The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, 4, 111-118 111
1874-3315/10 2010 Ben ham Open
Open Access
His o y and Use o Wood Py olysis Liquids as Biocide and Plan P o ec-
ion P oduc
Ka i Tiilikkala*,1, Leena Fage näs2 and Jasse Tiilikkala3
1MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, Plan P oduc ion, FIN-31600 Jokioinen, Finland; 2VTT Technical Resea ch Cen e o
Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland; 3Uni e si y o Tu ku, FI-20014 Tu ku, Finland
Abs ac : A cheological s udies ha e ound ha py olysis liquids we e al eady used in he ime o he Neande hal. Wood
inega and o he slow py olysis liquids a e p oduced as a by-p oduc o cha coal p oduc ion. Howe e , u u e business
ideas may be he o he way ound as py olysis liquids may eplace syn he ic chemicals in he o m o pes icides and
biocides.
Di ec i es and egula ions ela ed o he sus ainable use o pes icides go e n and di ec plan p o ec ion s a egies owa ds
a lowe use o syn he ic chemicals. I is hoped ha many mega ends o global policies will boos he use o plan based
p oduc s gi en ha a educed eliance on ossil uel is a gene al a ge in he global ood and eed p oduc ion economy.
Py olysis echnology has been ac i ely s udied and de eloped a ound he wo ld and is linked o he de elopmen o he
knowledge based bio-economy. The impo ance and social impac o py olysis echnologies will also be enhanced
because i is a p ac icable echnique in he sus ainable use o was es and biomasses. Howe e , e y li le scien i ic e i-
dence is a ailable o suppo e icacy claims o wood inega and oxicology assessmen s o he p oduc s used. Wood a
has been in es iga ed a bi mo e ho oughly. The aim o his e iew was o cla i y he po en ial o slow py olysis liquids
in ag icul u al use, in pa icula , in pes icide applica ions. In addi ion, some o he main challenges in de eloping no el
bio con ol echnologies a e discussed and he ba ie s in he comme cializa ion o biological con ol agen s a e e ealed.
Keywo ds: Wood inega , py oligneous acid, wood a oil, essen ial oil, bio a ional, pes icide, biocide, wood p ese a i e,
slow py olysis, biocha , knowledge based bio-economy.
1. BACKGROUND
Globally changing pes icide policies and in eg a ed pes
managemen p og ams (IPM) aim o educe pes icide isks
on he en i onmen and human heal h. I has been clea ly
s a ed ha he haza ds o heal h and he en i onmen om
he use o pes icides mus be minimized and dependence on
chemical con ol needs o be educed. In Eu ope, a hema ic
s a egy on he sus ainable use o pes icides was adop ed in
2006 by he Eu opean Commission [1] and as such, a new
di ec i e was pu in o o ce in 2009 [2]. Replacemen o syn-
he ic chemicals wi h “al e na i e plan p o ec ion ech-
niques” has been men ioned in nume ous policy documen s
ela ed o he use o pes icides [3].
The highes demand on na u al pes icides is in he o -
ganic a ming whe e syn he ic chemicals canno be used o
plan p o ec ion [4, 5]. In Eu ope, eplacemen o chemicals
wi h biological con ol agen s has been slow bu in Asia and
he USA, bo anical pes icides ha e al eady been placed on
he ma ke as g een chemicals [6]. A he same ime o in-
c easing Eu opean en i onmen al conce n, he de elopmen
o he Knowledge Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) concep
clea ly highligh s ha p oduc s o plan cells could eplace
*Add ess co espondence o his au ho a he MTT Ag i ood Resea ch
Finland, Plan P oduc ion, FIN-31600 Jokioinen, Finland;
Tel: +358400986172; Fax: +358341882584;
E-mail: ka i. iilikkala@m . i
syn he ic chemicals in he u u e and subs an ial esea ch
will be ocused on bio-economy and he de elopmen o
no el p oduc s [7].
One o he as g owing a eas o bio-business is based on
he use o py olysis echnologies. Cha coal (bio uel and bio-
cha ) has been he main p oduc o he con en ional py oly-
sis o a long ime in mos o he cases bu ecen ly by-
p oduc s o he p ocess (g een chemicals) ha e become mo e
and mo e impo an . Locally p oduced wood inega has
been used as a pes icide in coun ies whe e syn he ic chemi-
cals ha e no been a ailable, o whe e he p ice o he
chemicals has been oo high o small scale a me s. Glob-
ally, he need o minimize he en i onmen al isks esul ing
om pes icides leaching o g ound wa e and wa e ways has
bols e ed he use o wood inega as a biocide and pes icide
[8]. In spi e o pes icide p oduc ion, o he ac o s, such as he
p oduc ion o g een uel om ag icul u al and o es y esi-
dues ha e enhanced he g ow h o py olysis bio-business o
become an impo an pa o KBBE and chemical p oduc ion
[9].
In many o he Asian coun ies, he adi ion o u ilizing
bo anicals has a long his o y [10] and a ision o de elop
biobased business s a egies is one o he main s eams o
economic de elopmen [11, 12]. Despi e he long his o y o
py olysis use, only a limi ed numbe o e iew a icles o-
cused on py olysis liquids as pes icides o biocides we e
ound. In w i ing his e iew he mos use ul a icle ound
112 The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 Tiilikkala e al.
[13] gi es an o e iew o wood inega used as a biocide
and pes icide in ag icul u e, including plan p oduc ion and
p o ec ion as well as i s ole in animal husband y. This con-
e ence pape as many o he documen s, include examples
how o use wood inega bu do no include scien i ic e i-
dence o suppo all he examples.
Plan essen ial oils a e mo e ho oughly s udied as a pes-
icide han wood inega . Isman [14] p o ided a sou ce o
aluable in o ma ion wi h ega d o he use o essen ial oils
as an insec icide, ungicide, epellen , nema icide and bio-
he bicide. Heal h and en i onmen al impac s we e ackled as
well as comme cializa ion o essen ial oil-based pes icides.
The same au ho has also published a e iew a icle [15]
which demons a es he egula o y ba ie s o comme ciali-
za ion o bio-pes icides.
The aim o his pape was o cla i y he po en ial o slow
py olysis liquids in ag icul u al use, in pa icula , in pes icide
applica ions. The i s sec ion desc ibes sho ly he his o y o
py olysis and use o py olysis liquids and wood a in he
pas . The second sec ion ocuses on he e icacy o py olysis
liquids (wood inega ) used in ag icul u e o as biocide. The
las sec ion is a ision ela ed o KBBE, py olysis and use o
wood inega in plan p o ec ion.
TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS REVIEW
Py olysis
Py olysis is a he mal con e sion p ocess whe e he ma-
e ial is ea ed in an ine a mosphe e in he absence o ai o
oxygen wi h inal empe a u es o abou 500 ºC. The p ocess
yields solid cha (cha coal, biocha ), ola ile condensable
compounds (dis illa es) and non-condensable gases. Py oly-
sis can be slow o as depending on he p ocess.
Py olysis Oil
Py olysis oil, also called bio-oil, is he liquid p oduc
om as py olysis o biomass.
Wood Vinega , Py oligneous Acid
Py oligneous acid, also called wood inega o moku-
saku, is an aqueous liquid p oduced om slow py olysis o
ha dwood. The liquo is decan ed om sedimen a ion a .
Ta
Ta is da k, oily ma e ial p oduced by slow py olysis o
wood, coal, o pea . The a is sepa a ed om py olysis liq-
uids by sedimen a ion.
Pi ch
Ta can be ac iona ed in o a pi ch and a oils. Pi ch is
conside ed mo e solid han a .
