1
Re hinking u ban wa e managemen h ough
D i e s-P essu es-S a es-Impac s-Responses
amewo k applica ion in Chennai, India
Daniel Rosado1,2,3*, Vale ia Fá ez-Román4, Felix Mülle 5, Induma hi Nambi2, Nicola Foh e 1
1 Depa men o Hyd ology and Wa e Resou ces Managemen , Ins i u e o Na u al Resou ce
Conse a ion, Kiel Uni e si y, 24118 Kiel, Ge many.
2 Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Indian Ins i u e o Technology Mad as, 600036 Chennai, India.
3 Indo-Ge man Cen e o Sus ainabili y, Indian Ins i u e o Technology Mad as, 600036 Chennai, India.
4 UFZ - Helmhol z Cen e o En i onmen al Resea ch, Depa men Lake Resea ch, B ücks . 3a, 39114
Magdebu g, Ge many
5 Depa men o Ecosys em Managemen , Ins i u e o Na u al Resou ce Conse a ion, Kiel Uni e si y,
24118 Kiel, Ge many
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
* Depa men o Hyd ology and Wa e Resou ces Managemen , Ins i u e o Na u al Resou ce
Conse a ion, Kiel Uni e si y, Olshausens . 75, D-24118 Kiel, Ge many. Tel.: 0049 431 880 4889; E-
mail add ess: d osado@hyd ology.uni-kiel.de (Daniel Jesús Rosado Alca ia).
2
Abs ac
1
Ci ies su e ing wa e sca ci y a e p ojec ed o inc ease in he ollowing decades. Howe e ,
2
he applica ion o s anda dized indica o amewo ks o assessing u ban wa e esou ce
3
managemen p oblems is on an ea ly s age. India is expec ed o ha e he highes u ban
4
popula ion acing wa e sca ci y in he wo ld by 2050. In his s udy, he au ho s assess how
5
he D i e s-P essu es-S a es-Impac s-Responses amewo k, a causal amewo k adop ed by
6
he Eu opean En i onmen Agency, can con ibu e o e alua e wa e managemen challenges
7
in ci ies and apply i o Chennai, India´s ou h-la ges u ban agglome a ion.
8
The amewo k p o ed o be a help ul ool o he e alua ion o wa e managemen challenges
9
in ci ies by disen angling ela ionships be ween en i onmen al indica o s and s uc u ing
10
dispe se da a ha allows a be e unde s anding o policy make s. The main d i e s iden i ied
11
in Chennai we e popula ion g ow h and economic de elopmen which gene a ed impac s such
12
as loss o aqua ic ecosys ems, low wa e able, low wa e quali y and educ ion o biodi e si y
13
and human heal h. As a esponse, be e u ban planning, p ojec s o new wa e in as uc u e,
14
and wa e bodies es o a ion ha e been implemen ed. Ne e heless, Chennai keeps acing
15
di icul ies o achie e a p ope wa e managemen . The se e e hi o COVID-19 pandemic on
16
he Indian economy and i s u u e managemen will be key o achie emen s ela ed o wa e
17
managemen .
18
19
Keywo ds
20
Wa e Resou ces Managemen , Land-use change, wa e sca ci y, En i onmen al causal
21
amewo k, U ban esilience, Sou h India.
22
23
24
3
1 In oduc ion
25
Ci ies a ound he globe a e su e ing om wa e sca ci y. In 2009, a he end o he “Millennium
26
D ough ”, wa e s o age olumes eeding Melbou ne ell o a his o ic low o 25.6% o capaci y
27
(Low e al. 2015; an Leeuwen 2017). In 2013 and 2014, Sao Paulo became dependen on
28
ese oi s wi h a ailable wa e pe cen ages in he single digi s (Milling on 2018). In 2018, Cape
29
Town aced a Day Ze o in which pipes wen d y and people needed o collec d inking wa e
30
om dis ibu ion poin s (Ze land 2021).
31
U ban wa e demand will inc ease by 80% by 2050, while apid popula ion g ow h and
32
u baniza ion o ci ies pu signi ican p essu e on wa e esou ces (New on 2016) and clima e
33
change is al e ing he iming and dis ibu ion o wa e (Flö ke e al. 2018). In his con ex , he
34
numbe o la ge ci ies acing wa e sca ci y was p ojec ed o inc ease om 193 (37%) o 292
35
(56%) and global u ban popula ion acing wa e sca ci y was p ojec ed o double om 933
36
million (33%) in 2016 o 1.693–2.373 billion (35–51%) in 2050 (He e al. 2021). Consequen ly,
37
wa e insecu i y will be one o he mos se e e c isis he wo ld will ace du ing he nex se e al
38
decades (UNESCO and UN-Wa e 2020). Ci ies a e also acing a p oblem o wa e quali y
39
wi h impac s on heal h and ecosys ems (Cha u edi 2012). In 2020, a leas 2 billion people
40
used a d inking wa e sou ce con amina ed wi h aeces (WHO Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
41
2020) and 3.6 billion lacked sa ely managed sani a ion (Wo ld Bank 2020).
42
India had he highes numbe o u ban inhabi an s acing wa e sca ci y wo ldwide in 2016
43
(222 million people). This is expec ed o inc ease o 550 million in 2050, i.e. 26.7% o he
44
wo ld’s u ban popula ion acing wa e sca ci y (He e al. 2021). Ci y de elopmen and poo
45
ins i u ional con ol (Cha u edi 2012; Hossain e al. 2013) ha e esul ed in he pollu ion o he
46
majo i y o su ace wa e bodies wi h un ea ed sewage (Cha u edi 2012) and p omo ed o e -
47
ex ac ion o g ound wa e (Wada e al. 2012). Chennai, India´s ou h-la ges u ban
48
agglome a ion, exhibi s a complex se up a ound wa e esou ces managemen ha gene a es
49
social, poli ical and en i onmen al ensions, including wa e -poo a eas whe e human
50
de elopmen is limi ed (Allen e al. 2006). In 2019, he ci y hi Day Ze o when i s ou majo
51
ese oi s d ied up and ou million people we e elying solely on wa e anke s (Jaya aman,
52
2019; “Wa e c isis in Chennai", 2019).
53
T adi ionally, ci ies elied on la ge-scale in as uc u e o wa e managemen , o en wi h
54
sys ems ope a ing independen ly o each o he (B own e al. 2009; Ma low e al. 2013).
