus ainable esou ce managemen o ecosys ems in he no h [
2
], we see his pola isa ion as p oblema ic.
In ou opinion, a coun y as egionally la ge and spa sely popula ed as Finland canno achie e success
solely h ough cen alisa ion. Ins ead, sma ne wo king and in eg a ed local solu ions a e i al o
he u ilisa ion o he en i e coun y’s esou ces (especially bioeconomy- ela ed), which a e ine i ably
geog aphically sca e ed. In case o sudden changes in he global ma ke s and g owing in e es owa ds
Sys ems 2017,5, 10; doi:10.3390/sys ems5010010 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sys ems
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 2 o 12
he esou ce- ich a eas in he pe iphe al no h, planning au ho i ies a e o en unable o e icien ly
espond o si ua ions whe e adap a ion is necessa y, due o ei he indus y closu es o new eme ging
p ojec s and in es men s ela ed o bioeconomy o ex ac i e indus ies, o example. This may ei he
lead o a conside able delay, o e en cancella ion, o he p ojec s, o launching la ge-scale p ojec s
wi hou conside ing adequa ely hei impac s, as wi nessed in some ecen cases in Finland.
In his concep pape , we a e p oposing an idea o esou ce-wise and demand- esponsi e planning
s a egies in he egional con ex . We a e ou lining his amewo k o egions which McCann and
O ega-A gilés call in e media e u ban- u al egions [
3
], bu also hose mo e pe iphe al u al a eas
wi h only a ew u ban cen es, and a la ge numbe o smalle u al locali ies. Acco ding o a Finnish
classi ica ion sys em o locali ies [
4
], u al locali ies, u al inge se lemen s, middle-sized u al
locali ies and small u al locali ies ha e a o al popula ion o 1.5 million people, which is ca. 27% o
Finland’s popula ion.
We a e, hus, e e sing he scale and scope o he discussion on esou ce-wise planning s a egies
om ci y- egions o he egional ne wo k o locali ies conside ed as he on ie o sus ainable g ow h.
Founded on he sys ems way o hinking, and emphasising sma ne wo king, he e a e simila i ies
in ou app oach o he sma specialisa ion s a egies. Howe e , in e ms o he mos emo e and
less p ospe ous egions, pa e ns o specialised di e si ica ion ha allow hese egions o ac ually
di e si y and no specialise a e mo e easible han a ge ed specializa ion [
3
]. As an answe o he
c i icism owa ds he clus e -based and sec o al emphasis o he sma specialisa ion concep , he e
has been a mo e gene al shi in policy hinking owa ds c oss-cu ing open inno a ion pla o ms [
5
,
6
].
Such pla o ms, o inno a ion ecosys ems, a e buil on place-based policies acili a ing a ange o
pa ne ships and b inging di e en esou ces—people, knowledge, and asse s— oge he ac oss he
egional and local municipali y scales.
In addi ion o ocusing on he egional con ex , we also sugges ha esou ce-wise s a egies
should os e close ma ching be ween he supply o di e en esou ces and he egion’s sho -,
medium-, o long- e m demand. The e o e we will alo ise he possibili ies o esou ce-wise egional
s a egies and planning om he pe spec i e o he new eme ging economies, such as pee - o-pee ,
he sha ing economy, and he on-demand economy, which a e changing indus ies and ci ies in a
mobile- i s wo ld [7] E en hough ou pape is concep -o ien ed and deals wi h he a o emen ioned
issues on a heo e ical le el, he pape also d aws on he analysis o policy and planning documen s,
and eigh in e iews wi h key ac o s in he Sou h Sa o egion ca ied ou in 2016. The seconda y aim
o his a icle is o b ie ly e lec on u u e esea ch needs dealing wi h u al de elopmen in Finland,
and he eby se a u he agenda o de elop esou ce-wise planning s a egies in p ac ice. In o de o
b ing his deba e on o he poli ical agenda, we ha e, oge he wi h he Regional Council o Sou h Sa o,
made an ini ia i e o he Finland Cen ena y P og amme, o o ganise a semina named “Finland100—a
hund ed Finnish u al locali ies” in sp ing 2017.
Consis ing o di e en a eal ypologies [
4
] such as he g owing u ban cen es, pe i-u ban a eas
cha ac e ised by expanding commu e bel s, and he u al hin e land wi h an ageing popula ion and
in economic decline, he cu en challenges con on ed by he Finnish egions di e signi ican ly,
no only
in e ms o hei compe ences, bu also in e ms o hei po en ial e olu iona y ajec o ies.
The u banisa ion
p ocess in Finland is o ela i ely ecen o igin, ha ing s a ed in he 1960s.
Some egions had signi ican g ow h as ecen ly as in he 1970s and 1980s, bu subsequen impac s
on economic de elopmen ha e ende ed he p ospec s o u al a eas mos ly nega i e [
8
] (p. 362).