Essen ial Oil
Essen ial oils a e p oduced om di e en plan s by
dis illa ion, exp ession o sol en ex ac ion. They a e con-
cen a ed, hyd ophobic liquids con aining ola ile a oma
compounds om plan s. Essen ial oils a e also known as
ola ile o e he eal oils, o simply as he "oil o " he plan
om which hey we e ex ac ed, such as oil o clo e.
Biopes icide
Ce ain ypes o pes icides de i ed om na u al e-
sou ces, such as animals, plan s, bac e ia, and ce ain mine -
als a e e e ed o as biopes icides. Fo example, canola oil
and baking soda can ha e pes icidal applica ions and may be
conside ed as biopes icides. The e m has been used also o
a li ing o ganism applied as an inunda i e biological con ol
agen o augmen a i e biological con ol agen .
Bio a ional Pes icide
A bio a ional pes icide is a chemical such as a oxin o
g ow h egula o de i ed om a li ing o ganism and applied
ei he as he en i e dead o ganism o as an ex ac om he
o ganism; o al e na i ely, he chemical o an analogue o i
syn hesized in i o. The use o bio a ional pes icides has
o en been classed as chemical con ol a he han biological
con ol as he e is no single o legally clea , de ini ion o he
wo d bio a ionals. The En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency
(EPA) iden i ies bio a ional pes icides as inhe en ly di e en
om con en ional pes icides, ha ing a undamen ally di e -
en mode o ac ion and consequen ly, lowe isks o ad e se
e ec s om hei use.
In he li e a u e he e ms o a ious py olysis liquids has
been used aguely and he in e na ional CAS (Chemical Ab-
s ac s Se ice) numbe s do no gi e s anda d basis o di -
e en ia ing wood inega o a oils made o wood o o he
plan ma e ial. This kind o obscu i y makes i di icul o
compa e esul s published by di e en au ho s.
2. HISTORY OF PYROLYSIS LIQUIDS
2.1. Ea ly His o y o Using Bi ch Ba k Pi ch
His o y o using and p oducing bi ch a da es back o he
Middle Palaeoli hic ime o Neande hal. The a was manu-
ac u ed by a he mal p ocess, p obably py olysis, om bi ch
ba k o yield pi ch. Bi ch ba k pi ch was used as adhesi e o
ha ools and weapons. The ea lies inds come om Ge -
many and I aly and a e es ima ed o be mo e han 80000
yea s old [16-18].
F om Mesoli hic (10000-5500 BC) and Neoli hic (5500-
2000 BC) dwelling si es in no he n Eu ope, he e is much
e idence o bi ch ba k pi ch lumps wi h human ee h imp es-
sions. I is no clea i he pi ch was used only o chewing
pu poses, o was i pa o manu ac u ing and p ocessing o
pi ch. The e is e hnog aphical e idence ha bi ch ba k pi ch
was used o cleaning and e eshing ee h. I is possible ha
pi ch was used o medical pu poses and ea ing den al con-
di ions [19, 20]. Onwa ds om he Neoli hic pe iod, bi ch
ba k pi ch was used as a uni e sal adhesi e and mas ic. I
was used o epai ing, wa e p oo ing and sealing ce amic
essels. I s usage and manu ac u ing was widesp ead in p e-
his o ic and medie al imes in Eu ope [21-23].
2.2. His o y o Py olysis Techniques
2.2.1. Slow Py olysis Techniques
In con en ional py olysis p ocesses, wood is slowly
hea ed up o he maximum empe a u e. Lowe p ocess em-
pe a u es (400 ºC) and longe apou esidence imes a ou
he p oduc ion o cha . Besides slow py olysis, o he e ms
His o y and Use o Wood Py olysis Liquids as Biocide The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 113
such as ca boniza ion, des uc i e dis illa ion, and d y dis il-
la ion a e used o his kind o he mal p ocess [24]. The
py olysis o wood was p obably human’s i s chemical
p ocess [25]. I is known o ha e been p ac iced by he an-
cien Chinese. The Egyp ians, G eeks, and Romans made
cha coal by wood ca boniza ion, and collec ed he condens-
able ola iles o embalming pu poses and o illing join s
in wooden ships.
The mos impo an p oduc o ca boniza ion is cha coal.
Indus ial ca bonisa ion is ca ied ou p edominan ly in la ge
e o s wi h capaci ies up o 100 m3 o wood [26]. The a e -
age p ac ical yields a e abou 35 w % o wood, and depend
on he wood species and wood size, ca boniza ion sys em,
p ocessing ime and inal empe a u e. Beech wood is he
dominan aw ma e ial o he p oduc ion o cha coal in
Eu ope. In addi ion, oak, ash, alde and maple a e used. In
No h Ame ica, he aw ma e ials include also hicko y, elm,
sycamo e and some so wood species. In he No dic coun-
ies mino amoun s o bi ch is used, and in Sou h Ame ica
and Sou h A ica, cha coal is p oduced mainly om ha d-
wood species o Eucalyp us.
Un il he la e 1800’s, wood ca boniza ion was he majo
py olysis p ocess, and supplied he inc easing amoun s o
cha coal ha we e equi ed o i on o e smel ing [25]. The
i on u naces in he USA used cha coal exclusi ely un il he
1840’s, and somewha la e he sha e o he i on ma ke p o-
duced wi h cha coal was inc easingly eplaced by ha o
coal and coke i on. By he 1900’s, des uc i e dis illa ion o
wood was p ac iced widely on a comme cial scale by hea ing
wood in closed e o s. The apou s p oduced we e con-
densed o gi e a (wood a o sedimen a ion a ) and an
aqueous laye (py oligneous acid). In he e o s abou he
same quan i y o he majo p oduc s cha coal and aw py-
oligneous liquo (c ude wood inega ) a e p oduced. This
liquo is i s se led and hen decan ed om he sedimen a-
ion a . The a can be ac iona ed in o a oils and a pi ch.
Raw py oligneous acid con ains p ima ily me hanol, ace ic
acid and soluble a . By he u n o he cen u y, wood was
he only sou ce o he la e chemicals.
The p edominan use o wood as he p incipal aw ma e-
ial o he o ganic chemicals indus y was sho -li ed [25].
Al e na i e p ocesses o he p oduc ion o ace one, ace ic
acid, and me hanol we e soon de eloped, and he pe o-
chemical indus y almos comple ely eplaced he wood dis-
illa es ma ke . Unde p esen condi ions, he p oduc ion o
hese chemicals om wood dis illa es is a ely economically
a ac i e in he Wes e n Hemisphe e. The es o he wo ld
s ill uses wood ca boniza ion o yield cha coal o hea ing,
cooking, and indus ial pu poses, while chemicals a e only
occasionally p oduced as by-p oduc s.
T adi ionally, cha coal was p oduced om wood using
cha coal piles, ea h kilns, o pi kilns [25, 27]. Ha dwood
was ca e ully s acked in a mound o pi a ound a cen al
channel, and hen co e ed wi h di , humus, moss, clay, o
sod. The p ocess was slow and i could ake abou 6 weeks
be o e comple ion. La e , pe manen kilns we e in oduced
p oducing highe yields o cha coal. B ick o mason y was
used o co e and con ain he wood du ing ca boniza ion,
and doo s we e used o cha ging wood and emo ing p od-
uc . Holes and chimneys we e op imally loca ed o egula e
ai low and discha ge lue gases. The e o u naces we e
la e de eloped o p oduce cha coal on a comme cial scale
and he eco e y o by-p oduc s was possible. Di e en dis-
con inuous and con inuous sys ems a e used. All comme cial
p ocesses ope a e a nea -a mosphe ic p essu e.