55
Add essing wa e managemen in ci ies wi h complex scena ios like Chennai equi es an
56
in eg a ed app oach, such as he In eg a ed U ban Wa e Managemen (IUWM) p ocess. This
57
app oach encompasses wa e supply, sani a ion, s o mwa e , and was ewa e managemen
58
in eg a ing hem wi h land use planning and economic de elopmen (Bah i 2012). The concep
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o IUWM eme ged in he 1980s, highligh ing he in e connec ions be ween ac o s, su ace
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wa e , g oundwa e , and issues o wa e quan i y and quali y and has e ol ed o e he yea s
61
(Benson e al. 2015; Hoeks a e al. 2018; Manny 2022). In he 1990s, Sus ainable U ban
62
Wa e Managemen (SUWM) became p ominen , d i en by g owing conce ns o ecological
63
heal h and sus ainable de elopmen , in eg a ing en i onmen al a iables mo e
64
4
comp ehensi ely in o he discussion (Hoeks a e al. 2018; Pluchino a e al. 2021). In he la e
65
2000s, Adap i e Wa e Managemen eme ged in esponse o he need o clima e change
66
adap a ion (Ki ono e al. 2014; Hoeks a e al. 2018). Recen ly, concep s such as Wa e Risk,
67
Wa e Resilience, he Wa e -Food-Ene gy Nexus, To al Wa e Cycle Managemen (Mau ya
68
and Singh 2022), and Wa e Sensi i e U ban Design ( an de Meulen e al. 2023) ha e
69
become in luen ial (Hoeks a e al. 2018). In pa allel and since a ound 2000, wa e secu i y
70
has also eme ged as a cen al concep , b oadly encompassing in eg a ed, sus ainable, and
71
adap i e aspec s (Hoeks a e al. 2018). The ele ance o wa e secu i y is unde sco ed by i s
72
ecogni ion and de ini ions om he Global Wa e Pa ne ship (GWP 2000), he Wo ld Wa e
73
Council (WWC 2000), and he Uni ed Na ions (UN-Wa e 2013). O e ime, he e m has
74
e ol ed o include a ious a ibu es, such as a o dabili y, human well-being, wa e - ela ed
75
disas e s, haza d, isk, poli ical s abili y, and esilience (Rome o-Lankao and Gna z 2016;
76
Chapagain e al. 2022).
77
Al hough IUWM is a c ucial p ocess o p e en wa e c ises ega dless o wa e sca ci y (Di
78
Baldassa e e al. 2018) and has he highes po en ial o educe p essu es on wa e esou ces
79
(Koop and an Leeuwen 2015a), he e is no in e na ionally s anda dized indica o amewo k
80
o i (Koop and an Leeuwen 2015a). This si ua ion comp omises he achie emen o he
81
Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) numbe s 6 Clean Wa e and
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Sani a ion and 11 Sus ainable Ci ies and Communi ies (Uni ed Na ions 2015; He e al. 2021).
83
Se e al models and amewo ks a e used o analyzing wa e managemen , en i onmen al
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issues and socio-ecological sys ems: causal-chain amewo ks, such as he P essu e-S a e-
85
Response (PSR), P essu e-S a e-Impac -Response (PSIR), and he D i e s-P essu es-
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S a es-Impac s-Responses (DPSIR), sus ainabili y assessmen amewo ks, including he
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Social-Ecological Sys ems F amewo k (SESF) and he Ecosys em Se ices F amewo k, and
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in eg a ed wa e managemen amewo ks, like he Ci y Bluep in and he Asian Wa e
89
De elopmen Ou look (AWDO) amewo ks.
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The PSR amewo k emphasizes he ela ionship be ween en i onmen al p essu es, he
91
cu en s a e o he en i onmen , and socie al esponses (Mau ya and Singh 2022), while he
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PSIR amewo k inco po a es an "Impac " s age (Van Ginkel e al. 2018). The DPSIR, a causal
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amewo k o desc ibing he in e ac ions be ween socie y and he en i onmen , p o ides an
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o ganized s uc u e o assessing he causes, consequences, and esponses o changes in
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ecosys ems (Gab ielsen and Bosch 2003; Eu opean En i onmen Agency 2020). The SESF
96
is used o diagnose he sus ainabili y o social-ecological sys ems (Os om 2009), while he
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Ecosys em Se ices F amewo k ca ego izes he bene i s humans ob ain om ecosys ems,
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wi h an emphasis on na u al esou ce managemen (Ma zdo & Meye , 2014). The Ci y
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Bluep in amewo k ( an Leeuwen e al. 2012; Koop and an Leeuwen 2015b) uses 24
100
indica o s ac oss eigh ca ego ies, including wa e secu i y, wa e quali y, sani a ion,
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biodi e si y, and go e nance. I measu es in eg a ed wa e esou ces managemen
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pe o mance implemen ed by local wa e au ho i ies (Hoeks a e al. 2018) and includes an
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addi ional amewo k o desc ibing signi ican ends and p essu es ha may impac wa e
104
managemen (Koop and an Leeuwen 2015b). The AWDO amewo k (Asian De elopmen
105
5
Bank 2020) assesses wa e secu i y h ough i e key dimensions: households, economies,
106
ci ies, he en i onmen , and esilien communi ies.
107
The DPSIR amewo k is pa icula ly sui able o u ban wa e managemen due o i s holis ic
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and in eg a ed app oach. Simpli ied amewo ks like PSR and PSIR a e s aigh o wa d, easy
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o use, and e ec i ely link p essu es o s a e changes and policy esponses (Hazba i e al.
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2020). This cla i y makes hem use ul o decision-make s. Howe e , hey o en lack he dep h
111
equi ed o comp ehensi e u ban wa e managemen by o e simpli ying in e ac ions
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(Niemeije and De G oo 2008; Le el e al. 2009). Compa ed o SESF and he Ecosys em
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Se ices F amewo k, DPSIR no only add esses sus ainabili y and ecosys em se ices bu
114
also analyzes he sys em wi h a holis ic app oach, which is key o complex scena ios like
115
wa e managemen in Chennai. The Ci y Bluep in amewo k p o ides a de ailed s uc u e bu
116
is complex, equi ing a dual amewo k ha ocuses on wa e esou ces managemen
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pe o mance as well as ends and p essu es. This complexi y, along wi h he need o
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ex ensi e and speci ic da a, can impede i s applica ion, especially in de eloping coun ies
119
(Hoeks a e al. 2018). The AWDO amewo k p o ides a holis ic iew o wa e secu i y by
120
add essing in e connec ed and in e dependen dimensions. Howe e , i is p ima ily designed
121
o na ional assessmen s, includes only i e u ban-speci ic indica o s, and uses a e aged da a
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o all u ban a eas ac oss a coun y, which limi s i s use ulness o IUWM (Jensen and Wu
123
2018).
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Adop ed by he Eu opean En i onmen Agency, he DPSIR amewo k p o ides an o ganized
125
s uc u e o assess he causes, consequences, and esponses ega ding wa e managemen
126
(Eu opean En i onmen Agency 2020), ha acili a es communica ion wi h s akeholde s
127
(Tsche ning e al., 2012). Addi ionally, i has been widely applied o assess he en i onmen al
128
s a e o ci ies (Kohsaka 2010), u al communi ies (Ga i e al. 2018a) and i e basins (Kong e
129
al. 2016; Pagan e al. 2020a), and has demons a ed i s u ili y o desc ibe cause e ec
130
ela ionships in cases wi h limi ed da a a ailabili y (Ga i e al. 2018b), and o de elop causal
131
chains (Pagan e al. 2020b).
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Hence, his s udy aims o add ess he ollowing esea ch ques ions: (i) How can he DPSIR
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amewo k con ibu e o e alua e wa e managemen challenges in ci ies wi h wicked wa e
134
p oblems? (ii) Wha a e common limi a ions o e ec i e wa e managemen in ci ies loca ed
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in de eloping coun ies and acing esou ce sca ci y? These ques ions will be add essed
136
h ough he applica ion o he DPSIR amewo k o he ci y o Chennai, India.
