MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS
OF ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN
IN SPORT
Glyn C. Robe s and Da en C. T easu e
RESUMEN: Es e a ículo p esen a una e isión de las más ecien es in es igaciones sob e los
de e minan es de la mo i ación in an il desde el pun o de is a de la mo i ación de log o. Desde es e
ma co eó ico, se c ee que los obje i os de a ea y del ego deciden cómo las pe sonas cons uyen sus
con ex os de log o, y se lle a a cabo la in e p e ación, e aluación y la eacción espec o a la consecución
del obje i o. Las in es igaciones e isadas sugie en que las c eencias pa e nas cons i uyen un impo an e
an eceden e de las di e encias indi iduales espec o a la o ien ación de la consecución de obje i os de
log o. De odas mane as, los hallazgos más ecien es apoyan el a gumen o de que las pe cepciones del
clima mo i acional son asimismo impo an es a la ho a de de e mina la conduc a de log o del niño.
Consecuen emen e, en el abajo se p esen a una pe spec i a in e accionis a que combina an o las
a iables indi iduales como las si uacionales. Es a pe spec i a p ome e p opo ciona un en endimien o
más comple o de la mo i ación in an il en las expe iencias de depo e compe i i as. El abajo concluye
examinando las es a egias de in e ención basadas en la c eación de un clima mo i acional o ien ado a la
a ea que pueda se usado po los adul os pa a mejo a la mo i ación y el dis u e de odos los niños en el
con ex o del depo e de compe ición.
*Uni e si y o Illinois a U bana Champaign and Sou he n Illinois Uni e si y a Edwa ds ille USA.
Co espondence: Glyn C. Robe s. Uni e si y o Illinois a U bana-Champaign. 906 Sou h Goodwin
A enue, U bana, IL 61801. USA.
3 - obe s 02/04/03 16:30 Página 125
ABSTRACT: This pape p o ides a e iew o ecen esea ch dealing wi h he de e minan s o child en’s
mo i a ion s emming om an achie emen goal pe spec i e. In his amewo k, ask and ego achie emen
goals a e belie ed o go e n how indi iduals cons ue achie emen con ex s as well as how hey in e p e ,
assess, and eac o achie emen eedback. Resea ch is e iewed ha sugges s ha pa en al belie s a e
an impo an an eceden o indi idual di e ences in achie emen goal o ien a ion. Recen indings,
howe e , suppo he a gumen ha pe cep ions o he mo i a ional clima e a e also impo an in
de e mining a child’s achie emen beha io . Consequen ly, an in e ac ionis pe spec i e ha combines bo h
indi idual and si ua ional di e ence a iables is p esen ed which p omises o p o ide a mo e comple e
unde s anding o child en’s mo i a ion in compe i i e spo expe iences. The pape concludes by examining
in e en ion s a egies based on c ea ing a ask in ol ing mo i a ional clima e ha adul s can use o
enhance he mo i a ion and enjoymen o all child en in he con ex o compe i i e spo .
Mo i a ional de e minan s o achie emen o child en in spo
Pe o mance in physical ac i i y is assumed o be impo an in he socializa ion
p ocess o he child. I is gene ally assumed ha in play, games, and spo , child en
a e b ough in o con ac wi h social o de and he alues inhe en in socie y, and a e
p o ided a con ex wi hin which desi able social beha io s a e de eloped (B us ad,
1993; E ans and Robe s, 1987). This assump ion has gi en ise o cul u al
expec a ions ha ha e esul ed in s eadily inc easing le els o in ol emen o child en
in all aspec s o physical ac i i y, especially adul o ganized compe i i e spo .
Resea ch has demons a ed ha he domain o compe i i e spo is a pa icula ly
impo an con ex o psycho-social de elopmen in ha pee s a us, pee accep ance,
and sel -wo h a e es ablished and de eloped (E ans and Robe s, 1987; Fox, 1988;
Ve o , 1969). These social a ibu es a e based upon many ac o s, bu one way a
child can gain accep ance is o demons a e compe ence in an ac i i y alued by
o he child en. One a ea o compe ence highly alued by child en is a hle ic abili y
(Chase and D umme , 1992; Robe s and T easu e, 1992, 1993). Being a good
a hle e appea s o be a s ong social asse o a child, especially o boys. Thus,
unde s anding he social dynamics o in ol emen and enhancing he achie emen
beha io o child en in compe i i e spo con ex s has been a opic o conside able
in e es o coaches, eache s, and pa en s.