2.2.2. Des uc i e Dis illa ion o Pine
Des uc i e dis illa ion o pine wood was once o g ea
economic impo ance in he manu ac u e o na al s o es
[25]. Na al s o es included u pen ine, as well as pi ch, a ,
and esin, which we e indispensable in shipya ds o p o ec -
ing su aces and caulking seams o wooden ships. The de-
s uc i e dis illa ion p ocess o pine was simila o ha used
o ha dwoods, excep ha he p oduc s we e cha coal, u -
pen ine, pine oil, dipen ene, pine a , a oils, and pi ch.
Cha coal was p oduced as a by-p oduc esidue. So wood
dis illa ion gi es lowe yields o ace ic acid and me hanol
han ha dwood dis illa ion [24], he e o e longlea and slash
pine, especially in he o m o eco e ed s umps, we e a-
ou ed because o hei high esin con en .
2.2.3. Fas Py olysis
Since he oil p ice c isis in he ea ly and la e 1970’s, con-
side able e o has been di ec ed owa d he de elopmen o
p ocesses o p oducing liquid uels om biomass. Fas py-
olysis is one o he mos iable me hods o such con e sion
[28-31]. Du ing as py olysis, he biomass is apidly (1000
ºC/s) hea ed o abou 500 ºC du ing e y sho apou esi-
dence ime (< 2 s) and he apou s hen apidly cooled o
gi e a da k b own luid liquid called bio-oil, py olysis liquid
o py olysis oil. A ypical p oduc dis ibu ion o d y ba k-
ee wood is, on a e age, 64 w % o ganics, 12 w % py olysis
wa e , 12 w % cha , and 12 w % p oduc gas.
2.3. His o y o Wood Vinega and Ta as Pes icide
Use o plan de i a i es in ag icul u e da es back a leas
wo millennia in ancien China, Egyp , G eece and India.
Wood inega also has a long his o y and i has been used
daily, o example, in Japan as a esul o nume ous heal h
claims ela ed o he p oduc . Since he 1930’s, wood inega
has also been used in ag icul u e as a e ilize and g ow h-
p omo ing agen [32]. Al hough he wo d ancien , ela ed o
he use o wood inega , has been men ioned in many docu-
men s and on web pages i was di icul o ind good scien-
i ic e idence o a es he i s eco ds o wood inega used
as pes icide. P obably only ew documen s a e a ailable o
he in o ma ion has been w i en in languages and in coun-
ies di icul o each ia mode n in o ma ion e ie al.
3. EFFICACY AND USE OF WOOD VINEGAR IN
AGRICULTURAL USE
3.1. Chemical Composi ion o Wood Vinega
The cha ac e isa ion o liquid p oduc s om py olysis
has been con inued a long ime. The p oduc s con ain many
o ganic componen s and he composi ion is e y compli-
ca ed. Du ing he las wen y yea s he in e es has mainly
been ocused on he liquid p oduc om as py olysis.
Acco ding o li e a u e [24-26] he main o ganic compo-
nen s o wood inega a e me hanol and ace ic acid. O he
componen s a e ace one, me hyl ace one, ace aldehyde, allyl
alcohol, u an and u u al, and o mic, p opionic and bu y ic
114 The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 Tiilikkala e al.
acids. The se led a s can be ac iona ed in o ligh and
hea y oil ac ions. The o me consis s o aldehydes, ke-
ones, acids, and es e s. Va ious phenols, including a high
p opo ion o c esols and pi ch, a e p esen in he hea y oil
ac ion. The chemical composi ion, physical p ope ies and
uel oil quali y o as py olysis liquids ha e widely been
de eloped and desc ibed by Oasmaa e al. in many a icles
[29, 33-36].
3.2. E icacy o Wood Vinega as Pes icide
A ca e ul li e a u e sea ch on he e icacy o wood ine-
ga used as a pes icide indica ed ha only a limi ed numbe
o scien i ic publica ions a e a ailable and in many cases he
scien i ic e idence o he ma ke ed p oduc s is weak. How-
e e , wood inega has been widely used as pes icide based
on old adi ions and knowledge o use s and local p oduce s
[37].
3.2.1. Wood P ese a i e
Many con ol echnologies has been de eloped o inhibi
ungi ha cause discolo a ion on wood ma e ial. Velmu ugan
and co-au ho s [38, 39] ha e published scien i ic e idence
ha wood inega made om bamboo and b oad lea ed ees
we e e ec i e agains saps aining ungi a minimum concen-
a ions (0.10-1.0%). Resul s e ealed ha compounds o
Chikusaku-eki and Mokusaku-eki ma kedly inhibi ed ungal
g ow h bu he exac mode o ac ion o ac i e compounds
need o be s udied u he . Chikusaku-eki and Mokusaku-eki
ha e been epo ed o possess bo h an i ungal and an ioxi-
dan p ope ies as well as po en ial o be used as na u al p e-
se a i e in wood indus ies. Ex ac s a e easily a ailable,
inexpensi e and belie ed o be non- oxic o he en i onmen .
The same p oduc s ha e been used as disin ec ion, an ibac e-
ial and deodo iza ion ma e ials in ag icul u e and ho icul-
u e [40]. Howe e , Chikusaku-eki is mainly used as an
oin men o he ea men o scabies, eczema, a opic de ma-
i is and o he skin diseases [41]. Wood a also has po en ial
as a wood p ese a i e alone o as a componen o p ese a-
i es [42]. Nakai and co-wo ke s [43] epo ed ha py olysis
o wood and wood-based was es is conside ed o be one o
he p omising me hods o supplying cha coal as solid ma e-
ial and liquids con aining a numbe o aluable chemicals.
They a es ed ha some o py olysis chemicals may ha e
impo ance in de eloping new wood p ese a i es agains
ungal deg ada ion.
3.2.2. Fungicide
Many publica ions ci e ha py olysis liquids may be e -
ec i e ungicides in ag icul u al applica ions. The wood
inega s p oduced om biomasses such as inne coconu
shells, bamboo and Eucalyp us wood e ec i ely con olled
ungal g ow h. The an i ungal e iciency o wood inega s
was epo ed o be s ongly dependen on hei phenolic
compounds con en s [44]. Impo ance o phenolic compo-
nen s o inega py olysed om wood chips has also been
epo ed by Inoue e al. [45].
P elimina y esul s o a labo a o y expe imen in Finland
indica ed ha bi ch a oil may e ec i ely con ol g ow h o
po a o la e bligh ungi (Phy oph ho a in es ans) [46]. Fu -
he mo e, Jung [47] demons a ed ha py oligneous acid
exhibi ed an i ungal ac i i y agains some plan pa hogens.
He also concluded ha he acid can subs i u e a syn he ic
ungicide and he eby educe he use o ag ochemicals o
he con ol o Al e na ia blo ch o apple.
3.2.3. Repellen and Insec icide
Wood inega has been widely used o epel insec s om
plan s and households in Thailand [37] and i is easy o ind
py oligneous p oduc s ma ke ed on he In e ne as an insec
epellen . E icacy o wood inega as an insec epellen has
no been widely s udied o published and hus he scien i ic
e idence is minimal. Howe e , S ong [48] in 1973 epo ed
good esul s when whea seed we e ea ed wi h ha dwood
a oil o epel bi ds, oden s and insec s. Ha dwood oil was
also ound o be oxic o all he es ed insec s. Ve y simila
e ec s we e ound when py oligneous acid was used o
con olling insec s om swee co n plo s [49]. Wood a s
py olysed om alde , la ch and bi ch we e e ec i e epel-
len s o con ol o he ole (Cle h ionomys u ocanus bed-
o diae) in an expe imen in Japan [50]. In addi ion, scien-
i ic e idence epo ed in Finland demons a ed ha bi ch a
oil e ec i ely epelled slugs (A ion lusi anicus) and snails
(A an a a bus o um) [51].