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138

6
2 Ma e ials and me hods
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2.1 S udy a ea
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Chennai, known as Mad as un il 1996, is he capi al o he Indian s a e o Tamil Nadu. I is
141
loca ed on he sou heas e n coas o India (13o05′N and 80o18′E), on he Bay o Bengal (Figu e
142
1). Nowadays, he Chennai ci y limi s coincide wi h he Chennai dis ic (Go e nmen o Tamil
143
Nadu 2020). Acco ding o he 2011 Indian census, he Chennai dis ic had 7,088,000
144
inhabi an s in an a ea o 426 km2 (Di ec o a e o Census Ope a ions Tamil Nadu 2011).
145
Chennai ci y is go e ned by he G ea e Chennai Co po a ion (Chennai Dis ic 2020).
146
The Chennai ci y dis ic oge he wi h pa s o Ti u allu , Kanchipu am and Chengalpa u
147
dis ic s cons i u e he Chennai Me opoli an A ea (CMA) wi h an ex ension o 1189 km2
148
(CMDA 2020a) and 8.70 million inhabi an s acco ding o he 2011 Indian census (Di ec o a e
149
o Census Ope a ions Tamil Nadu 2011). The Chennai Me opoli an De elopmen Au ho i y is
150
in cha ge o u ban planning in his a ea.
151
152
Figu e 1. Chennai loca ion and wa e bodies. Sou ce: Au ho s. No e: India on he globe
153
image, Wikimedia Commons, 2014 (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-sa/3.0). CC
154
BY-SA 3.0
155
156
7
Chennai has a opical we and d y clima e (Köppen: Aw) wi h a ela i e cons an empe a u e
157
(Rajanikan h and Rajini Kan h 2020). In he pe iod 1971-2000, highes and lowes a e age
158
mon hly empe a u es showed annual a ia ions anging om 28.9 o 37.1oC and om 21.2 o
159
28.0oC and he a e age mon hly ain all anged om 2.2 o 407.4 mm (Sel a aj e al. 2016).
160
The ho es pa o he yea is la e May and ea ly June and he cooles is Janua y (P akash
161
and Punyaseshudu 2015). The a e age annual p ecipi a ion is a ound 1,400 mm (Rajanikan h
162
and Rajini Kan h 2020). The lowes p ecipi a ions occu ed in Feb ua y, du ing he p e-
163
monsoon season, and he highes om mid–Oc obe o mid–Decembe in he no heas
164
monsoon (NE) season (Sel a aj e al. 2016). Rega ding clima e change, mean empe a u es
165
ha e isen (maximum, 1.6°C; annual, 1.3°C; minimum, 1.0°C) om 1951 o 2010 (Jegana han
166
and Andimu hu 2013) while ain all endency is unclea (Ramachand an and Anushiya 2015;
167
Ranga ajan e al. 2018). Conce ning loods, Oldenbo gh e al. (2016) ound no signal o a
168
posi i e end in ex eme one-day p ecipi a ion a he sou heas e n coas o India o e 1900-
169
2014.
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Chennai is si ua ed on a la a ea known as he Eas e n Coas al Plains wi h an a e age
171
ele a ion o 6.7 m.a.s.l. and a highes poin o 60 m.a.s.l. (Pulikesi e al. 2006). The i e s o
172
Chennai low om wes o eas , d aining in o he Bay o Bengal, and di ide he ci y in o no h–
173
sou h sec ions. Two majo i e s a e he Cooum Ri e , loca ed in he cen e o he ci y, and
174
he Adya Ri e o he sou h. A hi d i e , he Ko alaiya , lows h ough he no he n inges
175
o he ci y be o e d aining in o he sea, a Enno e. The h ee i e s a e connec ed by he
176
Buckingham Canal, a esh wa e a i icial wa e way pa allel o he Co omandel Coas .
177
Addi ionally, he e a e ou ese oi s called Poondi, Chola a am, Puzhal, and
178
Chemba ambakkam (Ma iappan 2014) and many a i icial lakes, locally called anks ha
179
adi ionally s o ed wa e du ing he monsoon season ha was used o i iga ion du ing he
180
d y season (De i e al. 2020).
181
The Chennai ecosys em has been domina ed by Palmy a and Phoenix palms in e spe sed
182
wi h hicke s wi h a mix u e o g asses and sho he bs in he in e ening spaces; allowing ee
183
su ace wa e lows and p e en ing looding. T ees we e spa se and local (Ranji -Daniels e
184
al. 2020). Pallika anai Ma sh s and ou wi h mul iple species o plan s, ish, bi ds, bu e lies,
185
and ep iles (Su ya 2016) al hough i has been hea ily u banized wi hin he las 30 yea s
186
(Coelho 2018).
187
188
8
2.2 Applica ion o he DPSIR amewo k
189
In his wo k, we applied he DPSIR amewo k (Gab ielsen and Bosch 2003; K is ensen 2004;
190
Eu opean En i onmen Agency 2020) and, consequen ly, de ined i s componen s (d i e s,
191
p essu es, s a es, impac s, and esponses) and i s causal chain in ela ion o wa e
192
managemen in he ci y o Chennai, India. The componen s o he DPSIR amewo k and hei
193
linkages a e depic ed in Figu e 2 while hei de ini ions can be ound in he li e a u e (Smee s
194
and We e ings 1999; Gab ielsen and Bosch 2003; K is ensen 2004; Semeoshenko a e al.
195
2017).
196
197
Figu e 2. The componen s o he DPSIR amewo k and hei connec ions.
198
The applica ion o he DPSIR amewo k and he de ini ion o i s componen s in ol ed an
199
ex ensi e li e a u e esea ch in Scopus, Web o Sciences co e collec ion and Google Schola
200
(Pa ício e al. 2016). Also, da a epo s and o he documen s p o ided by public
201
adminis a ions. Thus, he websi es o he Chennai Me opoli an Wa e Supply and Sewe age
202
Boa d (CMWSSB, also known as Me owa e ), Chennai Me opoli an De elopmen Au ho i y
203
(CMDA), Tamil Nadu Wa e Supply and D ainage (TWAD) Boa d, Tamil Nadu Pollu ion
204
Con ol Boa d, Cen al Pollu ion Con ol Boa d, Cen al G ound Wa e Boa d (CGWB) we e
205
consul ed, as well as he second edi ion o he mas e plan o Chennai and enowned
206
newspape s.
207
P essu es
D i e s S a es
Responses
Impac s
9
3 Resul s 208
3.1 O e iew 209
210
Figu e 3 p esen s he componen s and causal chain o DPSIR analysis o wa e managemen
211
in Chennai. Also, a able shows he indica o s used in his s udy in he supplemen a y ma e ial
212
(Table S1).
213
214
Figu e 3. Componen s and causal chain o DPSIR analysis o he wa e managemen in
215
Chennai, India.
216
3.2 D i e s 217
3.2.1 Popula ion g ow h
218
Chennai is oday a cosmopoli an megaci y due o a ans o ma ion ha s a ed in he las
219 cen u y and con inues in he p esen . The 20 h cen u y b ough o Chennai an accele a ed
220
16
GW
40-68
63-107
110-357
3-9
(2017)
Pallika anai ma shland
SW
0.002–
0.14
0-0.02
0.03–1.13
0-0.019
0-1.52
0.10–1.52
0-0.60
Ka paga alli e al. (2012)
SD
149.4
102
36.6
1.6
0.58
30,201
382
85
Jayap akash e al. (2010)
G ound wa e
Ci y a ea
GW
26-130
1.2-141.6
71-1,200
3-36
K ishna Kuma e al.