The achie emen goal app oach o mo i a ion and achie emen
Va ious heo ies ha e been p oposed o accoun o he mo i a ional de e minan s
o child en’s a hle ic achie emen (see Robe s, 1984, 1992). The amewo k adop ed
in he p esen pape , howe e , is de i ed om he independen and collabo a i e
class oom based esea ch o Nicholls (e.g., 1980, 1984, 1989), Dweck (e.g., 1986;
Dweck and Ellio , 1988), Ames (e.g., 1987; Ames and A che , 1987), and Maeh
(e.g., 1983; Maeh and B askamp, 1986; Maeh and Nicholls, 1980). These heo is s
ha e ocused on he goal-di ec ed na u e o achie emen beha io and ha e a gued
ha he cen al cons uc o he achie emen goal app oach is he desi e o
demons a e abili y in achie emen si ua ions ha a e assumed o be impo an o he
indi idual. Fo he mos pa , he sel -pe cep o abili y has been assumed o e e o
how much abili y an indi idual has ela i e o o he s. Resea ch om an achie emen
goal pe spec i e, howe e , sugges s ha mo e han one concep ion o abili y exis s
DOSSIER: MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF... / GLYN C. ROBERTS AND C. TREASURE
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(Nicholls, 1984, 1989), and ha an indi iduals’ cogni i e and a ec i e pa e ns a e
de e mined by he concep ion o abili y adop ed. Based on de elopmen al wo k wi h
child en, Nicholls concluded ha he de elopmen o he concep o abili y is a
p ocess o di e en ia ing he concep s o luck, ask di icul y, and e o om abili y.
Following a se ies o expe imen s, Nicholls (1984; Nicholls and Mille , 1984)
concluded ha by he age o 12, child en we e able o di e en ia e ask di icul y, luck,
and e o om abili y. In he spo domain, Walling and Duda (1994) ha e epo ed
simila indings. Replica ing Nicholls and Mille s’ (1984) s udy, Walling and Duda
ound ha i was no un il age 12 ha child en we e able o clea ly di e en ia e he
concep s o luck, ask di icul y, and e o om abili y. Thus, child en unde age 12
ypically pe cei e abili y in an undi e en ia ed ashion, bu by age 12 a e able o
di e en ia e be ween he concep s o e o , luck, ask di icul y, and abili y.
Reaching his de elopmen al s age, howe e , does no necessa ily dic a e ha a
di e en ia ed concep ion o abili y will be au oma ically in oked by indi iduals o e he
age o 12. Ra he , an indi idual will app oach a ask wi h ce ain goals o ac ion
e lec ing hei pe sonal pe cep ions and belie s abou he pa icula achie emen
ac i i y in which hey a e engaged (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). The concep ion o abili y
hey employ, and he ways hey in e p e hei pe o mance can be unde s ood in
e ms o hese pe cep ions and belie s. These pe cep ions and belie s o m a pe sonal
heo y o achie emen a he ac i i y (Nicholls, 1989). The adop ed pe sonal heo y o
achie emen a ec s one’s belie s abou how o achie e success a he ac i i y.
The e o e, people will di e in which o he concep ions o abili y hey use and in how
hey use hem based on hei pe sonal heo y o achie emen .
Nicholls (1984) con ends ha he wo concep ions o abili y a e embedded wi hin
wo o hogonal achie emen goal o ien a ions. These wo goal o ien a ions a e ela ed
o he concep ion o abili y adop ed by an indi idual and ac as goals o ac ion
e lec ing he indi idual’s pe sonal heo y o achie emen wi hin a pa icula
achie emen con ex . In his pape , he e ms ask and ego will be used o desc ibe
he wo goal o ien a ions (Nicholls, 1984, 1989). An indi idual who is ask o ien ed
u ilizes an undi e en ia ed concep ion o abili y, in ha he pe son does no
di e en ia e be ween abili y and e o and ocuses on ying ha d a de eloping skills,
lea ning new skills, and in demons a ing mas e y a he ask. The demons a ion o
abili y is based on maximum e o and is sel - e e enced. In con as , an indi idual
who is ego o ien ed u ilizes a di e en ia ed concep ion o abili y in ha he pe son
ecognizes he di e ence be ween abili y and e o and ocuses on being able wi h
e e ence o o he s. The demons a ion o abili y is based on ou pe o ming o he s
wi h he leas e o possible as succeeding wi h minimum e o is e idence o high
abili y.