Today, we can see how echnological, and e en go e nmen al, s uc u es can change apidly, while
physically-buil s uc u es change slowly. Ou p e ious case s udies in he “Finnish u al communi ies
in he 2010s” esea ch p ojec , execu ed in 2013–2015, desc ibed he majo challenges hese communi ies
ace ega ding se ices and in as uc u e in pa icula . In many small- and medium-sized u al
se lemen s, he communi y s uc u e is p edominan ly in a s a e o pe manen incomple eness,
due o
mode nis ic planning wi h o e op imis ic g ow h expec a ions ha ha e no been ealised [
9
]
(
p. 30
). The acancy a e in comme cial and public eal es a es is a g owing p oblem, as he s a e
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 3 o 12
go e nmen and se ices ha e wi hd awn om u al a eas. Digi alisa ion and cybe -physical sys ems
a e conside ed o be he me hod o sol ing his lack o physical p esence o se ices. A la ge po ion
o se ices can, and will, be p o ided digi ally, which is bo h sped up and necessi a ed by echnological
inno a ion and diminishing esou ces, espec i ely [
10
]. Ye , in e ms o physical planning, o saking
he ideal o con inuous g ow h has been di icul o achie e.
In u ban de elopmen and planning, he pa adigm o con inuous g ow h and p og ess has had
a ious o ms, also in e ms o sus ainabili y, anging om ecological mode nism, o new u banism and
sma g ow h. Due o esou ce deple ion and clima e change, esou ce e iciency has become e en mo e
impo an . Likewise, he concep o esilience has also made i s way in o he ields o en i onmen al
managemen , egional de elopmen , and s a egic planning. Resilience and obus ness a e undeniably
impo an ea u es o egional in as uc u e in no he n la i udes, whe e he abili y o main ain i al
sys ems, such as oads, ood supply, wa e , o ene gy se ices in all ci cums ances is c ucial. In spi e
o hei popula i y, hese concep s ha e also aced c i icism, mainly due o hei na ow ocus and
na u al scien i ic o ien a ion [
11
]. Newly-eme ged, mo e holis ic concep s, such as socio-ecological
esilience, a gue in a ou o “people and na u e as in e dependen sys ems” which may change,
adap , o ans o m in esponse o s esses and s ains. Da oudi e al. ha e also called his app oach
e olu iona y esilience [
12
], which means ha os e ing esilience in ol es cul i a ing p epa edness,
as well as planning o eco e y om shocks. Such concep ual amewo ks place a cen al ole o he
capaci y o indi iduals and communi ies o lea n, meaning ha complex adap i e socio-ecological
sys ems can become mo e o less esilien depending on hei social lea ning capaci y [
12
]. In a simila
manne , he concep o esou ce wisdom has been sugges ed as a b oade , mo e holis ic aming o
he sus ainabili y issues; i is de ined as he abili y o use di e en kinds o esou ces (such as na u al
esou ces, aw ma e ials, ene gy, p oduc s, se ices, space, and ime) in a manne ha bene i s bo h
human well-being and sus ainable g ow h [
13
,
14
]. In o he wo ds, esou ce wisdom goes beyond
using esou ces e icien ly; i is a holis ic app oach o wise esou ce managemen .
In he sma ci y esea ch communi y, simila e minological econcep ualisa ions ha e mani es ed
hemsel es in he call o wise ci ies (as opposed o me ely “sma ” ones; e.g., [
15
]). In pas
decades, ci ies ha ha e adop ed he sma o wise ci y label ha e emphasised di e en aspec s,
om e-go e nance o en i onmen al sus ainabili y and IT indus ies. In ou iew, i is impo an
o unde s and ha he inno a ions ha ci ies and egions need in he 21s cen u y can be bo h
ma e ial and imma e ial, o cul u al and echnological [
16
]. Indeed, hese ca ego isa ions, hemsel es,
a e a he a bi a y, as echnology, o example, is so deeply ing ained in socie ies. Ye , we a gue,
hese inno a ions mus be oo ed in exis ing p ac ices o u ban and u al li e.
Wha we ind s iking is ha di e en app oaches ega ding sus ainable g ow h ha e conce ned
almos exclusi ely co e ci y- egions, and o e looked he po en iali y o u al locali ies as ne wo ked
uni s which could acili a e esou ce supply and demand locally. Small and medium-sized u al
popula ion cen es a e, hence, he mos neglec ed scale o inqui y in e ms o sus ainable esou ce
managemen , e en hough many ea u es ac ually uphold he idea ha hey can, also in e ms o hei
sui able size, be well- i ed in many ypes o local sel -suppo ing ene gy se ice o en i onmen al
echnology solu ions [
17
]. In u n, densi ica ion has been adop ed as he main s a egy o sus ainabili y,
and as he cen al dogma o u ban planning and policy-making in he 21s cen u y in Finland.
Mos p ac ical s udies ha e deal wi h ci ies, and egion-wide cases al oge he a e ew. One o
he excep ions is he wo k done by he Finnish Inno a ion Fund Si a and he ci y o Jy äskylä,
who ha e been he o e unne s in de eloping a scalable de elopmen s a egy o esou ce wisdom.