(2015)
Enno e c eek
PVa
4.658
3.289
0.761
0.416
8.957
Vasan hi e al. (2017)
PVb
3.378
3.098
0.892
0.315
7.987
358

17
3.4.4 Biodi e si y s a us
359
Enc oachmen and pollu ion o na u al and a i icial wa e bodies has a ec ed Chennai’s
360
aqua ic biodi e si y. Amali e al. (2019) ound ha he we lands loca ed wi hin he coas al
361
dis ic s o Ti u allu , Chennai and Kancheepu am we e only 15.8% o he o al a ea in 2016.
362
In he Pallika anai ma shland species di e si y has been educed due o we land occupa ion
363
and was ewa e and solid was e pollu ion. Acco ding o Azeez e al. (2007) and Venca esan
364
(2007), 114 plan and 223 animal species can be ound in he we land, including endange ed
365
species. Plan s include wo endemics o Peninsula India (Cynodon ba be i and Iseilema
366
en heph oides), and exo ic plan s like wa e hyacin h (Eichho nia c assipes) and wa e le uce
367
(Pis ia s a io es). 115 bi d, 46 ish, 21 ep ile, 10 amphibian, 10 mammal, 9 mollusk, 5
368
c us acean and 7 bu e ly species ha e been epo ed. Raj e al. (2010) epo ed 101 species
369
o esiden and mig a o y bi ds. Knigh and De i (2010) ound 75 ish species on he eshwa e
370
habi a s a ound Chennai.
371
3.5 Impac s
372
3.5.1 Loss o aqua ic ecosys ems
373
U baniza ion in ol ed occupa ion, mismanagemen and d ainage o we lands and he
374
abandonmen o wa e anks (Ami ham e al. 2009; Meena chi Sunda am 2011; Mu awski
375
2015). The e o e, wa e bodies sh ank by 30.6%, i.e. an a e age annual educ ion o 1.25%
376
(Ma han and K ishna eni 2020).
377
The Pallika anai ma shland d ained abou 250 km2 and occupied an a ea o 56 km2 o e
378
oday’s esiden ial locali ies such as Velache y, Tho aipakkam, Pe ungudi and Pallika anai
379
un il 1980 (Venca esan 2007; S ee Sha mila and Swa hika 2016). Cons uc ion in his a ea
380
educed i s ex ension o only 6 km2 (S einb uch and Hö mann 2015; S ee Sha mila and
381
Swa hika 2016). In 2005, 0.57 km2 we e used as a dumpsi e and 1.37 km2 we e impac ed by
382
ga bage and sewage (Venca esan 2007). In 2007, 3.17 km2 we e decla ed as a Rese e
383
Fo es (Venca esan 2007). Nowadays, he e a e wo ga bage-dumping ya ds in i s ou ski s.
384
In o he ba gain, un ea ed o pa ially ea ed sewage en e s he we land due o di ec
385
discha ge o he Pe ungudi sewage ea men plan (The Hindu 2019).
386
Shi ing d inking wa e supply om su ace wa e o g ound wa e sou ces in he pas esul ed
387
in he deg ada ion and abandonmen o wa e anks (A iza e al. 2007; Palanisami e al. 2008;
388
Adelina 2015). The Tamil Nadu adminis a ion ied o change his si ua ion wi h he P o ec ion
389
o Tanks and an E ic ion o Enc oachmen Ac , in Oc obe 2007. Howe e , his law has no
390
been ully implemen ed (La anya 2013). App oxima ely 15% o he wa e s o age capaci y o
391
he anks in Adya basin was los due o hea y sil a ion (Massuel e al. 2014).
392
3.5.2 Low wa e able
393
G oundwa e o e -ex ac ion and educed g oundwa e echa ge due o dense u baniza ion
394
and inc ease o pa ed a eas ha e caused declining g oundwa e le els (S ini asan e al.
395
18
2013). Subsequen ly, aqui e s a e salinized due o seawa e in usion (Bu e wo h e al. 2007;
396
B unne e al. 2014; John 2015).
397
Acco ding o he Cen al G oundwa e Boa d, 80% o Chennai's g oundwa e has been
398
deple ed (Balan e al. 2012) and all o he 20 g oundwa e assessmen uni s in Chennai a e
399
o e -exploi ed. In May 2019 (p e-monsoon), 64% o 11 moni o ed wells p esen ed a wa e
400
le el o 5 o 10 m and 36% o 2 o 5 m (Cen al G ound Wa e Boa d 2020). Any u he
401
exploi a ion could lead o se e e sal wa e in usion (Balan e al. 2012). In pe i-u ban a eas,
402
g oundwa e o e -ex ac ion has caused a decline o he g oundwa e able: he p e-monsoon
403
and pos -monsoon g oundwa e le el luc ua ion a ied om 2–6 m o 0–5 m, espec i ely,
404
du ing 1971–2007 (Packialakshmibb e al. 2011). An e alua ion o he o al change in
405
g oundwa e s o age ac oss he s a e o Tamil Nadu om 2002 o 2012 concluded ha
406
g oundwa e deple ion a e is 8% highe han he annual echa ge a e (Chinnasamy and
407
Ago amoo hy 2015).
408
3.5.3 Low wa e quali y
409
The es ima ed 1073 MLD o sewage di ec ly discha ged in o wa e bodies, oge he wi h
410
indus ial was e wa e p oduced a poo quali y s a us o he aqua ic ecosys ems o Chennai
411
(Ami halingam 2003).
412
The Adya i e su e s om ag icul u al pollu ion ups eam Nandambakkam, whe e i s a s
413
o ecei e un ea ed sewage (Venugopal e al. 2009; Lakshmi and Deepa 2011). This i e is
414
no pe ennial and only ca ies enough wa e du ing he ainy season. The es o he yea is
415
almos s agnan due o he lack o wa e and he o ma ion o sand ba s nea he mou h
416
(Lakshmi 2011), anspo ing undilu ed e luen s om sewage ea men plan s (CMDA 2008).
417
The si ua ion is simila in he Cooum i e (Dhamodha an e al. 2019). Beyond Vanag am up
418
o i s mou h, he i e is highly pollu ed due o i s pe ennial s a e, sil a ion, sand ba o ma ion
419
and almos s agnan s a e (Mukhopadhyay e al. 2020), and he discha ges o un ea ed
420
sewage and indus ial was e wa e (Ne haji Ma iappan e al. 2017). Also in he Buckingham
421
Canal, ha ecei es sewage and indus ial e luen s du ing i s cou se h ough he ci y and he
422
sil ing up o he canal has le he wa e s agnan (Jayap akash e al. 2012). Enc oachmen in
423
some sec ions o he cen al a ea has sh unk i s wid h om 100 m o 10 m (2019b).
424
The lakes and he Pallika anai ma shland ha e su e ed om enc oachmen s, dumping,
425
bu ning o was es and sewage and indus ial was e wa e discha ge (Shahina e al. 2020).
426
The Pallika anai ma shland is addi ionally pollu ed by he non-isola ed Pe ungudi dumpsi e
427
(Padma a hi 2007). High concen a ions o Cd, Hg, C , Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn we e ound in i s
428
sedimen s (Jayap akash e al. 2010). Sea wa e has in uded up o 16.5 km inland in Minju -
429
Panje y a ea due o o e exploi a ion o g oundwa e (Go e nmen o India 2017).