Recen esea ch has applied and es ed he concep ual ele ance o achie emen
goal heo y o he domain o spo . This line o esea ch has ocused on iden i ying he
cogni i e and beha io al concomi an s o ask and ego o ien a ions (e.g., Duda, 1989;
Duda, Fox, Biddle, and A ms ong, 1992; Lochbaum and Robe s, 1993; Robe s and
T easu e, 1995; T easu e and Robe s, 1994a), and has consis en ly demons a ed
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ha he concep ually cohe en ela ionship be ween achie emen goals and belie s
ha has eme ged in he educa ion se ing, also exis in spo (see Duda, 1993;
Robe s, 1993). De e mining he an eceden s o indi idual di e ences in achie emen
goal o ien a ion has, howe e , ecei ed li le a en ion in he spo li e a u e (B us ad,
1993). One an eceden o disposi ional achie emen goal o ien a ions o ecei e some
a en ion ecen ly has been pa en al belie s.
Pa en al Belie s
Al hough many ac o s ha e been ecognized as in luencing child en’s mo i a ion,
he po en ial impo ance o pa en al belie s in his socializa ion p ocess has been he
ocus o ecen esea ch in he educa ion con ex (e.g., Pa sons, Adle , and Kaczala,
1982; Ames and A che , 1987). Ames and A che (1987) con end ha pa en s p o ide
an ex emely impo an con ex o he de elopmen o child en’s mo i a ion p ocesses
and sugges ha he con ex p o ided by pa en s who s ess ask e sus ego
achie emen goals may, in ac , be qui e di e en . They p opose ha as a unc ion o a
pa en s’ achie emen goal o ien a ion, child en may be o ien ed o ce ain ypes o
ac i i ies mo e han o he s, ein o ced o ce ain choices, and e alua ed on di e en
aspec s o hei beha io .
In a ecen s udy Robe s, T easu e and Hall (1994) ex ended he esea ch o
Ames and A che (1987) and examined he linkages be ween he achie emen goals
o pa en s and hei associa ed achie emen belie s conce ning he compe i i e spo
expe ience o hei child. Speci ically, he s udy examined whe he pa en s’ endo sing
di e en achie emen goals di e ed in how hey de ined hei child’s success in spo ,
and hei p e e ence o ce ain ypes o pe o mance eedback abou hei child. The
esul s o his s udy e ealed ha achie emen goals a ec he meaning o success in
spo . Whe eas di e ences in ask esponses appea o be c i ical in he class oom
con ex (e.g., Ames and A che , 1988), he in e es ing indings in he Robe s e al.
s udy occu ed along he dimension o he ego goal o ien a ion. Pa en s high in ego
o ien a ion emphasized no ma i e s anda ds when de ining success o a g ea e
deg ee han pa en s low in ego o ien a ion. In con as , pa en s low in ego o ien a ion
iewed ge ing along wi h o he s as mo e impo an han high ego o ien ed pa en s,
and indica ed ha winning was less impo an in in e p e ing success. A simila
pa e n o esul s occu ed when pa en s had o indica e hei p e e ence o ce ain
ypes o pe o mance eedback abou hei child. The indings sugges ha depending
on he achie emen goal adop ed, di e en sou ces o spo pe o mance eedback
a e pe cei ed as salien . Pa en s high in ego o ien a ion p e e ed no ma i e
pe o mance eedback in o ma ion, pa icula ly in o ma ion ega ding he numbe o
wins hei child en accomplished, and hei pe o mance compa ed o o he child en.
In con as , pa en s low in ego o ien a ion we e mo e conce ned wi h whe he hei
child was accep ed as pa o he eam.