The po en ial o bo anical oils o insec con ol is well
known [52] and bo anical insec icides ha e become inc eas-
ingly u ilized especially in de eloping coun ies [15]. Wood
inega exhibi ed high e mi icidal ac i i ies agains he
Japanese e mi e Re iculi e mes spe a us [53] and he
au ho s concluded ha an o ho subs i uen o phenol played
an impo an ole in e mi icidal ac i i y. P elimina y in es-
iga ion in G eece showed ha one sp ay applica ion wi h
bi ch a oil (1% / aq solu ion) killed 95% o aphids
(Myzus pe sicae) on egg plan in a g eenhouse expe imen .
The esul s o a p ojec [54] in Finland e ealed ha he
bi ch a oil may epel egg laying psyllids (T ioza apicalis)
bu no lies (Delia lo alis). Bee les and mi es could no be
con olled wi h he oil and i was also non- oxic o p eda o y
mi es (Amblysius). In o ma ion on wood inega applica ion
wi h husband ies sugges s epellence o lies, ick and leas
and killing o ex e nal pa asi es [13].
3.2.4. Wood Vinega as He bicide and Plan G ow h En-
hance
Essen ial oils a e known o be e ec i e he bicides [55].
Simila ly bi ch a oil has shown a he bicidal e ec on nu-
me ous species o weeds [56]. A p elimina y ield expe i-
men indica ed ha py olysis liquids made o bi ch wood can
be used o he con ol o b oad lea ed weeds [57]. Howe e ,
he e is a lack o scien i ic e idence o p o e he e icacy o
inega o wood inega as he bicide and as such highligh s
ha mo e esea ch is needed o jus i y all he claims ound
ia a Web sea ch, i.e. wood inega a high concen a ions
can kill plan cells and low doses may s imula e plan
g ow h.
Field expe imen s conduc ed in China ha e shown ha
wood inega , made om biomass esidues, can be used as a
olia e ilize imp o ing he yield and quali y o cele y
[58]. A mix u e o cha coal (biocha ) and py oligneous acid
has also shown o enhance soil e ili y and he g ow h o
bedding plan s [59]. Bamboo inega is known o simula e
plan g ow h depending on he py olysis empe a u e [60].
T ea men s wi h bamboo inega ha e also demons a ed an
inc ease in ege able g ow h [61]. O he s udies ha e con-
cluded ha wood inega in o ganic a ming can ha e a a i-
His o y and Use o Wood Py olysis Liquids as Biocide The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 115
e y o applica ions, including pes con ol, imp o ing soil
e ili y, and plan g ow h p omo e o inhibi o . A subs an-
ial numbe o claims ha e been p esen ed in he o m o
comme cial ad e isemen s, which indica es ha mo e e-
sea ch is u gen ly needed o imp o e he scien i ic basis o
he use o wood inega in ag icul u e.
3.2.5. Wood Vinega as Feed-S u
I has been sugges ed ha wood inega can imp o e he
pe o mance o weanling pigs by imp o ing he nu ien di-
ges ibili y and educing ha m ul in es inal coli o ms. Mo eo-
e , he pe o mance o pigs ed wi h wood inega was
ound o be be e han hose ed wi h o ganic acid [62].
Feeding o cal es can be ac i a ed wi h cha coal con aining
wood inega . The inega liquid called Nekka-Rich showed
an ip o ozoan ac i i y agains C yp ospi idosis pa um oo-
cys s. Cal es ha we e ed milk en iched wi h Nekka-Rich
showed eco e y om dia hea 1 d a e he s a o ea -
men [63]. Mix u e o cha coal and wood inega was
p o ed o be use ul as an aqua eed [64] as well as a use ul
componen in chicken eed [65].
3.3. Toxicology o Py olysis Liquids
Coal a has been used o de ma ological condi ions o
mo e ha 2000 yea s, bu also many publica ions e e o he
use o wood a . Ta oin men s ha e been used in he ea -
men o pso iasis, scabies, sa coidosis and de ma i is [66].
Many kinds o aw ma e ials (coal, wood, o es y and ag i-
cul u al was es) ha e been used o a making and hus,
quali y and composi ion o py olysis liquids used in oxico-
logical es s has been a iable. Ca cinogenici y o medicinal
oin men s con aining c ude oil, pe oleum p oduc s, coal a
o wood a has been s udied since 1963 and he heal h isks
associa ed ha e been epo ed in se e al documen s [67, 68].
Occupa ional s udies ha e demons a ed he ca cinogenic
e ec s o a , howe e , epidemiologic s udies do no con i m
simila ou comes when used opically [66]. In mos o he
epo s demons a ing nega i e impac s o a s he ac i e
ing edien has been coal a [69]. Due o indi idual manu ac-
u ing echniques, a s di e in chemical composi ion and as
a esul , he oxicological s udies a e di e gen [70].
E idence o wood inega oxici y is lacking because i
has no been as widely s udied as a p oduc s. Howe e ,
Kimu a and co-wo ke s [41] ha e epo ed ha one o he
mos widely used wood inega Chikusaku-eki did no ac as
umo p omo e . Thus, chikusaku-eki was no ca cino-
genic/co-ca cinogenic in he in i o cell ans o ma ion as-
say a e being dilu ed mo e han 104- old wi h wa e .
The in o ma ion ound does no ully suppo he oxico-
logical isk analysis o biopes icides made o wood inega
because mos o he published in o ma ion is based on da a
collec ed om expe imen s whe e a (coal and wood based)
p oduc s ha e been used o smoo h skin in en ionally. The
same kind o ea men s ha e seldom been ca ied ou wi h
wood inega and only a ely wi h syn he ic pes icides. Thus
also compa ison o wood inega oxici y o pes icide oxic-
i y is ague. Toxicological assessmen o wood inega
should be pe o med speci ically o e e y plan species,
aking accoun he impac o py olysis echnique on he
chemical composi ion o he liquid.
3.4. Eco oxicology
Hagne e al. [71] concluded ha a bi ch a oil (a mix-
u e o wood inega and bi ch a ) showed no consis en ,
di ec nega i e e ec s on enchy aeid wo ms, nema odes o
soil mic obial biomass when used a concen a ions be ween
500-1360 L ha1. Ins ead, 100% bi ch a oil (5001360 L
ha1) showed a posi i e e ec on mic obial ac i i y immedi-
a ely a e applica ion, sugges ing ha eadily u ilized sub-
s ances in he oil we e apidly consumed by mic obes. Fu -
he mo e, he high LC50 alue o he ea hwo m A. caligi-
nosa indica ed ha he oil was p ac ically non- oxic o
ea hwo ms.
The in luence o cha coal and smoke condensa es, i.e.
py oligneous acid (PA), on mic obial ac i i y in a highly
wea he ed Amazonian upland soil was assessed ia meas-
u emen s o basal espi a ion (BR), subs a e-induced espi-
a ion (SIR), and exponen ial popula ion inc ease a e sub-
s a e addi ion. I was obse ed ha BR, mic obial biomass,
popula ion g ow h and he mic obe's e iciency inc eased
linea ly and signi ican ly wi h inc easing cha coal concen a-
ions (50, 100 and 150 g kg-1 soil). Applica ion o PA caused
a sha p inc ease in all pa ame e s. Fu he mo e, i was con-
cluded ha he condensa es om smoke con ain easily de-
g adable subs ances and only small amoun s o inhibi o y
agen s, which could be u ilized by he mic obes o hei
me abolism [72].