Thei join p ojec called “Towa ds esou ce wisdom” p oduced a ange o p ac ical ials p oposed by
local esiden s and pilo s ela ed o ac i i ies such as he educ ion o ood was e, a ic and housing,
which we e implemen ed [
18
] Si a has also been de eloping and pilo ing a egional esou ce low
ne wo k model [
13
]. Howe e , he e is a need o add ess esou ce-wise de elopmen mo e widely,
bo h in ci ies and u al locali ies, in egions which do no possess signi ican physical ma e ial lows
o g ow h.
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 4 o 12
2. The Need o an In eg a ed Resou ce Managemen Model
Spa ial planning in eg a es he key aspec s, anspo a ion, housing, and ood p oduc ion,
which a e
, on many occasions, s a ed as he mos signi ican consump ion ac o s causing
en i onmen al impac s. In o de o in eg a e planning and coo dina ion a di e en le els o
go e nmen , he s a e has u ged u ban egions o compile join s a egic plans based on g ow h
ag eemen s. These a e called LHT (o MAL in Finnish)—ag eemen s, which in eg a e land use,
housing, and anspo a ion planning and, ecen ly, also se ice and economic de elopmen planning.
In hese ag eemen s, he s a e in es men s, especially in majo anspo in a p ojec s, a e used o
encou age municipali ies’ s a egic coope a ion [
19
]. The unde lying p emise is ha g owing u ban
egions a e ega ded as engines o Finnish economic g ow h and, a he same ime, his cen alising
de elopmen helps cu b clima e change. Finnish na ional inno a ion p og ammes since he mid-1990s,
such as OSKE, INKA, and he Six Ci y S a egy, ha e s eng hened his “hub” logic by speci ically
a ge ing ci y- egions as opposed o wide egional co e age [
5
]. Acco dingly, he shi owa ds
na ional con ol o inno a ion s a egies has led o a u he cen alisa ion and made i ha de o ailo
in e en ions o speci ic egional needs. This, in u n, has a ou ed space-neu al “excellence” a he
cos o place-based de elopmen [
5
]. As a consequence, non-s a u o y s a egic planning ins umen s
ha e become popula in u ban ci y- egions [20].
Challenges iden i ied wi h he in o mal s a egic planning and i s ela ion o he s a u o y planning
sys em in Finland a e ela ed, o ins ance, o p oblems o legi imacy and pa icipa ion, and legisla i e
demands ( o a ho ough analysis on he pa adox o s a egic spa ial planning, see [
20
]). Wha we
a e highligh ing in his con ex is he enden ious u ban aming and geog aphical delinea ion o
he s a egic planning p ocedu es. Focused on u ban and dynamic ci y- egions, hey ail o add ess
he “o he hal ” o he egional esou ce po en iali y which, in many cases, is elying on na u al
esou ces and is highly embedded wi hin he egion. These challenges we e demons a ed in a pilo
s udy, which he Uni e si y o Oulu and he egional council o Sou h Sa o ealised in 2016. Ou aim
was o examine he ole o s a egic, egional land use planning in e ms o i s s ee ing powe and
scalabili y o municipali y-le el planning. Ou ini ial hypo hesis was ha he “se ice chain” om he
egional planning le el o local mas e planning and u he down o he building pe mission phase is
mo e sepa a e han one ha is based on a join s a egic ision. Acco dingly, di e en egional and
municipal au ho i ies and go e nmen bodies handle spa ial planning issues case-by-case h ough he
con en ional and legal-adminis a i e planning ju isdic ion.
Ou in e es was di ec ed owa ds Sou h Sa o, because he egion has been among hose su e ing
he mos om depopula ion and demog aphic changes, while, a he same ime, he egion possesses a
wide ange o ma e ial and imma e ial esou ces. The e o e, i also p o ides an in e es ing case o hink
he possibili ies o sma , scalable, and egionally- ailo ed esou ce-wise s a egies ou side g owing
ci y- egions. In he sma specialisa ion s a egy o Sou h Sa o [
21
] op a eas o inno a ion a e amed
as he o es -based bioeconomy, clean wa e and en i onmen al sa e y echnologies, and sma and
unc ional ma e ials. In addi ion, digi al managemen o da a and in o ma ion and o ganic p oduc ion
and ood sa e y inno a ions a e conside ed de eloping a eas o inno a ion. Howe e , he s a egy and
he selec ed p io i y domains a e a he ypically ounded on na ow indus ial sec o s. By compa ison,
in one o he g ow h a eas in Finland, Pi kanmaa, he egional s a egy [
5
] is based on he so-called
g ow h ecosys ems and pla o m-based u ban de elopmen . The g ow h ecosys ems iden i ied, such
as sma mobili y, sma housing and in as uc u e, and indus y enewal, e lec exis ing s eng hs
and a e unde pinned by key enabling echnologies, s a egic ini ia i es, and esou ces iden i ied in
he a eas.