In e es ingly, pa en s low in ego o ien a ion esponded in a simila manne o he
ask pa en s, and he high ego o ien ed pa en s esponded in a manne consis en
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wi h he ego o ien ed pa en s in he Ames and A che (1987) s udy. I is a signi ican
obse a ion ha low ego o ien ed pa en s esponded in much he same way as ask
o ien ed indi iduals in ea lie class oom esea ch (Ames and A che , 1987). Howe e ,
o assume ha indi idual’s who sco e low in ego o ien a ion a e ask o ien ed in he
spo con ex , is o dis ega d he o hogonali y o he goal o ien a ions, and o igno e
he impo ance o he con ex in dic a ing which goal o ien a ion is mo e salien (Ames
and A che , 1988; Bu le , 1987; Nicholls, 1989). Fo example, o hose pa en s in he
Robe s e al. (1994) s udy who we e high in ego o ien a ion, he goal o
demons a ing no ma i e abili y appea s o ha e o e whelmed he ask c i e ia all
pa en s epo ed (M=4.46 on a 5 poin scale) was impo an when assessing hei
child’s success in spo . The esul s o his s udy he e o e emphasize he need o
de elop con ex speci ic heo ies o achie emen ha ecognize he unique ea u es o
he con ex (Nicholls, 1992). The esul s u he indica e ha in he spo con ex , wi h
i s inhe en , pe haps o e whelming, emphasis on no ma i e s anda ds o
pe o mance, ha he indi idual di e ences in ego esponses may be mo e signi ican
han ask esponses.
When we ask how pa en ’s in e p e hei child en’s compe i i e spo expe ience,
we begin o app ecia e how hey can a ec he way in which hei child en pe cei e
his expe ience. The esul s o he Robe s e al. (1994) s udy sugges ha by making
ce ain ypes o pe o mance eedback and spo ing beha io s salien , a pa en ’s goal
p e e ence becomes mani es and may in luence child en’s a i udes owa d he
ac i i y and hei pe cep ions o which c i e ia de e mine achie emen and success in
spo .
Si ua ional de e minan s o achie emen
While one a enue o esea ch ela ed o achie emen goals in spo has
demons a ed ha indi idual di e ences in goal o ien a ion a e associa ed wi h
di e en mo i a ional p ocesses (e.g., Duda, 1989; Duda, e al., 1992; Duda, Chi,
New on, Walling and Ca ley, 1995; T easu e and Robe s, 1994a), ano he has
ocused on si ua ional in luences (e.g., Sei iz, Duda and Chi, 1992; Walling, Duda
and Chi, 1993). This esea ch has examined how he s uc u e o he en i onmen ,
e e ed o as he mo i a ional clima e, can make i mo e o less likely ha
achie emen beha io s associa ed wi h a pa icula achie emen goal be adop ed.
The p emise o esea ch om a si ua ional pe spec i e is ha he na u e o a child’s
spo expe iences, and how hey in e p e hese expe iences, in luence he deg ee o
which ask and ego in ol emen a e pe cei ed as salien wi hin he con ex . This is
assumed o a ec he achie emen beha io s o child en h ough hei pe cep ion o
he beha io s necessa y o achie e success. Typically, child en adop adap i e
achie emen s a egies (namely, o wo k ha d, seek challenging asks, pe sis in he
ace o di icul y) in ask in ol ing si ua ions, because hese a e he beha io s deemed
necessa y o success in ha con ex (see Ames, 1992). In con as , child en adop
wha a e called maladap i e achie emen s a egies (namely, o seek easy asks,
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DOSSIER: MOTIVATIONAL DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OF... / GLYN C. ROBERTS AND C. TREASURE
educe e o because succeeding wi hou e o is deemed desi able, o socially
compa e, o o gi e up in he ace o di icul y) in ego in ol ing si ua ions, because
bea ing o he s is he c i e ion o success. When success is appa en ly assu ed, ego
in ol ed child en educe e o . When success is s ill unce ain, hey choose easie
asks o gi e up (see Ames, 1992). Resea ch o da e is consis en wi h hese
undamen al ene s o achie emen goal heo y (e.g., Ames, 1992; Ames and A che ,
1988; Sei iz, Duda and Chi, 1992; Walling, Duda and Chi, 1993; T easu e and
Robe s, 1995).
Resea ch has begun o in es iga e he ela ionship be ween he mo i a ional
clima e and child en’s cogni i e and a ec i e esponses in spo . In a ecen s udy
wi h adolescen a hle es compe ing in an ama eu in e na ional compe i ion, Walling,
Duda and Chi (1993) examined he ela ionship be ween pe cep ions o he
mo i a ional clima e and he deg ee o wo y expe ienced while pa icipa ing, and
eam sa is ac ion. Consis en wi h achie emen goal heo y, pe cep ions o a ask
in ol ing clima e we e posi i ely ela ed o sa is ac ion wi h being a membe on he
eam and nega i ely associa ed wi h pe o mance wo y. In con as , pe cep ions o
an ego in ol ing clima e we e posi i ely associa ed wi h conce ns abou ailing and
he adequacy o one’s pe o mance, and nega i ely ela ed wi h eam sa is ac ion.
