-
REVISTA DE
PSICOLOGIA
DEL
DEPORTE
Hanin,
Yu i
L.
(1993)
O ganiza ional
Psychology
in
spo
s
se ing
3, 17-30
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
IN
SPORTS
SETTING
Yu i
L.
Hanin *
KEY
WORDS:
O ganiza ional Psycholo
gy,
managemen in
spon
Psychology, assessmen ins umen s.
ABSTRACT: New pe spec i es o esea ch and applied wo k in op l
e el
spo s a e discussed wi hin he con ex
o
o ganiza ional psychology (OP). Fi s , he basic concep s
o OP
a e b ie ly conside ed: managemen p ocess, kinds and l
e els
o
manage s and hei oles and unc ions, o ga
ni
za ional en i onmen s. Second, manage p oblems in ansi ion o manage ial
ol
es
a e examined wi h he special e e ence
o
he concep s
o Inne
Game
o
Managemen
(E.
Flamhol z) and psychological
eadiness o change (Y.L.Hanin). Thi d, he ways o assis spo s manage s and adminis a o s o
co
pe wi h hei s esses a e
desc
ib
ed wi h he special emphasis on he s a egies
o
b idging he gaps in hei communica ion wi h op a hle es and coaches.
O ganiza ional psychology and
spon
psychology can de ini ely en ich each o he
by
enhancing he pe o mance l
e el
o
bo h
a hle es (coaches, ope a o s a
nd
manage
s)
. Special p oblems
o
applica ion
o
he bes assessmen
in
s umen s om
o ganiza ional psychology a e also discussed.
P ALABRAS CLA YE: Psicologia de
las
o ganizaciones, o ganizaci6n y di ecci6n,
in
s umen os de e aluaci6n.
RESUMEN:
Se
discu en en es e es udio nu
e as
pe spec i as pa a la in es igaci6n y
el
abajo aplicado en
los
depone
s de al o
endimien o, den o del con ex o de la Psicologia de
las
O ganizaciones (PO). En p ime luga ,
se
conside an b e emen e
lo
s
p incipios basicos de
la
PO: p oceso de ge enci
a;
ipos y ni eles de ge en es, adminis ado
es
0 di ec o es, asi como sus oles
y unciones; y los ambien es o ganiza i os. En segundo luga ,
se
examinan
lo
s p oblem
as
de
lo
s ge en es en ansici6n a su papel
de adminis a do es, con
es
pecial e e encia a
lo
s concep os de i ados
del
Ju
ego
In
e no de la Ge encia
(E.
Flamhol
z),
y de la
p
epa aci6n psicol6gica pa a
el
cambio
(Y.
L.
Hanin). En e ce luga ,
se
desc iben l
as
di e en es o mas de aseso a a
lo
s
ge
en es
depo i os pa a en en a se con sus
p
oblemas, poniendo especial en asis en l
as
es a egias pa a
sa
l a
la
s
b
ec
has en su
An in i ed Add ess a he 7 h Annual M
ee
ing
o
he Ca alonian Associa ion
o Spon
Ps
yc
hology / ACPE/ No embe 23-
24, 1990, Ba celona, Spain.
Yu i
L.
Hanin,
o S
Pe e bu g, Russia,
is
wi h he Resea ch Ins i u e o Olympic Spo s, Uni e si y Campus, Vesangan ie
SA,
SF
-40700 Jy askyla, Finland.
ORGA
NI
ZA
TIO
NAL PSYCHOLOGY IN SPORT SETTING I
HANIN,
YURI
L.
comunicaci6n con ade as y en enado es de
el
i
e.
La P.O. y la P
si
colog a del
Depone
pueden de ini i amen e en iquece se una
a o a al mejo a
eI
ni el de endimien o an o de a le as y en enado es como de adminis a
do
es
y ge en es. Se discu en
asi
mi
smo p oblemas esped icos en
la
aplicaci6n de
lo
s mejo es ins umen os de
c al
uaci6n p o enien es de
la
P.O.
O ganiza ional psychology
III
spo
se ings
Ou
opic
oday,
conce ned
wi h
he
p oblems
o
o ganiza ional psychology which
migh be ele an o spo s se ings,
is
a e y
impo an
and in iguing subjec o discuss.
B idging hese wo a eas
o
esea ch and applied
wo k
is
indeed e y ele a
n
, I pe sonally can
con i m his om my 20 yea s
o
wo king wi h
op a hle es, coaches, spo adminis a o s and
3 yea s
o
consul ing, aining and esea ch,
wi h ou op, middle
and
on-line manage s
du ing pe es oika imes.