In e es ingly, he egional plan o Sou h Sa o (2010), and especially he second-phase upda e
plan wai ing o be accep ed, di e om mos o he egional plans in Finland, which a e, mo e o less,
cha ac e ised by comp ehensi eness and zoning o ien a ion. P o iding s a egic con en and gi ing
mo e eedom o ac ion o he lowe le el plans, he egional plan has al eady aken he i s s ep
owa ds accommoda ing al e na i e longe - e m de elopmen scena ios wi h necessa y lexibili y,
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 5 o 12
as sugges ed by Män ysalo e al. [
16
]. Fu he mo e, he egional council has been excep ionally ac i e
in highligh ing he ole o smalle u al cen es as a de elopmen po en ial o he egion [
22
]. Based
on eigh in e iews wi h key egional and municipali y-le el planning au ho i ies, and a quali a i e
con en analysis o he planning documen s, we we e able o d aw conclusions o he con o mi y and
scalabili y o he s a egic de elopmen objec i es in he case o Sou h Sa o. The semi-s uc u ed
in e iews concen a ed on examining he ole, p ecision, and o m o he egional plan wi hin he
s a u o y planning sys em on he one hand and, on he o he hand, alo ising he d a ing p ocess
o a s uc u al scheme o he Mikkeli ci y- egion. Gene ally, he egional au ho i ies saw he ole
o he egional plan as impo an o p o ec ing he na u al and cul u al alues. As a consequence,
hey also p esumed accu acy and legisla i e powe in he iden i ica ion and conse a ion o hese
alues. Due o his, e y de ailed su eys a e equi ed, which p olongs he p ocess. The o ice s
wo king o he ci y o Mikkeli conside ed he egional plan as a slow and ine icien ins umen o
espond o he in es men needs o he business wo ld. Pa adoxically, he plan mus be highly accu a e
in pinpoin ing na u al and cul u al alues bu , a he same ime, i should be a s a egic ins umen .
Con lic si ua ions be ween di e en planning ie s we e mos ly ela ed o ec ea ional needs and
lakesho e a eas, which a e an abundan esou ce in Sou h Sa o. Municipali ies may wish o deploy
hese asse s o building si es, whe eas egional au ho i ies a ou hei p ese a ion as ec ea ion a eas.
A a he su p ising no ion was ha building s ee ing was no ega ded as a necessa y ask o he
egional plan. To conclude, mos in e iewees we e in a ou ha he ole and pu pose o he egional
plan ough o be e ised. As one o he in e iewees s a ed: “Regions such as Sou h Sa o do no bene i
much om he egional plan. I he e is no building needs, he e is no need o plans ei he . Unnecessa y planning
ie s ough o be abolished”.
Following he egional plan app o ed in 2010, ci y- egional s a egic objec i es we e ou lined
in a s uc u al scheme wo k ini ia ed in 2012 by Mikkeli, he p o incial capi al ci y o Sou h Sa o.
Ou in e iews e ealed ha he s uc u al scheme wo k was conside ed a sepa a e wo k om
he s a u o y planning p ocess. Mo eo e , he planning o g ow h-ideology was explici ly shown
in he p ocess, which ocused on dis ibu ing possibili ies a he han op imising and p io i ising
he de elopmen objec i es. Reluc ance owa ds in eg a ed coo dina ion easily c ea es o e lapping
unc ions and land ese es, o e sized in es men s and su plus o se ices, which is e y p oblema ic
in e ms o wise esou ce managemen . Wi hou he poli ical will, he e o s o ini ia e coope a ion
be ween municipali ies ha e sligh chances o success in a consensus-o ien ed dialogue [
20
]. The lack
o selec i eness, o e -op imis ic expec a ions o g ow h, and a endency o pa ial op imisa ion
hinde ed he achie emen o a clea s a egic ocus and made he planning au ho i ies ques ion he
applicabili y o such a non-s a u o y planning ins umen in Sou h Sa o. None heless, he pu pose
o in e ac ion, b ains o ming, and collabo a i e isioning we e well-se ed by he scena io wo king
p ocess, and he planning au ho i ies conside ed he p ocess mo e impo an han he ou come.
Seeking o compa e he con o mi y o he s a egic objec i es o he s uc u al scheme and egional
plan in he local planning le el, we addi ionally conduc ed a p ac ice-based s udy in he ( o me )
municipali y o Ris iina [
23
]. D a ing a place-based de elopmen scena io o a u al locali y, we
wan ed o show an al e na i e de elopmen pa h o he one p oposed by he new municipal-le el
s a egic mas e plan, which posi ions Ris iina as one o he subu bs o he Mikkeli ci y- egion. In ou
iew, os e ing such pe i-u banisa ion de elopmen is agains he ansi ion o a esou ce-wise socie y.
Howe e , we a e no dep ecia ing he impo ance o he s uc u al schemes o g ow h ag eemen s in
ci y- egions, as such, bu like o sugges an app oach ha emb aces a mo e open-ended ecosys em
de elopmen app oach, which also p omo es s a egic planning hemes o he wide egional ne wo k.