430
Seawa e is pollu ed nea by he i e mou hs o he Adya and he Cooum i e s by high
431
concen a ions o nu ien s, low dissol ed oxygen, high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
432
and chemical oxygen demand (COD), high o al suspended ma e , high ace elemen s
433
(Shanmugam e al. 2007; Mish a e al. 2015), high le el o coli o ms, Vib io and Pseudomonas,
434
(San hiya e al. 2011), and p esence o an ibio ic esis an pa hogens (Vignesh e al. 2012)
435
19
and mic oplas ics (Kuma e al. 2016).
436
3.5.4 Reduc ion o biodi e si y and human heal h
437
Amali e al. (2019) ound ha he we lands loca ed wi hin he coas al dis ic s o Ti u allu ,
438
Chennai and Kancheepu am ha e dec eased o 31.6%, om 23.1% in 1988 o 15.8% in 2016,
439
i.e. an a e age annual educ ion o 1.35%.
440
The deg ada ion o aqua ic ecosys ems in Chennai has impac ed i s biodi e si y. In asi e
441
species, like he o namen al ish sucke mou h, ha e been in oduced and a ec ed local
442
species popula ion (Oppili 2017). Wa e hyacin h colonized and signi ican ly a ec ed he
443
biodi e si y in Pallika anai Ma shland (Su ya 2016). The cons uc ion o oads agmen ed he
444
ma shland and limi ed he mo emen o animals (Azeez e al. 2007), wi h a educ ion o
445
esiden bi ds in gene al (Venca esan 2007) and he Black-winged S il in pa icula om 836
446
indi iduals in 2000 (Sub amanian 2000) o 150 in 2010 (Raj e al. 2010).
447
Fo Buckingham Canal, he changes in he wa e quali y educed he p ima y p oduc i i y,
448
a ec ing he en i e aqua ic ecosys em (Kuma e al. 2018). In Enno e es ua y, 15 species we e
449
ound dead in la ge numbe s in Augus 2014 (Sachi hanandam e al. 2017). High
450
concen a ions o Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in Mugil cephalus ish and ul as uc u al
451
al e a ions on he g een mussel Pe na i idis ha e been ound (A ockia Vasan hi e al. 2013;
452
Vasan hi e al. 2017). A he discha ge si e o he powe plan loca ed in Enno e, he popula ion
453
densi y o phy oplank on and zooplank on is educed by 64% and 93%, espec i ely (P ince
454
P akash Jebakuma e al. 2018).
455
The pollu ion o wa e esou ces has also ad e sely a ec ed Chennai’s inhabi an s heal h.
456
The s agnan wa e in Buckingham canal c ea es an a ac i e habi a o mala ia-sp eading
457
mosqui oes (Jayap akash e al. 2012). Wa e -bo ne diseases like Dia hea and Typhoid a e
458
common (Se hu am 2014). D inking wa e in some a eas was highly con amina ed wi h
459
coli o ms, C yp ospo idium and Isospo a (Anbazhagi e al. 2007; La anya 2013; Chop a and
460
Dwo kin 2013), including sache wa e bu no bo led wa e (Venka esan e al. 2014).
461
3.6 Responses
462
3.6.1 U ban planning
463
Chennai has had wo mas e plans o u ban planning. The Fi s Mas e Plan o Chennai
464
Me opoli an A ea was app o ed in 1976 and he Second is in o ce since Sep embe 2008
465
(CMDA 2020b). Ne e heless, he u ban o m o he Chennai Me opoli an A ea has been
466
dic a ed by de elopmen s along he majo oads and ail links adia ing om he cen e o
467
Chennai in o he pe i-u ban egions (CMDA 2008). The second Plan included chap e s o
468
in as uc u e o wa e supply and sani a ion, wi h a ecommenda ion o alloca e wa e o
469
a eas wi hin he ci y and ou side, and o en i onmen , wi h a ecommenda ion o educe
470
pollu ion le els o accep able s anda ds in he wa e ways o Chennai. Recen ly, he
471
elabo a ion o a hi d mas e plan wi h long- e m ision documen p oduced h ough a
472
pa icipa o y app oach has been announced, being planned o be implemen ed om 2026 and
473
20
o las o wo decades (Shi akuma 2020).
474
3.6.2 Wa e in as uc u e
475
Chennai has de eloped a big wa e in as uc u e consis ing on dams and in e basin ans e s,
476
g oundwa e pumping, ainwa e ha es ing, desalina ion plan s and wa e anke s.
477
O e 90% o he wa e supply o Chennai is co e ed by wa e s emming om ese oi s
478
(B unne e al. 2014; Sak hi el e al. 2015). Su ace wa e is p o ided mos ly h ough wo
479
sys ems o in e connec ed ese oi s. The oldes sys em has h ee ese oi s a Poondi (91.5
480
hm3) and Chola a am (25 hm3), ha discha ge in o Puzhal (93.5 hm3), also called Red Hills.
481
This wa e is ea ed a Puzhal (300 million li e s pe day, MLD), Kilpauk (270 MLD) and
482
Su ape (14 MLD) (CMDA 2006; CMWSSB 2020b). The newes sys em has
483
Chemba ambakkam ese oi (103,2 hm3) and Chemba ambakkam Wa e T ea men Plan
484
(530 MLD) (CMDA 2006; CMWSSB 2020b).
485
When wa e is sca ce, a ound 500 MLD wa e om he S isailam ese oi in he K ishna
486
Ri e , can be di e ed owa ds Poondi Lake h ough a se ies o 400 km-long in e -linked
487
canals called he Telugu Ganga p ojec (CMDA 2006). Also, Vee anam lake and Vadaku hu
488
Wa e T ea men Plan (180 MLD) a e added o he sys em. In o al, he capaci y o he ci ed
489
wa e ea men plan s is 1,294 MLD (CMWSSB 2020c).
490
G oundwa e ’s con ibu ion has signi ican ly diminished due o o e exploi a ion
491
(Packialakshmibb e al. 2011; Sak hi el e al. 2015) om a maximum o 25% o a ound 6%
492
du ing he 2000’s (B unne e al. 2014). Because o low wa e le el in he inne -ci y,
493
Me owa e s a ed o hi e p i a e pe i-u ban ag icul u al wells in 2000 ha yielded 77 MLD in
494
2005 compa ed o only 5.99 MLD o p e ious wells (CMDA 2006). Cu en ly, Me owa e
495
con inues ex ac ing in pe i-u ban a eas: Minju , Panje y, Tama aipakkam Poondi and
496
Kannigaipe (CMWSSB 2020d). In ac , mos o he ag icul u al wells in he illages in he
497
Chennai Me opoli an A ea eed he inne ci y wa e ma ke h ough wa e anke s
498
(Packialakshmibb e al. 2011) dep i ing pe i-u ban a me s o i iga ion wa e (Bu e wo h e
499
al. 2007). In he sou he n pe i-u ban in e ace, 17.1 MLD a e ex ac ed by p i a e wa e anke s
500
and 19.2 MLD by packaged wa e indus ies (Packialakshmibb e al. 2011). Also many
501
households in Chennai ha e in-house wells (Rue e al. 2007).