Al hough he esul s o Walling, Duda and Chi (1993) demons a e how a child’s
pe cep ion o he mo i a ional clima e may in luence hei mo i a ion, achie emen
goal heo y s a es ha disposi ional goal o ien a ions and pe cep ions o he clima e
a e wo independen dimensions o mo i a ion ha in e ac o a ec beha io
(Nicholls, 1989). Resea ch o da e, howe e , has p ima ily deal wi h disposi ional
goal o ien a ions and pe cep ions o he mo i a ional clima e in isola ion. I has been
sugges ed, he e o e, ha an in e ac ionis app oach ha looks o combine bo h
a iables p omises o p o ide a mo e comple e unde s anding o child en’s
achie emen beha io s and hei pe cep ions o he spo expe ience (Duda e al.,
1995; Robe s, 1992; Robe s and T easu e, 1992).
An in e ac ionis app oach
An in e ac ionis app oach ha in eg a es hese wo a iables is one in which
disposi ional goal o ien a ion may be iewed as an indi idual di e ence a iable ha
«de e mine(s) he a p io i p obabili y o adop ing a pa icula goal and displaying a
pa icula beha io pa e n, and si ua ional ac o s a e seen as po en ially al e ing
hese p obabili ies» (Dweck and Legge , 1988, p.269). Fo example, in a spo
con ex whe e he ego in ol ing o ask in ol ing cues a e ague o weak, an
indi idual’s p edisposi ion owa d an ego o ask goal o ien a ion should hold sway. I ,
on he o he hand, he si ua ional cues a e s ong in a o o ei he an ego o ask
in ol ing clima e, disposi ions may be o e idden and g ea e homogenei y among
indi iduals may esul . The s onge he disposi ion, he less likely i is o be
o e idden by si ua ional cues o he s onge will be he si ua ional cues necessa y o
o e ide i . Al e na i ely, he weake he disposi ion, he mo e easily i can be al e ed
by si ua ional cues. Clea ly, one would expec child en o beha e inconsis en ly
ac oss si ua ions when he s eng h o he si ua ional cues a ies ac oss hese
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si ua ions. I also is expec ed ha child en and young adolescen s, who ha e ye o
i m up hei pe sonal heo ies o achie emen , may be mo e suscep ible o he
s uc u e o he mo i a ional clima e han olde adolescen s and adul s (Robe s and
T easu e, 1992).
In a s udy wi h high school a si y male baske ball playe s, Sei iz, Duda, and Chi
(1992) examined he deg ee o which in insic mo i a ion and a ibu ional belie s we e
a unc ion o he mo i a ional clima e, disposi ional goal o ien a ion, o a combina ion
o bo h a iables. Resul s om hie a chical eg ession p ocedu es indica ed ha he
mo i a ional clima e was he mos signi ican p edic o o he playe s’ pe cep ions o
he deg ee o ension expe ienced while playing. The au ho s sugges ha a ec i e
esponses such as anxie y may be mo e hea ily in luenced by si ua ional ac o s.
Consequen ly, a ec i e esponses a e less s able ac oss si ua ions han ce ain
disposi ional sel - epo ed measu es, such as pe sonal c i e ia o success. Consis en
wi h his line o hinking, an indi idual’s goal o ien a ion was ound o be a be e
p edic o o sel - epo ed exe ed e o , pe cei ed abili y, and a ibu ional belie s han
pe cep ions o he clima e. These esul s a e consis en wi h an in e ac ionis
pe spec i e as one would expec pe sonal belie s, which e lec a mo e disposi ional
endency, o be bes p edic ed by a disposi ional measu e. The esul s o his s udy
sugges , he e o e, ha how one iews achie emen si ua ions may gene alize ac oss
si ua ions, bu how one expe iences hese si ua ions may shi acco ding o he
mo i a ional clima e.