Ecosys em acili a ion and a pla o m-based app oach o inno a ion suppo can be conside ed as
b eeding g ounds o new o ms o coope a ion, which each ou o go e nmen , ma ke s and ci il
socie y. Abo e all, os e ing esou ce-wise u ban- u al de elopmen p esumes inno a i e o ms o
coope a ion. The need o such “u ban- u al pa ne ships” has been ecognised o a long ime [
24
,
25
],
bu he p ac ical implemen a ion s ill seeks a o m. The need o a sys ems app oach is also ecognised

Sys ems 2017,5, 10 6 o 12
in ecosys em-based adap a ion s a egies, which ha e ecen ly a ac ed inc easing a en ion among
u ban planning (see, e.g., [
26
–
29
]). Na u al and cul u al ecosys em se ices a e, hence, conside ed
as pa o an o e all adap a ion s a egy ha helps people and communi ies adap o he nega i e
e ec s o clima e change. A he local le el, iden i ying collec i ely acknowledged oppo uni ies
eme ging om in o mal a e ma ke s and sha ing economy os e ed by digi alisa ion is essen ial.
People, ins ead o ins i u ional o ganisa ions, will make hings happen, which is in many espec s
enabled by digi alisa ion; i can employ he a ailable, bu hidden, esou ces o people, commodi ies,
and skills in new ways.
3. Demand-Responsi e Regional Ecosys ems in he Focus o Spa ial Planning
Re lec ing on he a o emen ioned discon inui y o s a egic objec i es and o e all u ban- u al
disin eg a ion, we b ing o h he idea o demand- esponsi e esou ce managemen in spa ial planning.
This p epa edness deno es ansi ion om s a ic and op-down d i en spa ial planning app oaches o a
mo e dynamic, use -cen ed, and an icipa o y p ocesses. One o he challenges is cu en ly he limi ed
knowledge base on egional ne wo k capaci ies, which b ings o h he need o geo-spa ial da a
isualising he ecosys em esou ce supply and demand ma ching and yield gaps (compa e, e.g., [
30
]).
Howe e , pa icula ly in smalle u al locali ies, he e is a lack o esou ces o p oducing such a
knowledge base o planning. The e o e, a egional dashboa d- ype en i onmen al moni o ing sys em
is needed wi h in eg a ion o open da a and c owdsou cing.
Resou ce managemen based on dynamic da a on egional ne wo k capaci ies should co e
he unc ional, physical, sensed, and li ed aspec s o he en i onmen . Func ional and economic
esou ces consis ing o local supply, business, coope a i es, and se ices, which a e o en globally
ne wo ked, o m he basis o he economic igou o egions. In u n, ma e ial esou ces and
in as uc u e ha e a signi ican ole in enabling o impeding ce ain unc ions, ac i i y and e en
beha iou . Addi ionally, esou ce-wise communi ies and egions should be e ecognise he a ac ion
esou ce po en iali y and “sensescape esou ces” as pa o hei s a egic planning and esou ce
managemen . Fo ins ance, egions such as Sou h Sa o o e a wide ange o ec ea ional possibili ies
and socio-cul u al, comme cial, and public se ices o whole- ime and pa - ime esiden s and ou is s.
Finally, esou ce-wise egions a e socially inclusi e, acknowledging ha quali y o li e, people, and
cul u al esou ces a e he mos aluable asse s in os e ing c ea i i y and inno a ion [14,31,32].
A bes , demand- esponsi e and esou ce-wise planning s a egies could inc ease he
compe i i eness and sel -su iciency o egions, os e he u ilisa ion o a whole coun y’s esou ce
po en iali y, and imp o e adap a ion capaci y o sudden and un o eseen changes, e.g., in he global
ma ke s o poli ics. They ope a e on ood p oduc ion, sma a ic, housing, and he buil en i onmen
in a manne which is i mly linked o he u ilisa ion o digi al se ice ope a ions. The use -d i en
app oach is, he e o e, conside ed cen al. In his ega d, esou ce wisdom could also be de ined
as “jus in ime”—deli e y o se ices and goods, whe e esou ce loss and was e a e minimised.
This is p o oundly connec ed o he idea o he ci cula economy [
33
]. As we know, globally and
na ionally, he si ua ion ega ding, e.g., ood was e, is ala ming [
34
]. In he ollowing pa ag aphs,
we will b ie ly desc ibe how esou ce-wise planning s a egies ela e o demand- esponsi e ood
p oduc ion om he pe spec i e o local ood supply (e.g., local ood ci cles) and al e na i e ood
ne wo ks [
35
], as well as ood sys em localisa ion [
36
,
37
]. Secondly, demand- esponsi e anspo a ion
solu ions a e looked om he Mobili y as a Se ice pe spec i e, which is a o m o anspo a ion
cha ac e ised by lexible ou ing, sha ed- ide modes, and pick-up and d op-o loca ions acco ding
o he passenge ’s needs [
38
]. Thi dly, esou ce-wise s a egies a e conside ed om he iewpoin o
demand- esponsi e housing de elopmen .