502
To imp o e his si ua ion, ins alla ion o Rain Wa e Ha es ing (RWH) s uc u es became
503
manda o y o new buildings in 2002 (CMWSSB 2020d). Since hen, 38,218 s uc u es ha e
504
been cons uc ed (CMWSSB 2020d) wi h high accep ance by he public (Vi ek 2016) bu
505
main enance issues we e epo ed (Minis y o Wa e Resou ces and Go e nmen o India
506
2011).
507
Since 2010, a 100 MLD seawa e desalina ion plan is ope a ing a Minju , no h o he ci y,
508
and a simila 100 MLD plan a Nemmeli, sou h o he ci y, since 2013 (CMWSSB 2020e). A
509
hi d 150 MLD plan is expec ed o be comple ed by Ap il 2023 (Lakshmi 2022) and a ou h
510
400 MLD a Pe u by 2024 (Lakshmi 2019).
511
Tanke -based wa e supply is es ima ed o be 21% o he o al wa e supplied in Chennai
512
21
(Maheshwa i e al. 2020) i.e. a ound 125 MLD (Venka achalam 2015), ha would be deli e ed
513
by up o 20,000 daily anke loads o wa e (The Hindu 2018). Abou 80% o households in he
514
Chennai Me opoli an A ea consume packaged d inking wa e ins ead o piped wa e (The
515
Hindu 2018). Abou 15-20 MLD o packaged d inking wa e a e sold in he ci y daily (S ini asan
516
2008).
517
3.6.3 Sewage ea men
518
The o al ins alled was ewa e ea men capaci y in Chennai eaches 727 MLD in 12 sewage
519
ea men plan s, howe e , i is es ima ed ha nea ly 1073 MLD o sewage a e di ec ly
520
discha ged in o wa e bodies (A appo Iyakkam 2017). The 12 ea men plan s a e di ided in
521
zones om I o V and hei ea men capaci y anges om 12 o 120 MLD. In Nesapakkam,
522
Koyambedu and Kodungaiyu , plan s use ac i a ed sludge p ocess and in Villi akkam an
523
ae a ed lagoon (CMDA 2020b). In 2005 and 2006, he Chennai Ci y Ri e Conse a ion
524
P ojec (CCRCP) in es ed Rs. 7201.5 million o inc ease he sewage ea men capaci y,
525
p e en o e low o sewage in o he ci y wa e ways and eno a e pa o he sys em (CMDA
526
2006).
527
3.6.4 Res o a ion o wa e bodies
528
The e a e se e al p ojec s o es o e Chennai’s wa e bodies. The Chennai Ri e s Res o a ion
529
T us , ounded in 2006 by Go e nmen o Tamil Nadu as Adya Poonga T us , ha e h ee
530
p ojec s: he Eco-Res o a ion o Adya C eek (58 ac es), he Eco-Res o a ion o he Adya
531
C eek and Es ua y (300 ac es) and he In eg a ed Cooum Ri e Eco-Res o a ion Plan
532
(Chennai Ri e s Res o a ion T us 2020).
533
The non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) Ca e Ea h T us and The Na u e Conse ancy,
534
among o he s, ha e de eloped we land es o a ion p ojec s in oducing a sus ainabili y and
535
communi y pa icipa ion ocus. Ca e Ea h T us has success ully comple ed he es o a ion o
536
he Na ayanapu am Lake, he Pe ungala hu Pe iya E i, he Pudu hangal Lake, Thazhambu
537
E i, he Sembakkam Lake, he Puduche i Keni kulam and he Odai keni kulam (Ca e Ea h
538
T us 2020).
539
In he Pallika anai ma shland, 317 ha o i s sou he nmos po ion we e decla ed as a bi d
540
sanc ua y on Ap il 2007 (Venca esan 2007; S einb uch and Hö mann 2015) and i s decla a ion
541
as Ramsa si e is in p og ess (Shekha 2020).
542
3.6.5 Wa e go e nance
543
The Chennai Me opoli an Wa e Supply and Sewe age Ac , 1978, amended in 1997, also
544
known as Tamil Nadu Ac 28 o 1978 ounded Me owa e and ga e i he mission o p o ide
545
he Chennai Me opoli an A ea an adequa e supply o good quali y wa e and a sa e disposal
546
o was e wa e a a easonable p ice (CMWSSB 2020 ). Me owa e subsidizes i s esiden ial
547
cus ome s by o e p icing i s indus ies (Gopakuma 2009). Acco ding o hei da a, 830 million
548
li e s pe day (MLD) o d inking wa e a e p oduced in Chennai, whe eas he ea men
549
capaci y eaches 1,494 MLD. The expansion o co e he whole Chennai Me opoli an A ea is
550

22
in p og ess (CMWSSB 2020c). A ew yea s la e , he Chennai Me opoli an A ea G ound
551
Wa e (Regula ion) Ac , 1987 came in o o ce o p ese e g ound wa e and ga e Me owa e
552
he powe o au ho ize pe mi s o sink wells and licenses o ex ac ion and he obliga ion o
553
keeping well egis e s and he use o g oundwa e o ag icul u al pu poses (The Chennai
554
me opoli an a ea g oundwa e ( egula ion) ac 1987 1987). Fu he mo e, The Tamil Nadu
555
Pollu ion Con ol Boa d is esponsible o se ing, moni o ing and en o cemen o
556
en i onmen al egula ions and s anda ds (Roumeau e al. 2015).
557
Cu en app oaches o wa e go e nance s uggle o mee Chennai’s demands o wa e .
558
Legisla ion exis s bu o poli ical, ins i u ional and social easons i is no always en o ced
559
(Janaka ajan and Lakshmi 2005).
560
The insu icien supply o wa e by public en i ies has made p i a e owned anke s and he
561
packaged wa e endo s c i ical ac o s in wa e go e nance (Roumeau e al. 2015). Many
562
a me s ha e le hei ag icul u al ac i i ies o sell g oundwa e di ec ly o p i a e anke s
563
ollowing a g ea e e enue (Packialakshmibb e al. 2011; Roumeau e al. 2015). O he
564
s akeholde s a e wa e supplie s in he p i a e sec o , a me s, and he ci il socie y (Roumeau
565
e al. 2015) as well as mul iple NGOs dealing wi h wa e and en i onmen al issues, like
566
En i onmen alis Founda ion o India o he Ca e Ea h T us .
567
4 Discussion
568
Di e en s udies ha e assessed he DPSIR amewo k in e ms o i s applica ion o
569
sus ainable de elopmen s udies (Ca e al. 2009), de e mina ion o causal ela ionships
570
(Niemeije and De G oo 2008) and i s easibili y o suppo ing decision making (Tsche ning
571
e al. 2012). These au ho s enuncia e ha he DPSIR p esen s d awbacks ega ding o i s
572
hie a chical s uc u e, he es ablishmen o unidi ec ional ela ionships and, in some s udies,
573
he lack o in eg a ion o decision make s in o he pa icipa i e p ocess. Ne e heless, hey
574
also s ess he DPSIR’s po en ial o emphasize causali y be ween en i onmen al indica o s
575
and o s uc u e dispe se da a o p o ide meaning ul explana ions o complex en i onmen al
576
issues o policy make s (Niemeije and De G oo 2008; Tsche ning e al. 2012) ha acili a es
577
communica ion and compa ison (Pa ício e al. 2016). Since he de elopmen o he DPSIR,
578
25 de i a i es in mo e han 152 s udies ha e been p oposed in he li e a u e (Ta and E e s
579
2016; Pa ício e al. 2016). Howe e , none has been adop ed by he scien i ic communi y as
580
a eplacemen o he DPSIR no by in e na ional ins i u ions as he o iginal DPSIR amewo k
581
was by he Eu opean Union and Eu opean En i onmen Agency (Eu opean Comission 1999).