I has been ound ha aqua ic o ganisms appea o be
a iably esponsi e o bi ch a oil bu he oil is much less
oxic o mos aqua ic o ganisms han, o example,
Mala hion o Glyphosa e. Hagne e al. [73] concluded ha a
wide ange o aqua ic o ganisms a e, o some ex en , sensi-
i e o he bi ch a oil bu i does no pose a se e e haza d o
aqua ic bio a. Simila ly, plan essen ial oils ha e been dem-
ons a ed o be en i onmen ally iendly.
3.5. Wood Vinega Ma ke
Py olysis liquid om as py olysis is a easible al e na-
i e in eplacing ossil uels in Eu opean pulp and pape in-
dus y [74, 75]. The Eu opean pulp and pape indus y has a
po en ial o build up o 50 py olyze s in eg a ed o luidised
bed boile s. In he sho - e m, py olysis oil ma ke is in uel
oil and na u al gas eplacemen in lime kilns and boile s,
while long- e m RTD is ocused on anspo a ion uels.
The only comme cial applica ion o as py olysis is
s ill, howe e , he Red A ow P oduc s Company plan s p o-
ducing ood la ou ings, he capaci y being a ound 1 h-1
[76]. In eg a ed ene gy and chemical p oduc ion plan s a e
now ecognised as ha ing conside able po en ial o maxi-
mising economic iabili y o he as py olysis plan s.
In Japan, he biocha ma ke is de eloping e y as and
may boos he p oduc ion and use o wood inega in ag i-
cul u e. Respec i ely, plans o de elop an eco own concep
will ac as a d i ing o ce s imula ing he use o ca boniza-
ion as an elemen o en i onmen al echnologies.
The global ma ke alue o pes icides was es ima ed in
he yea 2000 a 32 billion US$, wi h he sha e o de eloping
coun ies a ound 3 billion US$ [77]. Biological con ol
p oduc s ha e 2-3% o he wo ld-wide annual u no e o
plan p o ec ion p oduc s [78]. The ma ke o biopes icides

116 The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 Tiilikkala e al.
and bio a ionals began apidly inc ease in he USA by he
end o 1999, when EcoSMART Technologies egis e ed o e
a dozen p oduc s [14]. The bio a ionals da a base [79] does
no include wood inega which may indica e ha in many
coun ies he comme cializa ion o bo anicals has been o-
cused on essen ial oils mo e han on py olysis liquids.
In Asia, he wood inega ma ke is de eloping di e -
en ly. Cu en ly, 189 wood inega p oduc s ha e been lis ed
on a comme cial home page o which 128 come om China.
The wood inega based pes icide ma ke is e y p og essi e
in Japan and in nume ous o he Asian coun ies such as
Thailand, Cambodia, and China.
The egis a ion p ocedu e o pes icides di e s be ween
coun ies and as a consequence, py olysis liquids ha e been
lis ed di e en ly. In he USA, inega has been lis ed as a
minimum isk pes icide bu no wood inega . Pine a oil
has been egis e ed o pes icide use in he USA, Aus alia,
New Zealand, Hunga y, and Canada, whe e as a acid oil is
only egis e ed in Aus alia, India, New Zealand and he
Uni ed Kingdom. Junipe a has been lis ed o use only in
New Zealand. In Eu ope, he wood inega ma ke is no
compa able o he Asian ma ke .
4. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
4.1. Suppo ing Fac o s o he Use o Wood Vinega
A p esen , many d i ing ac o s suppo he de elopmen
o biological plan p o ec ion echnologies and use o wood
inega as a pes icide. En i onmen al conce n ela ed o
widesp ead use o syn he ic pes icides is one o he suppo -
ing ac o s, as well as he global policy o di e si y he use
o o ganic was e as bio uel and sou ces o g een chemicals.
Py olysis echnology may o e a “g eene ” solu ion o
p oduce ene gy and chemicals using local esou ces: plan
ma e ial, labou and sola ene gy abso bed by plan cells –
he ac o y o g een chemicals. Bo h FAO and WHO ha e
s eng hened he discussion on he global need o minimize
eliance on ossil uels as well as he need o imp o e ood
and eed p oduc ion based on locally a ailable esou ces.
Acco ding o he new EU egula ion, p oduc s and sub-
s ances o plan o igin a e eligible o au ho isa ion as plan
p o ec ion p oduc s in o ganic a ming [80].
In Eu ope, he concep o he KBBE launched by he EU
as a la ge scale change o economy may challenge he ossil
uel economy in he long un. Wood inega p oduc ion and
he de elopmen o bo anical based IPM echnologies could
be one di ec ion o KBBE de elopmen i he inno a i e
de elopmen o biological con ol echnologies can be eco-
nomically wo hwhile o all kinds o pes icide p oduce s.
One c i ical elemen in he use o bo anicals will be he
a ailabili y o plan biomass and he quali y o he supply
chains logis ics [15]. Renewable wood ma e ial and biologi-
cal was es a e a ailable in many pa s o he wo ld [11] and a
la ge wood biomass supply chain could suppo py olysis
i ms, o example, in no he n Eu ope [81].
4.2. Challenges
Ou conclusions on he u iliza ion o wood inega as a
u u e pes icide a e indeed simila o hose published al eady
in he yea 2000 by Isman [14] and we can ully concu wi h
he sugges ions lis ed in he inal epo o he REBECA p o-
jec [82].
In Eu ope, he comme cializa ion o biological con ol
agen s including wood inega is p ac ically impossible o
small o medium en e p ises (SME) i he egis a ion p oce-
du e, de eloped o he egis a ion o syn he ic chemicals,
canno be modi ied as sugges ed in he REBECA epo [82].
Howe e , aims o mul iply he use o “al e na i e con ol
echniques” as desc ibed in he newly accep ed EU di ec i e
[2] and he egula ion [3] may be di icul o achie e in p ac-
ice. A wo s , a conside able loss o ime and money om
SMEs and esea ch ins i u ions will occu and he inal e-
sul s will be a lis o inno a i e bio a ional publica ions cou-
pled wi h bank up SMEs looking o in es in o he business
a eas.
Ou side o Eu ope he de elopmen o bio a ionals will
be somewha di e en . In he USA, comme cializa ion o
essen ial oils has p o ed ha i migh be ealis ic o each o
biocon ol ma ke leade ship - as some companies ha e al-
eady a ge ed [14, 15]. Simila ly, he wood inega ma ke
will de elop as in Japan, China, India, Thailand, and all he
coun ies ha ing long adi ion on he use o slow py olysis
echniques o cha coal making.
Based on he li e a u e e iew i can be concluded ha
he chemical composi ion o wood inega p oduc s is no
well known and he mode o ac ion as a pes icide is unclea .
This comes e en hough se e al s udies highligh i as an
e icacious p oduc ha has low eco oxicological impac s.