3.1. Demand-Responsi e Food P oduc ion
As he ma ke and demand o o ganic p oduc s, culina y ou ism, and heal hy, high-quali y,
ag icul u al p oduc s has apidly g own, ood supply chains and hei ole in egional de elopmen
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 7 o 12
ha e been s udied bo h in he con ex o u al a eas [
39
] and in u ban con ex s [
40
]. The supply
o local ood, and pa icula ly o local o ganic ood, does no ha e a la ge sha e o g oce ies in
gene al, hough consume s also in he ci ies a e willing o ind al e na i e ways o ge wha hey wan .
Ren ing e al. [
35
] ha e speci ied di e en ypes o al e na i e ood ne wo ks. In hei s udy hey
speci ically discuss sho ood supply chains (SFSC), such as o ganic a ming, quali y p oduc ion,
and di ec selling. Acco ding o he Wo ldwa ch Ins i u e [
41
], he in e na ional success o di ec
ma ke ing channels o ood o consume s, sugges ing ha he e is s ong suppo o local ood
sys ems. In Finland, so-called REKO (Rejäl Konsum ion, Fai Consump ion) g oups ha e ecen ly
become e y popula in la ge ci ies, bu also in smalle municipali ies. Howe e , his ype o ade
elies on specialised consume s and ac i e a me s, and limi ed accessibili y o consume s in u al
a eas educes oppo uni ies o g ow h [
42
]. Fo una ely, success ul examples ha e eme ged,
such as
Lunchie o ResQ, which a e mobile se ices media ing be ween consume s and local es au an s
selling low-cos excess ood, which would o he wise be was e. Ano he example is he MunaEggsP ess,
also known as “EggTaxi” in Sou hwes Finland, whe e a local henhouse en ep eneu ci cula es daily a
ou e no i ied in ad ance, accu a ely ul illing he cus ome s’ demand. In such models o acquisi ion
was e is minimised because he p oduc s a e o de ed be o ehand. Despi e he complex egula ion
bu eauc acy, egions and municipali ies in Finland ha e an un e ealed capaci y o supply local ood
o be consumed in hei own egion [42] (pp. 96–98). This would equi e be e egional coo dina ion
ega ding logis ics, acili ies, and se ices. A majo hind ance o on-demand solu ions, especially
conce ning esh p oduc s in a spa sely popula ed coun y, is logis ics. A he same ime he e a e
g oups and indi iduals, such as loco o es (whose die s consis mainly o locally p oduced oods u s),
who al eady use wha e e in o ma ion echnology is a ailable o hem in c ea i e ways o suppo
and help hem ne wo k, un hei businesses, o conduc daily cho es a ound hese issues. In e ms o
demand- esponsi e egional ecosys ems, i is impo an o ha ness he knowledge o hese people o
inno a e new ways o p oducing, ma ke ing, and dis ibu ing ood in spa sely popula ed u al egions.
3.2. Demand-Responsi e T ansi
Demand- esponsi e anspo solu ions a e enabled by digi al solu ions and openly a ailable
da a. Resou ce wisdom is os e ed, o ins ance, h ough he use o inno a i e p ocu emen ,
such as ini ia i es in commissioning new elec ic ca s o buses. De elopmen o on-demand use
o anspo a ion is e y much jus i ied, as he a e age ime ha a ca is pa ked is s agge ingly o e
90%. Ci ies and egions a e ying o sol e he challenge o suppo ing public ansi , encou aging
he esiden s o swi ch om ca s o buses, ains, and ligh a ic. Designing ex ensi e cycling ou e
ne wo ks p omo es non- ehicle-based anspo a ion in communi ies o all sizes [
43
]. Howe e ,
many u al a eas lack public anspo a ion, al hough success ul expe iences ha e ecen ly been
achie ed by on-demand anspo a ion se ice expe imen s, also in a small scale. Demand- esponsi e
anspo a ion solu ions (DRT) a e desc ibed as an ad anced, use -o ien ed o m o anspo a ion
cha ac e ised by lexible ou ing and scheduling o ehicles ope a ing in sha ed- ide mode be ween
pick-up and d op-o loca ions acco ding o he passenge ’s needs. DRT aims a join ly op imising
cos , se ice, and en i onmen al pe o mance [
44
]. A he momen he concep o anspo a ion
is ans o ming in o a se ice, whe e he en i e anspo a ion sys em is buil upon use - and
se ice-d i en hinking. S a -ups like Tuup and Whim a e examples o he Finnish MaaS (Mobili y as
a Se ice) concep [
45
], which gi e people ins an access o ul illing hei mobili y needs om ca s o
axis, buses, ains, and bike sha ing. T anspo is also conside ed a means o sha ing economy whe e
ca pools o an pools can be a ailable o ci izens in di e en kinds o en i onmen s. In an u ban
con ex he land use and anspo a ion in e ac ion is a c ucial ques ion. I has been concluded ha he
densely-buil u ban a eas, an a ac i e en i onmen , a walkable ci y, and a easonable amoun o open
public spaces, combined wi h e icien public anspo , c ea e success ul en i onmen s om bo h
pe spec i es. As a con adic ion, u ban sp awl is ound o be a mos unwan ed phenomenon which
main ains he use o p i a e ehicles [
46
]. On he o he hand, mode n in o ma ion and communica ion
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 8 o 12
echnology p o ides di e en scena ios dealing wi h li ing en i onmen s and se lemen s uc u es.