582
Th ough he applica ion o he DPSIR in Chennai, he au ho s ag ee on i s ad an ages and i s
583
po en ial o be connec ed wi h he SDGs 6 and 11. The applica ion o he DPSIR in ol es
584
indica o s ega ding wa e esou ces and pollu ion, was e, land use change, and loss o
585
biodi e si y among o he s (Smee s and We e ings 1999; K is ensen 2003; Eu opean
586
En i onmen Agency 2005, 2014) ha a e also included in he SDGs 6 and 11, like he
587
indica o s 6.3.1 P opo ion o domes ic and indus ial was ewa e lows sa ely ea ed, 6.3.2
588
P opo ion o bodies o wa e wi h good ambien wa e quali y o 6.6.1 Change in he ex en o
589
wa e - ela ed ecosys ems o e ime and 11.3.1 Ra io o land consump ion a e o popula ion
590
23
g ow h a e (Uni ed Na ions 2022a, b).
591
The applica ion o he DPSIR amewo k also ound limi a ions on wa e managemen . Fi s ,
592
wa e managemen equi es o be aced om se e al pe spec i es and conside ing a la ge
593
numbe o a iables. Today, decision-make s and s akeholde wo k in many cases
594
independen ly wi h con adic o y in e es s. The e o e, a deepe in eg a ion o he public
595
adminis a ion bodies in ol ed in wa e managemen and a be e coope a ion o di e en
596
s akeholde s is necessa y. Secondly, poo law en o cemen hinde s e icien wa e
597
managemen . Fo example, g oundwa e o e -ex ac ion in pe iu ban a eas. Thi dly, da a
598
sca ci y o di icul access impedes o de elop new e icien policies adap ed o he ci y needs.
599
In he Indian con ex , he implemen a ion o e ec i e policies o manage wa e challenges in
600
ci ies is limi ed by inaccessible and un eliable da a, limi ed coo dina ion be ween s akeholde s,
601
non-implemen a ion o policies and p ojec s, en i onmen al legisla ion iola ions, unclea o
602
o e lapped esponsibili ies, inadequa e main enance o wa e in as uc u e (Aa sen e al.
603
2018). The O ganisa ion o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen (OECD 2015) p o ides
604
a amewo k o unde s and wa e go e nance sys ems’ pe o mance. In addi ion, he
605
implemen a ion o adap i e managemen app oaches has been s a ed as a comp ehensi e
606
solu ion o imp o ing decision making and managing wa e esou ces (Pahl-Wos l 2008;
607
Ka el 2019a). Fo ins ance, Ka el, 2019, has p oposed six key elemen s o enhancing wa e
608
secu i y in i e basins i.e. he implemen a ion o ea ly wa ning sys ems, wa e oo p in s
609
managemen , g oundwa e aqui e s managemen , inc eased wa e s ewa dship and
610
go e nance, enhanced esilience o social and ecological sys ems o eshwa e s and he
611
p omo ion o he wa e -ene gy- ood nexus.
612
Chennai and i s me opoli an a ea a e expec ed o keep acing wa e s ess and di icul ies o
613
implemen he SDGs 6 and 11. The cu en wa e supply sys em has p o en o be insu icien
614
e en wi h a e age wea he condi ions, wi h a gap o 342 MLD be ween es ima ed demand
615
(1173 MLD) and supply (831 MLD) in 2014 (Go e nmen o Tamil Nadu 2014) and wi h a
616
supply o only a ound 90 li e s pe capi a a day (CMDA 2006). Chennai needs o u gen ly ind
617
new wa e sou ces o mee he always inc easing demand.
618
Con en ional su ace wa e sou ces, like new ese oi s, a e ed by No heas Monsoon and
619
would ace a simila end o d ough (Chennai Me opoli an De elopmen Au ho i y, 2006).
620
Ca chmen s depending on he Sou hwes Monsoon a e a om Chennai and would equi e
621
high cos s o build and ope a e long channels and ensions be ween communi ies would
622
eme ge, like in he Telugu Ganga p ojec . G oundwa e is unable o supply su icien wa e in
623
a sus ainable manne . Recha ging he aqui e s by wa e ha es ing would con ibu e o a mo e
624
s able and eliable wa e supply. The wo new seawa e desalina ion plan s (2x500 MLD)
625
planned o 2024 can ca e mo e han 2 million people, al hough a inal a o dable wa e p ice
626
has o be g an ed o poo e a eas. O he wise, wa e bills could emain unpaid as i happens
627
in he es o he s a e o Tamil Nadu (Gopakuma 2009). Fu he mo e, managemen o b ine
628
p oduced by desalina ion plan s equi es o be conside ed.
629
Chennai’s wa e bodies a e being pollu ed because o he lack o was e wa e ea men plan s.
630
24
The likely 1073 million li e s pe day (MLD) gap be ween ea ed (550 MLD) and non- ea ed
631
(1500-2000 MLD) sewage is di ec ly discha ged in o wa e bodies (A appo Iyakkam 2017;
632
CMWSSB 2020a). Howe e , i is insu icien o co e he p esen and u u e sewage
633
gene a ion. The au ho i ies need o ind unds o build new sewage ea men plan s and an
634
e icien was e managemen sys em, including he closu e o he cu en wo main open
635
dumpsi es. The abili y o he ins i u ions o implemen u ban plans ha conside sewage
636
ea men and was e managemen sys ems will be key o pollu ion p e en ion o wa e bodies
637
a a lowe cos . The hi d mas e plan o Chennai b ings a new and p omising ocus wi h a
638
long- e m ision documen p oduced h ough a pa icipa o y app oach.
639
Biodi e si y in he Pallika anai ma shland and o he wa e bodies has been educed due o
640
inc eased wa e pollu ion and in asi e species like he wa e hyacin h (Oppili 2017). NGOs
641
like Ca e Ea h T us , The Na u e Conse ancy and En i onmen alis Founda ion o India play
642
a majo ole in he es o a ion o aqua ic ecosys ems. Res o a ion success elies signi ican ly
643
on he in e es o he ins i u ions o implemen his kind o p ojec s on hei own o wi h he help
644
o NGOs and also in he abili y o hese NGOs o achie e ex e nal unds.
645
En i onmen al egula ions need o mee in e na ional s anda ds and o be en o ced o ensu e
646
he p o ec ion o he aqua ic ecosys ems (Janaka ajan and Lakshmi 2005). In May 2020, a
647
new d a o he En i onmen Impac Assessmen No i ica ion 2020, unde he En i onmen
648
(P o ec ion) Ac , 1986 came in o o ce. I se aside se e al essen ial p o isions such as public
649
consul a ion and in oduced ex-pos ac o clea ance o many p ojec s, including some
650
i iga ion and hyd oelec ic p ojec s, all inland wa e way p ojec s, and o he s (Anan hak ishnan
651
2020). This se s a wo ying p eceden ha could a ec o he en i onmen al egula ions.