The
poin
is
ha
bo h
hese a eas -o ga-
niza ional
and
spo s se ings a e e y simila in
many espec s: achie e
men
o ien a ion, s esses
o
op pe o mance, high isibili y o ou side
en i onmen , o
sa
y no hing
abou
he isks
o
ailu es in ol ed. Bo h disciplines,
as
we shall
see, a e e y ecep i e o he ideas and app oaches
om di e en ields
o
psychology (gene al,
social,
indu
s ial, clinical, en
i onm
en al, e c.).
I
is
in e es ing o no e ha he opic
o
o ganiza ional psychology in spo s se ings is
somewha
unique
compa ed
o
he
mos
discussed opics a he in e na ional
o
na ional
con e ences
and
cong esses.
In
ac , I emembe
an a icle
in
a Canadian jou nal abou some
expe ience in O ganiza ional De elopme
n
in
Child
Spo
and
a ecen F ench publica ion by
Da id
WilkinsonLe
Ma ke ing du Spo
( ansla ed om English,
The
Spo Ma ke ing
Ins i u e).
So
, u ning o O ganiza ional Psychology
as
ela ed o spo s se ings migh be a p omising
a enue o explo e
in
esponse o e e inc easing
p oblems encoun e ed in op pe o mance spo
by spo psychologis
s
, coaches, and spo s
adminis a o s
who
s a o ecognize he need
o speak he sa
me
(common) language
in
18
handling he eal-li e p oblems
o
no only
a hle es
bu
all in ol ed
in
his inc easingly
complex ield
o
human
endea o . The e o e,
he e's no
doub
a
bou
his ele ance
o
he
opics we a e all in e es ed
in
conside ing.
F om he s
po
psychology pe spec i e we
do ha e a
lo
o
hings o o e o op
pe o mance in gene al: especially
a
he le el
o
indi idual
pe o me :
mo o
lea ning,
mo i a ion, a ousal, p e-con es anxie y s a es.
In
ac , he beginning
o SP
was
he applica ion
o
gene al
psychology
p inciples
and
me hodology.
The
second bigges con ibu ion
o SP
is
o
cou se, social psychology: g oup
p ocesses, eam communica ion and wo k,
leade ship, a hle e-coach ela ionships. Again
his a ea was bo owed and
hen
de eloped in
he spo se ing due o he unique p oblems
o
op le
el
spo s. Such concep s
as
op imiza ion
o
in ag oup communica ion, in e pe sonal
and
in ag oup
anxie y we e in ac i s
disco e ed a
nd
applied in spo s a
nd
hen in
manage ial psychology.
Bu i welook om
he le el
o
o ganiza ion,
hen
we can s a e han hese concep s and
app oaches a e unde used.
In
ac ,
ou
sensi i i y
o he social and economical en i onmen in
which op le el spo unc ions
is
jus beginning
o eme g
e.
We
a e jus s a ing o app ecia e
ha he mode n con empo a y spo is mo e
han pe o mance
o
op a hle es.
I
is
a big and
e y complica ed o ganiza ion in e ac ingwi h
o he bodies and o ganiza ions a bo h domes ic
(na ional) and in e na ional le els . Ano he
hing,
is
ha a hle es and coaches a e beginning
o
be a ec ed
mo e
and
mo e
by
spo
adminis a o s,
spo
ede a ions
and
in e na ional e en s
and
social, poli ical and
economical
p ocesses.
Unde s anding
o ganiza ional en i onmen and o ganiza ional
pe spec i e migh be he e o e use ul o spo
RE
VISTA
DE
P S
ICOLOcl
A D
EL
DEI'ORTE - 3
psychologis s
o
enhance
hei
wo king
ela ionships
no
only wi h a hle es
and
coaches
bu
wi h spo manage s. Helping hem o
wo k mo e e ec i ely wi h eams and o un
spo o ganiza ions.
In
ac b idging he gaps
wi hin he spo clubs
and
o ganiza ions and all
he pa icipan s
a
di e en le els migh
be
a
new
and
e y challenging ask o
spo
psychologis s in he
1990's
.
This
is
e y
impo an
and
al eady
ecognized by applied
spo
psychologis s
wo king di ec ly wi h a hle es
and
eams.
So
he new app oach
migh
be o
go
om he
pe o mance le el up o managemen .
My
long pe sonal expe ience
o
wo kimg
wi h
op pe o mance eams
and
o ganiza ions
shows ha we a e cons an ly ying o b idge
he gaps: be ween an a hle e
and
coach, a hle e
and
a eam, a hle e and ans.
And
now
he e's
a new gap be ween op pe o mance eam
(coaches, a hle es) and spo managemen (club,
ede a ion,
NeC).