Wi h he help o ICT, he possible li ing places can be chosen mo e eely, conside ing indi idual
p e e ences and li es yles. Acco ding o Mokh a ian e al. [
47
], ICT could e en acili a e a shi o mo e
decen alised land-use pa e ns. In any case, he need o ib an smalle and la ge cen es will endu e
wi h he changes in anspo a ion, because hese mixed land-use and human-scale en i onmen s
p o ide mul i unc ional en i onmen s ha a ac inhabi an s, e ail, and se ices [46].
3.3. Demand-Responsi e Housing
As he Sma Ci y concep has linked new digi al echnologies o he de elopmen o he buil
en i onmen , he e a e s ill se e al challenges ela ed o he managemen and use o da a in na ional,
egional, and p ope y-speci ic planning. A he na ional and egional le els, p epa edness o changing
housing needs and p e e ences, op imising housing p o ision, and de elopmen p io i ies has been
di icul . A he momen we a e wi nessing a mig a ion wa e om u al a eas o u ban ci y- egions,
simila o he 1960s in Finland. This aises many ques ions ela ed o esou ce alloca ion, eadap a ion
and use o he exis ing buil in as uc u e, which co e s 74% o ou na ional weal h [
48
]. In he u u e
people migh p e e housing (and communi ies) ha combine he bene i s o u al and u ban li ing
wi h a ubiqui ous access o se ices enabled by IoT, such as on-demand medica e, and despi e he
ad ancing u banisa ion, he e a e also people who migh be called “neo u alis s”, o p oponen s o
he LOHAS-li es yle, in e es ed in heal h and sus ainabili y and ha ing second, o e en hi d, homes
in u al a eas. In knowledge-based economies, indus ies compe e o he bes wo ke s, and hei
loca ion decisions migh , in he u u e, be ela ed o he li es yle p e e ences o he key s a , who ha e
demands o a clean en i onmen , access o na u e, good schools, o low conges ion [
16
] (p. 40). On he
o he hand, e ec i ely esponding o he inc easing demand o “solo-li ing”, due o he demog aphic
changes, is ano he ques ion. In he sha ing economy, housing can be a sha ed esou ce o he e ogenic
g oups o senio s, young amilies, and s uden s ha ing di e en needs, such as companionship,
childca e help, and a o dable li ing. In some Eu opean examples, coope a i e housing models ha e
managed o lowe he en o housing by up o 50% [
49
] (p. 19). Cu en ly, such housing models a e
ma ginally examined in Finland. As s a ed ea lie , he absence o p epa edness o demand-o ien ed
ype o hinking has been e iden in Finnish spa ial planning p ocesses. I is es ima ed ha one million
homes a e “w ongly” loca ed, especially in Eas e n and No he n Finland [
50
] (p. 16). This means
ha du ing he las 25 yea s e e y ou h home has been buil in an a ea whe e he popula ion is
declining [
51
]. The esale alue o his p ope y can be p ac ically ze o. On he o he end o he scale,
in o de o espond o ising p ices in u ban a eas whe e demand is he highes , housing supply should
be inc eased. New houses and apa men s in he g owing u ban a eas emain inaccessible o he pa
o he popula ion ha would ac ually need i , howe e . In u n, his unbalance may mean ha u ban
sp awl will, none heless, con inue in hose a eas.
4. Discussion
This pape has p o ided ini ial hough s on esou ce-wise egional planning s a egies, which
could o e a long- e m suppo scheme o egions in he ace o majo s uc u al adjus men s,
and enable demand- esponsi e solu ions a he local le el. As Män ysalo e al. ha e pu i , he
mo e schema ic, “highe ” le els o planning would be gi en he ask o accommoda ing al e na i e
longe - e m de elopmen scena ios wi h necessa y lexibili y in he de ailed planning le el [
20
].
Such p epa edness is imely due o he en i onmen al and demog aphic challenges in he no he n
egions. One could expec ha clima e change and he g owing global demand o na u al esou ces
changes he ocus o s a egic spa ial planning owa ds sus ainable managemen o enewable esou ces
and he bioeconomy. Mo eo e , global sus ainabili y challenges oblige us o answe he ques ion o
how we can sha e bo h ma e ial and imma e ial esou ces wisely in he u u e.