Fu he mo e, none o he p esen ly used syn he ic pes icides
has such a long ouble- ee his o y in ag icul u al p ac ices
as wood inega in many o he Asian coun ies whe e i is
u ilized. I seems ob ious ha he eplacemen o syn he ic
pes icides wi h bio a ionals will be a slow p ocess wo ld-
wide, excep pe haps in de eloping coun ies whe e small
scale a me s ha e almos no hing else o use o o eplace i
wi h. In Eu ope, wood inega could be one o “ he sub-
s ances which may be o alue o plan p o ec ion” as was
desc ibed in he new EU egula ion [3]. Howe e , eplace-
men o syn he ic pes icides wi h wood inega is possible
only i ba ie s o es ain he comme cializa ion o plan
based p oduc s will be lowe [83] and he egis a ion sys em
o biological con ol agen s will ollow he sugges ions ou -
lined in he REBECA p ojec [78, 82].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The au ho s wish o hank Si ima So nsuwan, Rauno Lai-
alainen and Tais o Jaakola o helping o ge in o ma ion
om Mozambique, Thailand and o he Asian coun ies. Fi-
nancial suppo was p o ided by Tekes, he Finnish Funding
Agency o Technology and Inno a ion.
REFERENCES
[1] Sus ainable use o pes icides. Eu opean Commission, En i onmen ,
Chemicals, Plan p o ec ion P oduc s 2009 [upda ed 2009 June 16;
ci ed 2009 Oc 19]. A ailable om: h p://ec.eu opa.eu/en i on-
men /ppps/home.h m
[2] The Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council. Es ablishing a ame-
wo k o communi y ac ion o achie e he sus ainable use o pes i-
cides. Di ec i e o he Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council 2009.
[3] The Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council. Regula ion o he Eu o-
pean Pa liamen and he Council conce ning he placing o plan
His o y and Use o Wood Py olysis Liquids as Biocide The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 117
p o ec ion p oduc s on he ma ke and epealing Council Di ec i es
79/117/EEC and 91/414/EEC 2009.
[4] FAO Council. Repo o he wen y- i s session o he commi ee
on ag icul u e (COAG), Rome, Ap il 22-25, 2009.
[5] GoodPlane . In o. Food and Ag icul u e. When FAO o esees an
o ganic u u e [ci ed 2009 Oc 13]. A ailable om:
h p://www.goodplane .in o/goodplane /index.php/eng/Con enu/Poi
n s-de- ues/When-FAO- o sees-an-o ganic- u u e/( heme)/3105
[6] EcoSMART Technologies. Finally sa e and e ec i e insec icide
o he g een ma ke [home page on he In e ne ] [ci ed
2009 Oc 10]. A ailable om: h p://www.ecosma .com/comme c-
ial/de aul .asp
[7] Eu opean Commission. Towa ds a Eu opean knowledge-based
bioeconomy. Wo kshop conclusion on he use o plan bio echnol-
ogy o he p oduc ion o indus ial bio-based p oduc s. Yo k Uni-
e si y 2004 [ci ed 2009 Oc 19]. A ailable om: h p://ec.-
eu opa.eu/ esea ch/ag icul u e/pd / owa ds_know-based_bioecono-
my.pd
[8] Laemsak N. Wood Vinega , Slide P esen a ion, Wood & Pulp
Resea ch P og am Coo dina ing O ice, TRF Facul y o Fo es y,
Kase sa Uni e si y 2007; [ci ed 2009 Oc 19]. A ailable om:
h p://www. di.ku.ac. h/news_announce/ku di/Yea _48/15/Wood i
nega .pd
[9] New ene gy and uel. Py olysis goes comme cial scale [home page
on he In e ne ] 2009; [upda ed 2009 Ma ch 31; ci ed 2009
Oc 15]. A ailable om: h p://newene gyand uel.com/h p:/new-
ene gyand uel/com/2009/03/31/py olysis-goes-comme cial-scale/
[10] Schmid BM, Ribnicky DM, Lipsky PE, Raskin I. Re isi ing he
ancien concep o bo anical he apeu ics. Na Chem Biol 2007; 3:
360-6.
[11] Shuhua G. In e na ional Con e ence on Bioene gy U iliza ion and
En i onmen P o ec ion, 6 h LAMNET P ojec Wo kshop, Dalian,
China, Sep embe 24-26, 2003. Con e ence P oceedings. 2003;
[ci ed Oc 2009]. A ailable om: h p://www.bioene gy-lamne .-
o g/publica ions/sou ce/Lamne Publica ions/2-GuShuhua.pd
[12] Zhu X, Jiang H, Guo Q, Zhu Q. Biomass Py olysis and i s Po en ial
o China. In e na ional Con e ence on Bioene gy U iliza ion and
En i onmen P o ec ion - 6 h LAMNET P ojec Wo kshop, Dalian,
China, Sep embe 24-26, 2003. Wo kshop P oceedings 1. 2003;
[ci ed 2009 Oc 19]. A ailable om: h p://www.bioene gy-
lamne .o g/publica ions/sou ce/chi2/Session3-ZhuXi eng-
LAMNET-WS-Dalian-0309.pd
[13] App op ia e Technology Associa ion. Wood inega p oduc ion
and u iliza ion. Fi s Publica ion 2006.
[14] Isman MB. Plan essen ial oils o pes and disease managemen .
C op P o 2000; 19: 603-8.
[15] Isman MB. Bo anical insec icides, de e en s, and epellen s in
mode n ag icul u e and an inc easingly egula ed wo ld. Annu Re
En omol 2006; 51: 45-66.
[16] G ünbe g JM, G ae sch H, Baume U, Kolle J. Un e suchung de
mi elpaläoli hischen "Ha z es e" on Königsaue, Ldk . Asche sle-
ben-S aß u . Jah essch i ü Mi eldeu sche Vo geschich e 1999;
81: 7-38.
[17] Sau e F, G a A, Hame ne C, F öhlich J. S udies in o ganic a -
chaeome y III. P ehis o ic adhesi es: al e na i es o bi ch ba k
pi ch could be uled ou . ARKIVOC 2001; 21-4.
[18] Mazza PPA, Ma ini F, Sala B, e al. A new Palaeoli hic disco e y:
a -ha ed s one ools in a Eu opean Mid-Pleis ocene bone-bea ing
bed. J A chaeol Sci 2006; 33(9): 1310-8.
[19] Si elius UT. Suomen kansanomais a kul uu ia II. Helsinki, Kus-
anngsosakyh iö O a a, Finnish 1921; 50-1.
[20] A eling EM, He on C. Chewing a in he ea ly Holocene: an a -
chaeological and e hnog aphic e alua ion. An iqui y 1999; 73: 579-
84.
[21] Pesonen P. Te anpol on juu illa - koi u e an käy ö sa ias ian
ko jauksessa ki ikaudella. Tekniikan Waihei a. Finnish 1994; 1: 4-
7.
[22] Bon ield KM, He on C, Nemcek N. In: B zezinski W, Pio owski
W, Eds. The chemical cha ac e iza ion o wood a s in p ehis o ic
Eu ope: a case s udy om he Neoli hic o Sou he n Ge many. P o-
ceedings o he Fi s In e na ional Symposium on Wood Ta and
Pi ch, Wa szawa 1997.
[23] Lucquin A, Ma ch RJ, Cassen S. Analysis o adhe ing o ganic
esidues o wo "coupes-a-socles" om he Neoli hic une a y si e
"La Hougue Bie" in Je sey: e idences o bi ch ba k a u ilisa ion. J
A chaeol Sci 2007; 34: 704-10.
[24] Sjös öm E. Wood chemis y, undamen als and applica ions, 2nd
ed. San Diego: Academic P ess 1993; pp. 234-5.
[25] Golds ein IS. O ganic chemicals om biomass, Flo ida: CRC
P ess, Inc., 1983; pp. 64-95.
[26] Fengel D, Wegene G. Wood, chemis y, ul as uc u e, eac ions.