I has been sugges ed ha indi idual emedia ion o enhance he quali y o
mo i a ion in he con ex o physical ac i i y by a ec ing change in a child’s
disposi ional goal o ien a ion may be e ec i e. Howe e , o concen a e on indi idual
change o child en is no e y p ac ical in mos spo and physical educa ion
con ex s. In addi ion o being expensi e and ime consuming, he esea ch epo ed
abo e sugges s ha child en pe cei e he meaning and pu pose o he achie emen
con ex in di e en ways and ha hese pe cep ions in luence he goals ha child en
hemsel es adop , he eby in luencing he quali y o mo i a ion (Ames and A che ,
1988; Maeh and Midgley, 1991). Consequen ly, s a egies o de e mine how we may
mos e ec i ely use his in o ma ion o enhance mo i a ion and os e adap i e
achie emen beha io s need o be de eloped. To his end, a g owing body o
li e a u e exis s o sugges ha he eache o coach plays an ac i e ole in he
cons uc ion o child en’s pe cep ions o he mo i a ional clima e and, consequen ly,
he quali y o hei mo i a ion. Wha is sugges ed, he e o e, is ha ime and e o be
spen in de eloping s a egies and ins uc ional p ac ices o acili a e he eache o
coach in c ea ing a ask in ol ing mo i a ional clima e (Ames, 1992; Maeh and
Midgley, 1991; Robe s, 1992, 1993; Robe s and T easu e, 1992, 1993).
C ea ing a ask in ol ing mo i a ional clima e
Lloyd and Fox (1992) conduc ed a s udy in which hey a emp ed o manipula e he
mo i a ional clima e o a physical educa ion con ex du ing six 50 minu e sessions.
Speci ically, he au ho ’s examined he e ec o wo con as ing app oaches o
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eaching an ae obics/ i ness cou se on adolescen emale’s exe cise mo i a ion and
enjoymen . In his in es iga ion, di e en mo i a ional clima es we e c ea ed by
manipula ing ce ain e bal cues and eaching s a egies. In he ask-in ol ing
condi ion, emphasis was placed on sel -imp o emen h ough wo king a one’s own
le el and ask mas e y, while in he ego-in ol ing condi ion, emphasis was placed on
demons a ing compe ence h ough pee pe o mance and no ma i e compa isons.
A e he e ec i eness o he con ex manipula ions had been assessed, pa icipan s
who ook pa in he ask condi ion epo ed highe mo i a ion o con inue pa icipa ing
in ae obics, and enjoymen han hose who pa icipa ed in he ego condi ion.
Ma sh and Pea (1988) ha e epo ed simila esul s om a 14 session
in e en ion p og am designed o con as he e ec s o compe i i e and coope a i e
ae obic p og ams on physical i ness and mul i-dimensional sel -concep s wi h
adolescen emales. The esul s o his s udy e ealed ha al hough physical i ness
imp o ed in bo h he compe i i e and coope a i e p og ams, when compa ed o a
con ol g oup, only in he coope a i e p og am we e any sel -concep a iables
a ec ed. Speci ically subjec s who pa icipa ed in he coope a i e con ex epo ed
highe le els o physical sel -concep , and physical appea ance sel -concep han
subjec s who pa icipa ed in he compe i i e con ex .
The esul s o he s udies conduc ed by Lloyd and Fox (1992) and Ma sh and Pea
(1988) demons a e ha i is possible o change cogni i e and a ec i e esponses o
child en by manipula ing he s uc u e o he physical ac i i y con ex . The esul s also
sugges ha achie emen goal heo y may be an e icacious and pa simonious
concep ual amewo k om which o design in e en ion s a egies o enhance
mo i a ion in you h spo and physical educa ion se ings. As Duda (1993) and
Robe s (1984, 1992, 1993) ha e a gued, howe e , much mo e heo y d i en
esea ch is equi ed o enhance he mo i a ion o child en in he physical domain.
Recen esea ch om an achie emen goal pe spec i e in educa ion may acili a e
his endea o .
Re iewing he si ua ional esea ch, Eps ein (1988, 1989) has a gued ha he
a ious s uc u al ea u es ha ha e been consis en ly iden i ied as in luencing a wide
ange o mo i a ional p ocesses a e in e dependen a iables ha , when aken
oge he , de ine he na u e o an achie emen con ex . Coining he ac onym TARGET
o ep esen he Task, Au ho i y, Rewa d, G ouping, E alua ion, and Time s uc u es
o he achie emen con ex , she con ends ha how he eache goes abou s uc u ing
he con ex de e mines, o a g ea ex en , child en’s mo i a ion and de elopmen .