Fo cen u ies, esou ce wisdom has been an inhe en ea u e o communi ies. Managemen o
esou ces has been based on he supply and demand o limi ed esou ces o land, wa e , ene gy,
Sys ems 2017,5, 10 9 o 12
and ood. Sha ing had a key ole in communi ies’ su i al and p ospe i y. Usually people had no
choice bu o be esou ce-wise. (Howe e , as Campbell [
52
] (p. 297) poin s ou , one should no
o e - oman icize he p e-indus ial o indigenous communi ies due o limi ed mode n applicabili y).
Since hose days, much o he p e iously sel -e iden and in insic esou ce wisdom (“mo e o less”
p inciple) has been los in ou e a o p ospe i y. The gene a ions bo n a e he wa hus con inue o
possess many esou ce-wise p ac ices and skills. These skills a e disappea ing a an ala ming a e
due o u banisa ion and adop ion o new li es yles, howe e . A he same ime, a g owing g oup o
people a e pu suing a sus ainable way o li e olun a ily. Ano he g oup is o med by indi iduals
ha a e o ced o cope wi h sca ce esou ces, such as he unemployed o immig an s. In o de o
build sus ainable communi ies and include he di e se g oups in esou ce-wise planning and policy
decisions, i is impo an o iden i y hese g oups and hei p ac ices. This equi es no el me hodologies
o sha ed in o ma ion p oduc ion and co-design, which eckon he a ious o ms and p e e ences
o pa icipa ion and encou age open e lec ion and a c i ical a i ude o pa icipan s [
53
]. Planning
inclusion also inc eases he le el o commi men ha di e en g oups o people ha e o hei own
li ing en i onmen , [
25
] which could also enhance en i onmen al esponsi eness. Resou ce-wise
s a egies op o win-win si ua ions: e.g., he selec ion o one’s a ic mode has a di ec in luence on
ca bon dioxide emissions and indi idual heal h. Impo an ly, esou ce wisdom calls o indi idual
changes in beha iou , and no me ely changes in he physical su oundings [54].
The ise o he on-demand and sha ing economies a e e olu ionising ou consump ion beha iou
and a i udes owa ds owning hings, o example. The concep o owne ship si s well o sca ci y
managemen , while sha ing wo ks be e o he in o ma ion-based wo ld [
55
]. In gene al, we will
see inc eased demand o imma e ial asse s, such as da a, in o ma ion, and cul u e, and g owing
app ecia ion o unique hings and expe iences ins ead o buying mo e o he same [
16
] (p. 81).
Re hinking esou ce wisdom in e ms o demand- esponsi e anspo a ion, housing, o ood
p oduc ion ne wo ks could e olu ionise he u u e o ou egions. Socie y’s abili y o enew and
manage esou ces wisely p e equisi es p ospe ous alliances be ween u ban and u al a eas, ins ead o
ie cely compe ing agains each o he .
Making e iden he implica ions o he p oposed ideas o spa ial planning p ocesses, and whe he
hey can be de eloped in o egional s a egies o change, would equi e a g ea deal o u he esea ch
e o . To begin wi h, ou planning sys em is s ill igid and op-down d i en, al hough we ha e
made p og ess du ing he las i een yea s owa ds a mo e people-o ien ed app oach. Secondly,
he scope o s a egic planning and s uc u al schemes ounded on me hodological u banism and
g ow h makes s a egic planning ins umen s mainly applicable on s eng hening he u ban s uc u e
o ci y- egions. The unbalance is e iden , as u al and pe iphe al a eas a e o en seen as esou ce
deposi s b inging well-being o ci ies. Thi dly, as concep s, esou ce-wisdom, as well as sus ainabili y,
a e mobile a ge s [
52
] (p. 132), and he in ended goals will no be achie ed jus by adding he e m
“sus ainable” o “ esou ce-wise” o planning documen s [
56
] (p. 302). Ul ima ely, wha is equi ed
a e plans ha a e lexible in e ms o changing ci cums ances, s ic enough o he i age and na u e
conse a ion, and agile enough o espond o business needs. Based on s a ic da a and in en o ies,
e en long- e m spa ial planning is, in a way, an ex apola ion om he pas , which is mo e conce ned
wi h ixed goals han mul i-objec i e p oblem sol ing. This also poses he ques ion o whe he and o
wha ex en s a egic, long- e m planning is e en possible in highly dynamic con ex s, and o wha
ex en i is e en needed in declining egions. Based on ou no ions, he p oblem wi h egional s a egies
seems o be ha hey op imis ically sha e “e e y hing o e e yone”. Ins ead, hei ocus should be in
iden i ica ion, p io i isa ion, and op imisa ion o di e en esou ce ne wo ks and hei co e age and
accessibili y, including bo h u ban and u al a eas.
The u u e challenges necessi a e ha we ha ness he po en iali y o en husias ic indi iduals and
g oups, ins ead o elying on go e nmen al ins i u ions o ake ca e o hings. The e has been much
alk on he un apped esou ce o young people, bu he same goes o immig an s and senio ci izens,
as well. This does no imply ha we should make he dange ous mis ake o seeing people as a esou ce