Be lin-New Yo k: Wal e de G uy e 1984; pp. 527-9.
[27] An al MJ J . The a , science, and echnology o cha coal p oduc-
ion, Ind Eng Chem Res 2003; 1619-40.
[28] Sco DS, Pisko z J. The lash py olysis o aspen-popla wood. Can
J Chem Eng 1982; 60: 666-74.
[29] Oasmaa A. Fuel oil quali y p ope ies o wood-based py olysis
liquids. Academic disse a ion, Resea ch Repo Se ies No. 99, De-
pa men o Chemis y, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, 2003;
32 p + app. 251 p.
[30] B idgwa e AV, Cze nik S, Diebold J, e al. Fas py olysis o bio-
mass: A Handbook. CPL P ess: Newbu y, UK 1999; p. 188.
[31] B idgwa e AV, Ed. Fas py olysis o biomass: A Handbook. CPL
P ess: Newbu y, UK 2002; ol. 2: p. 424.
[32] Mokusaku wood inega py oligneous acid, P oduc o e iew
[ci ed 2009 Oc 19]. A ailable om:
h p://www.doishou en.co.jp/english/page_english1/e_p oduc .h ml
[33] Oasmaa A, Meie D. Cha ac e isa ion, analysis, no ms & s anda ds.
In: B idgwa e AV. Ed. Fas Py olysis o Biomass: A Handbook.,
CPL P ess: Newbu y, UK 2005; Vol. 3: pp. 19-60.
[34] Oasmaa A, Peacocke C. A guide o physical p ope y cha ac e isa-
ion o biomass-de i ed as py olysis liquids. Technical Resea ch
Cen e o Finland, VTT Publica ions 450, Espoo, 2001; 65 p. +
app. 34 p.
[35] Sipilä K, Kuoppala E, Fage näs L, Oasmaa A. Cha ac e iza ion o
biomass-based lash py olysis oils. Biomass Bioene gy 1998;
14(2): 103-13.
[36] Fage näs L. Chemical and physical cha ac e isa ion o biomass-
based py olysis oils. Li e a u e e iew. VTT Resea ch No es 1706,
Espoo, 1995; 14(2): 103-13.
[37] Si ima So nsuwan, Thailand, pe sonal communica ion.
[38] Velmu ugan N, Chun SS, Han SS, Lee YS. Cha ac e iza ion o
chikusaku-eki and mokusaku-eki and i s inhibi o y e ec on sap-
s aining ungal g ow h in labo a o y scale. In J En i on Sci Tech-
nol 2009; 6(1): 13-22.
[39] Velmu ugan N, Han SS, Lee YS. An i ungal ac i i y o neu alized
wood inega wi h wa e ex ac s o Pinus densi lo a and Que cus
se a a saw dus s. In J En i on Res 2009; 3(2): 167-76.
[40] Imamu a E. An i-alle gy composi ion comp ising wood inega o
bamboo inega dis illed solu ion. Uni ed S a es pa en US
7214393. Augus 2007.
[41] Kimu a Y, Su o S, Ta suka M. E alua ion o ca cinogenic/co-
ca cinogenic ac i i y o chikusaku-eki a bamboo cha coal by-
p oduc used as olk emedy in BALAB/c 3T3 cells. Biol Pha m
Bull 2002; 25(8): 1026-9.
[42] Mazela B. Fungicidal alue o wood a om py olysis o ea ed
wood. Was e Manage 2007; 27: 461-5.
[43] Nakai T, Ka al N, Ha a T, Imamu a Y. Chemical cha ac e iza ion
o py olysis liquids o wood-based composi es and e alua ion o
hei bio-e iciency. Build En i on 2007; 42: 1236-41.
[44] Baima k Y, Niamsaa N. S udy on wood inega s o use as coagu-
la ing and an i ungal agen s on he p oduc ion o na u al ubbe
shee s. Biomass Bioene gy 2009; 33: 994-8.
[45] Inoue S, Ha a T, Imamu a Y, Meie D. Componen s and an i- ungal
e iciency o wood- inega -liquo p epped unde di e en ca boni-
za ion condi ions. Wood Res 2000; 87: 34-6.
[46] Tiilikkala K, Hannukkala A, Lipponen K, Tah onen R, Lalli I. In:
Tiilikkala K, Sege s ed M, Eds. An i ungal and an i-mic obial e -
ec o bi ch a oil (BTO). Koi u isle – kas insuojelun uusi inno-
aa io 2009; 143: 1-129 [ci ed 2009 Oc 20]. A ailable om:
h p://www.m . i/me /pd /me 143.pd
[47] Jung K-H. G ow h inhibi ion e ec o py oligneous acid on pa ho-
genic ungus, Al e na ia mali, he agen o Al e na ia blo ch o ap-
ple. Bio echnol Biop ocess Eng 2007; 12(3): 318-22.
[48] S ong RG. P o ec ion o whea seed wi h ha dwood a oil in a
Dus Fo mula ion. En i on En omol 1973; 2(6): 1126-7.
[49] Pangnako n U. U iliza ion o wood inega by-p oduc om Iwa e
kiln o o ganic ag icul u al sys em. Technology and Inno a ion o
Sus ainable De elopmen Con e ence (TISD2008) Facul y o En-
ginee ing, Khon Kaen Uni e si y, Thailand, Janua y 28-29, 2009.
118 The Open Ag icul u e Jou nal, 2010, Volume 4 Tiilikkala e al.
[50] O ihashi K, Kojima Y, Te azawa M. De e en e ec o osin and
wood a agains ba king by he g ay-sided ole (Cle h ionomys
u ocanus bed o diae). J Fo es Res 2001; 6: 191-6.
[51] Lindq is I, Lindq is B, Tiilikkala K, e al. Bi ch a oil is an
e ec i e mollusc epellen : ield and labo a o y expe imen s using
A ian a a bus o um (Gas opoda: Helicidae) and A ion lusi anicus
(Gas opoda: A ionidae). Ag ic Food Sci 2010; 19: 1-12.
[52] Regnaul -Roge C. The po en ial o bo anical essen ial oils o
insec pes con ol. In eg Pes Manage Re 1997; 2: 25-34.
[53] Ya agai M, Nishimo o M, Ho i K, Ohi a T, Shiba a A. Te mi icidal
ac i i y o wood inega , i s componen s and homologues. J Wood
Sci 2002; 48(4): 338-42.
[54] Lindq is I, Lindq is B, Tuo inen, e al. In: Tiilikkala K,
Sege s ed M, Eds. The po en ial o bo anical bi ch a oil o insec
pes con ol. Koi u isle – kas insuojelun uusi inno aa io 2009;
143: 1-129 [ci ed 2009 Oc 20]. A ailable om:
h p://www.m . i/me /pd /me 143.pd
[55] Two koski T. He bicide e ec s o essen ial oils. Weed Sci 2002;
50: 425–31.
[56] Salonen J, Tiilikkala K, Ruu unen P, Lindq is I, Lindq is B.
Bi ch Ta Oil: A Po en ial He bicide om he Fo es s o Finland.
In: Abs ac s o he 5 h In e na ional Weed Science Cong ess.
Weeds local p oblems/global challenge. Vancou e , B i ish Co-
lumbia, Canada: IWSS, June 23-27, 2008.