Al hough ini ially iden i ied and desc ibed by Eps ein (1988, 1989), Ames (1992) has
sugges ed ha he TARGET s uc u es be placed wi hin an achie emen goal
heo e ical amewo k a guing ha depending on how a eache manipula es each o
he s uc u es makes he adop ion o a ask o ego achie emen goal mo e likely
(Ames, 1992).
Two ecen mo i a ion enhancemen s udies in physical ac i i y se ings ha e
u ilized Eps ein’s TARGET s uc u es. Adap ing an in e en ion p og am de eloped in
he class oom (Ames & Maeh , 1989), T easu e and Robe s (1994b, 1995)
conduc ed a 10 session socce in e en ion which en ailed iden i ying hose s a egies
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ha a e consis en wi h p omo ing ei he an ego o ask achie emen goal in a
physical educa ion se ing and o ganizing hese s a egies in o Eps ein’s six TARGET
a eas. Consequen ly, T easu e and Robe s’ (1995) s udy a o ded he compa ison
be ween an ego in ol ing mo i a ional clima e ha emphasized no ma i e s anda ds
o pe o mance wi h a ask in ol ing clima e ha ocused on lea ning and pe sonal
imp o emen . Consis en wi h class oom esea ch (Ames and Maeh , 1989) he
esul s o his s udy demons a ed ha s uden s who pe cei e a mo i a ional clima e
in which he demons a ion o abili y is based on pe sonal imp o emen and e o
mani es a signi ican ly mo e adap i e pa e n o achie emen cogni ions and a ec i e
esponses han hose who pe cei e a physical educa ion con ex in which he
demons a ion o abili y is based on no ma i e abili y and ou pe o ming o he s.
Speci ically, pa icipan s in he ask ea men condi ion indica ed ha hey p e e ed
o engage in mo e challenging asks, belie ed success was he esul o mo i a ion
and e o , expe ienced mo e sa is ac ion wi h he ac i i y han pa icipan s in he ego
ea men condi ion. Pa icipan s who ook pa in he ego ea men condi ion,
howe e , epo ed ha decep ion was a key o success. The au ho ’s concluded ha i
is possible o a eache o manipula e he physical educa ion con ex o be ask and
ego in ol ing and ha child en pe cei e hese mo i a ional clima es in quali a i ely
di e en ways.
Simila indings ha e been epo ed by Theeboom, De Knop and Weiss (1995) in a
you h spo se ing. Speci ically, Theeboom and colleagues examined he
e ec i eness o an ego e sus ask in ol ing eaching p og am on child en’s
enjoymen , pe cei ed compe ence, in insic mo i a ion and mo o skill de elopmen .
Designing he in e en ion a ound Eps ein’s TARGET s uc u es, he esul s o he
s udy e ealed ha child en in he ask in ol ing condi ion expe ienced highe le els
o enjoymen and exhibi ed be e mo o skills han hose child en in he ego in ol ing
condi ion. Al hough he quan i a i e da a did no p o ide e idence o his end, in dep h
in e iew da a indica ed ha child en in he ask condi ion we e almos unanimous in
epo ing high le els o pe cei ed compe ence and in insic mo i a ion, while hose
om he ego condi ion showed less p onounced e ec s. I has been sugges ed ha
os e ing ask in ol emen may be a pa icula challenge in he con ex o physical
ac i i y as compe i ion is inhe en in he ac i i y (Duda, 1992). The esul s o ecen
s udies (Lloyd and Fox, 1992; Ma sh and Pea , 1988; Theeboom, De Knop and
Weiss, 1995; T easu e and Robe s, 1995), howe e , sugges ha in a ela i ely sho
pe iod o ime, a eache o coach can s uc u e a you h spo o physical educa ion
con ex in such a way as o in luence a child’s ecogni ion o a ask in ol ing
mo i a ional clima e and in so doing signi ican ly enhance he /his quali y o
mo i a ion. F om a mo i a ional pe spec i e, he ecen esea ch om an
achie emen goal pe spec i e clea ly shows ha no only is i possible o c ea e a
ask in ol ing clima e, bu also ha child en h i e in such a con ex .
P ac ical Implica ions
Resea ch in bo h he class oom and spo suppo he signi icance o ask
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