652
The se e e hi o COVID pandemic on Indian economy d opped in es men g ow h in he yea
653
2020 o 10% (Uni ed Na ions 2021) and his will p obably delay many o he men ioned
654
p ojec s.
655
5 Conclusions
656
This s udy applied he DPSIR F amewo k o wa e managemen in Chennai, Sou h India. The
657
s udy p o ides answe s o he esea ch ques ions aised in he in oduc ion sec ion. Fi s , he
658
DPSIR p o ed o be a aluable ool o e alua e wa e challenges in ci ies by disen angling
659
ela ionships be ween en i onmen al indica o s and s uc u ing dispe se da a ha allows
660
policy make s o a be e unde s anding. The indica o s used o he DPSIR amewo k can
661
be also easily aligned wi h he indica o s o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals 6 and 11.
662
Second, limi ed in eg a ion o decision-make s and s akeholde s, poo law en o cemen and
663
sca ci y o da a limi e ec i e wa e managemen in Chennai, which can be applied o o he
664
ci ies wi h simila scena ios.
665
As a esul o he DPSIR analysis, he unplanned popula ion g ow h ueled by he apid
666
economic de elopmen we e iden i ied as he wo main d i e s. They b ough p essu es such
667
as apid land use change, g oundwa e o e -ex ac ion o pa ially co e he highe wa e
668
demand, and bigge olumes o solid was es and un ea ed sewage ha a e discha ged in o
669
wa e bodies. This si ua ion headed o low alues o indica o s ela ed o he s a us o
670
25
u baniza ion, wa e a ailabili y, wa e quali y and biodi e si y and isible en i onmen al
671
impac s wi hin he ci y: loss o aqua ic ecosys ems and enc oachmen , low wa e able le els,
672
low wa e quali y, ha educes aqua ic biodi e si y and human heal h. U ban planning and he
673
hi d Chennai mas e plan was iden i ied as a key esponse. S akeholde s execu ed nume ous
674
wa e in as uc u e p ojec s ha inc eased d inking wa e a ailabili y wi h con en ional (dams
675
and in e basin ans e s, g oundwa e pumping) and non-con en ional (desalina ion plan s,
676
wa e anke s, ainwa e ha es ing) echniques. They also buil sewage ea men plan s,
677
es o ed ecosys ems and imp o ed wa e go e nance.
678
679
32
o Cooum Sub Basin, Chennai. Na En i on Pollu Technol 16:969–974
952
New on D (2016) The Global Wa e C isis: a e e ence Handbook. ABC-CLIO, San a Ba ba a
953
Niemeije D, De G oo RS (2008) F aming en i onmen al indica o s: Mo ing om causal
954
chains o causal ne wo ks. En i on De Sus ain 10:89–106.
955
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10668-006-9040-9
956
NITI Aayog (2020) To al Fe ili y Ra e S a is ics. h ps://ni i.go .in/con en / o al- e ili y- a e- -
957
bi h-woman. Accessed 14 Jul 2020
958
OECD (2015) The OECD P inciples on Wa e Go e nance
959
Oldenbo gh GJ an, O o FEL, Ka s en H, Achu a ao K (2016) The hea y p ecipi a ion e en
960
o Decembe 2015 in Chennai, India. In: Explaining Ex emes o 2015 om a Clima e
961
Pe spec i e. Bull. Ame . Me eo . Soc. 97 (12), S14-S18
962
Oppili P (2017) Kille exo ic ish loose in ci y wa e bodies. Times o India
963
Packialakshmibb S, K Ambujam N, Nelliya P (2011) G oundwa e ma ke and i s implica ions
964
on wa e esou ces and ag icul u e in he sou he n pe i-u ban in e ace, Chennai, India.
965
En i on De Sus ain 13:423–438. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10668-010-9269-1
966
Padma a hi M (2007) Assessmen o G ound Con amina ion a Pe ungudi Municipal Dumping
967
Ya d in Chennai
968
Pagan J, P yo M, Deepa R, e al (2020a) Sus ainable De elopmen Tool Using Me a-Analysis
969
and DPSIR F amewo k — Applica ion o Sa annah Ri e Basin, U.S. JAWRA J Am
970
Wa e Resou Assoc 56:1059–1082. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/1752-1688.12872
971
Pagan J, P yo M, Deepa R, e al (2020b) Sus ainable De elopmen Tool Using Me a-Analysis
972
and DPSIR F amewo k — Applica ion o Sa annah Ri e Basin, U.S. JAWRA J Am
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Wa e Resou Assoc 56:1059–1082. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/1752-1688.12872
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P og amme on Tank Pe o mance in Tamil Nadu S a e, India. Kyo o
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amewo k o ma ine en i onmen al managemen ? F on Ma Sci 3:1–14.
980
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982
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36
1135
Supplemen a y ma e ial
1136
Table S1. Main indica o s conside ed o e e y componen o he D i e s-P essu es-S a es-
1137
Impac s-Responses analysis o wa e managemen in Chennai in his s udy.
1138
Indica o
Value
Yea s
Sou ce
D i e s
Popula ion g ow h
A e age annual popula ion g ow h
(%)
0.75
2001-2011
Di ec o a e o Census Ope a ions
Tamil Nadu (2011)
Economic
de elopmen
A e age annual g ow h o pe capi a
ne s a e domes ic p oduc in upees
a cons an p ices in Tamil Nadu (%)
6.59
1998-1999
o
2018-2019
Rese e Bank o India (2020)
P essu es
Land use change
A e age annual inc ease o u ban
a ea (%)
1.92
1988-2017
Ma han and K ishna eni (2020)
G oundwa e
o e -ex ac ion
A e age g oundwa e ex ac ed
(million li e s pe day)
200
2015
Venka achalam (2015)
Liquid and solid
was e
mismanagemen
Was e wa e ea ed (%)
33.90
2017
A appo Iyakkam (2017)
S a es
U baniza ion
s a us
U ban a ea o e he o al o he
Chennai Me opoli an A ea (%)
48.7
2017
Ma han and K ishna eni (2020)
Wa e a ailabili y
Wa e supply (li e /inhabi an /day)
90
2014
Go e nmen o Tamil Nadu (2014)
Wa e quali y
Biochemical oxygen demand (mg
oxygen/l)
9-375
2015-2019
Kuma e al. (2019); Dhamodha an
e al. (2016); Ne haji Ma iappan e
al. (2017); Kuma e al. (2018); Raji
and Ab aham (2018); K ishna
Kuma e al. (2015)
Biodi e si y s a us
We land a ea o e he o al o he
Chennai Me opoli an A ea (%)
15.80
2016
Amali e al. (2019)
Impac s
Loss o aqua ic
ecosys ems
A e age annual educ ion in wa e
su ace (%)
1.25
1988-2016
Ma han and K ishna eni (2020)
Low wa e able
Wa e ex ac ed o he aqui e (%)
80
2012
Balan e al. (2012)
Low wa e quali y
Un ea ed was e wa e discha ged
(million li e s pe day)
1073
2017
A appo Iyakkam (2017)
Reduc ion o
biodi e si y and
human heal h
A e age annual educ ion in
we lands (%)
1.35
1988-2016
Amali e al. (2019)
1139
1140