[57] Ruu unen P. E alua ion o bi ch oil dis illa e o weed con ol in
po a o. MTT Ag i ood Resea ch T ial epo , He bicides 2007; 1-
10 [ci ed 2009 Oc 20]. A ailable om:
h ps://po al.m . i/po al/page/po al/m _en/m / acili ies/ es ing_
PPs/ ial esul s/2007/he bicides_b oadlea ed_c ops/07He bP2.pd
[58] Wei QY, Liu GQ, Wei XM, Ma XXX, Dong L, Dong RJ. In luence
o wood inega as lea es e ilize on yield and quali y o cele y. J
China Ag ic Uni e si y 2009; 14(1): 89-92 [ci ed 2009 Oc 20].
A ailable om: h p://www.ilib2.com/A-ISSN~1007-
4333(2009)01-0089-04.h ml
[59] Kado a M, Niimi Y. E ec s o cha coal wi h py oligeneous acid
and ba nya d manu e on bedding plan s. Sci Ho ic 2004; 101: 327-
32.
[60] Mu J, Ueha a T, Fu uno T. E ec o bamboo inega on egula ion
o ge mina ion and adicle g ow h o seed plan s II: composi ion o
moso bamboo inega a di e en collec ion empe a u e and i s e -
ec s. J Wood Sci 2004; 50(5): 470-6.
[61] Mu J, Yu Z, Wu W, Wu Q. P elimina y s udy o applica ion e ec
o bamboo inega on ege able g ow h. Fo es S ud Chin 2006;
8(3): 43-7.
[62] Choi JH, Shinde PL, Kwon IK, Song YH, Chae BJ. E ec o wood
inega on he pe o mance, nu ien diges ibili y and in es inal mi-
c o lo a in weanling pigs. Asian Aus J Anim Sci 2009; 22(2): 267-
74.
[63] Wa a ai S, Koiwa M. Feeding ac i a ed cha coal om ba k con-
aining wood inega liquid (Nekka-Rich) is e ec i e as ea men
o C yp ospo idiosis in cal es. J Dai y Sci 2008; 91: 1458-63.
[64] Yoo JH, Ji SC, Jeong GS. E ec o die a y cha coal and wood
inega mix u e (CV82) on body composi ion o Oli e Flounde
Pa alich hys ali aceus. J Wo ld Aquac Soc 2007; 36(2): 203-8.
[65] Samanya M, Yamauchi K. Mo phological changes o he in es inal
illi chickens ed he die a y cha coal powde including wood
inega compounds. J Poul Sci 2001; 38: 289-301.
[66] Paghdal KV, Pha mD MD, Schwa z MD. Topical a . Back o he
u u e. J Am Acad De ma ol 2009; 61: 294-302.
[67] Se ko skaya GS. Ca cinogenici y o medicinal oin men s con ain-
ing c ude oil, pe oleum p oduc s, coal a , o wood a . Chem
Technol Fuels Oils 1997; 33(6): 368-72.
[68] Schoke B, Ho kay I, Kosa A, e al. Fo ma ion o DNA adduc s in
he skin o pso iasis pa ien s, in human skin, in o gan cul u e and in
mouse skin and lung ollowing opical applica ion o coal- a and
junipe a . J In es De ma ol 1990; 94: 241-6.
[69] Mukh a H, Link CM, Che niack E, Kushne DM, Bicke s DR.
E ec o opical applica ion o de ined cons i uen s o coal a on
skin and li e a yl hyd oca bon hyd oxylase and 7-e hoxycouma in
dee hylase ac i i ies. Toxicol Appl Pha macol 1982; 64(3): 541-9.
[70] Schmid MH, Ko ing HC. Coal a , pine a and sul ona ed shale oil
p epa a ions: compa a i e ac i i y, e icacy and sa e y. De ma olo-
gy 1996; 193: 1-5.
[71] Hagne M, Pasanen T, Lindq is B, e al. E ec s o bi ch a oils
on soil o ganisms and plan s. Ag ic Food Sci 2010; 19: 13-23.
[72] S eine C, Das KC, Ga cia M, Fo s e B, Zech W. Cha coal and
smoke ex ac s imula e he soil mic obial communi y in a highly
wea he ed xan hic Fe alsol. Pedobiologia 2008; 51(5-6): 359-66.
[73] Hagne M, Pen inen O-P, Pasanen T, Tiilikkala K, Se älä H. Acu e
oxici y o bi ch a oil on aqua ic o ganisms. Ag ic Food Sci 2010;
19: 24-33.
[74] Sipilä E, Vasa a P, Solan aus a Y, Sipilä K. Feasibili y and ma ke
po en ial o py olysis oils in he Eu opean pulp & pape indus y.
P oc. 15 h Eu opean Biomass Con e ence F om Resea ch o Ma -
ke Deploymen , Be lin, Ge many, May 7-11, 2007.
[75] B adley D. Eu opean ma ke s udy o bio-oil (py olysis oil), IEA
Bioene gy Task 40 – Bio ade, Dec 15, 2006.
[76] B idgwa e AV, Peacocke GVC. Fas py olysis p ocesses o bio-
mass. Renew Sus ain Ene gy Re 2000; 4: 1-73.
[77] FAO/WHO. Amoun o poo -quali y pes icides sold in de eloping
coun ies ala ming high. Food and Ag icul u e o ganiza ion o he
Uni ed Na ions, P ess Release 01/05 [ci ed 2009 Oc 20]. A ailable
om:
h p://www. ao.o g/WAICENT/OIS/PRESS_NE/PRESSENG/2001
/p en0105.h m
[78] Ehle s R-U. In: Gisi U, Gullino ML, Eds. Rebeca –EU-Policy
suppo ac ion o e iew egula ion o biological con ol agen s.
Recen De Manage Plan Dis 2009; 1: 147.
[79] Du ou R. Bio a ionals: Ecological Pes Managemen Da abase.
Na ional sus ainable Ag icul u e In o ma ion se ice [home page
on he In e ne ] [ci ed 2009 Oc 13]. A ailable om:
h p://a a.nca .o g/a a-pub/bio a ionals/index.php
[80] Speise B. In: Mikkelson C, Schlu e M, Eds. The new EU egula-
ion o o ganic ood and a ming. C op p oduc ion and c op inpu s.
2009 [home page on he in e ne ] [ci ed 2009 Oc 14]. A ailable
om: www.i oam-eu.o g
[81] G inwis R. A success ul ansi ion owa ds a bio-based economy. A
s udy on c i ical ac o s om Finnish cases 2008; [ci ed 2009 Oc
19]. A ailable om: h p://206.132.223.45/upl_documen s/Towa-
ds%20a%20biobased%20economy%20-%20Rianne%20G inwis-
%20-%20In e nship%20 epo .pd
[82] Ehle s R-U. Regula ion o biological con ol agen s. REBECA
P ojec no. SSPE-CT-2005-022709 Final Ac i i y Repo 2006
[ci ed 2009 Oc 21]. A ailable om: h p://www. ebeca-
ne .de/downloads/ epo /REBECA%20Final%20Aci i y%20Repo
%20 5.pd
[83] P ice NR, S opes C. Rou es and ba ie s o he u he exploi a ion
o s a egic esea ch in o bio a ional pes icides a CSL. Wi h spe-
ci ic e e ence o MAFF p ojec s PI0336, PI0337 and PI338 [ci ed
2009 Oc 22]. A ailable om: h ps://aims.de a.go .uk/home-
page/documen s/23.doc
Recei ed: Oc obe 30, 2009 Re ised: Ma ch 08, 2010 Accep ed: Ma ch 09, 2010
© Tiilikkala e al.; Licensee Ben ham Open.
This is an open access a icle licensed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion Non-Comme cial License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/
by-nc/3.0/) which pe mi s un es ic ed, non-comme cial use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he wo k is p ope ly ci ed.