In
o he wo ds, discussing
o ganiza ional psychology issues
as
ela ed o
spo s se ings
is,
in
ac , s essing en i onmen al
p oblems
o
op pe o mance.
And
inally, we' e
go o unde s and ano he e y impo an issue:
u ning o o ganiza ional psychology doesn'
mean ha we a e
a
a s a ing poin .
Top
spo
as
a unique expe ience
is
e y ele an o
o ganiza ional
psychologis s
(s ess
managemen , eam building, op imiza ion
o
eam
communica ions,
psychological
p epa a ion o change).
In
o de o discuss possible implica ions
o
o ganiza ional psychology o spo s se ing le 's
i s make a sho o e iew
o
o ganiza ional
psychology and o ganiza ional beha io
as
a
discipline.
Wha
is
managemen ?
Wha
a e
manage s
doing?
Wha
is
o ganiza ional
beha io ?
Wha
a e he s esses
o
manage s?
The
s ages
o
hei ca ee s?
Who
a e spo
manage s?
Wha
a e hei po en ial
and
eal
p oblems?
And
inally, wha a e he implica ions
o spo s psychologis s wo king wi h eams
and
spo ede a ions.
I
we u n o he main ideas
and
basics in
o ganiza ional
and
manage ial psychology we
shall come o he ollowing.
1.
OP
is
conce ned wi h
people
p oblems
as
encoun e ed and handled in o ganiza ions.
OP
is
a sys ema ic s udy
o
a i udes ( hough s,
eelings, in en ions) and ac ions (beha io and
pe o mance)
ha
people
exhibi
wi hin
o ganiza ions.
No
all ac ions and a i udes
bu
mainly h ee ypes o beha io s ha ha e p o en
o be
impo an
de e minan s
o
employee
pe o mance:
a)
p oduc i i y (absen eeism,
u no e );
b)
job
sa is ac ion;
and
c)
o ganiza ions.
I
is
well
known
ha
psychology
and
sociology do s udy beha io ,
bu
hey do no
concen a e
so
lely
on
wo k- ela ed (pe o -
mance!!) issues.
OP,
in con as , is speci ically
conce ned wi h wo k- ela ed beha io , exac ly
as
spo psychology wi h op pe o mance! and
ha beha io aking place in o ganiza ion.
2. An o ganiza ion
is
a o mal s uc u e
o
planned coo dina ion, in ol ing wo o mo e
people, in o de o achie e a
common
goal.
I
is
cha ac e ized by au ho i y ela ionship and some
deg ee
o
di ision
o
labou .
So
OB
o
OP
encompasses he beha io
o
people in such
di e se o ganiza ions
as
manu ac u ing and
se ice i ms, schools, hospi als, chu che
s,
mili a y uni s, cha i able o ganiza ion
s,
and
local, s a e and ede al go e nmen al agencies.
Top
le el
pe o mance
spo s
om
his
pe spec i e
is
no
doub
a e y
complex
o ganiza ion.
And
as
is
he case wi h he spo
psychology
OP,
a e y speci ic ea u e
o
he
OP
is
ha he e a e usually a
numbe
o
subdisciplines con ibu ing o OB: psychology
( a igue,
bo
e
dom,
wo king
condi ions),
sociology (social sys ems, oles, g oup beha io
in
o ganiza ions),
social
psychology
(in e pe sonal,
in ag oup
beha io s,
implemen a ion
o
change, educing ba ie s o
i s accep ance, decision-making), an h opology
( unc ions
o
cul u e,
no ms
and
alues,
accep able beha io s), poli ical science (con lic ,
19
-1-
OR
GANI
ZA
TIONAL P
SYC
HOLOGY IN SPORT S
E NG
I
HA
NIN,
Y U
RI
L.
alloca ion
o
powe
and
i s manipula ion), ole
o
wide social (en i onmen poli ical).
3.
OP
as
a discipline includes b anches
o
beha io al science, hei con ibu ions, uni
s
o
analysis (indi idual g oup, and o ganiza ion
sys em) and an
ou pu (
s udy
o
OB).
F om applied
poin
o
iew,
OB
(OP
is
conce ned wi h de elopmen
o
people skills
in
o ganiza ional con ex ).
The
goals
o
OB,
as
goals
o
any applied psychological science a e o
help
p
ac i ione s (manage s adminis a o s,
employees) o explain, p edic , and con ol he
beha io
o
indi idual pe o me s, g oup uni s
and whole o ganiza ion by
ass
is ing hem o
success ully unc ion
in
he social economical
en i onmen (in e ac ing be ween hemsel es
and
wi h hei coun e pa s).
I
is
qui e clea ha
in
he SP se ing his
app oach
is
e y ele an .
We
a e applying
con ibu ions
om
gene al,
social,
de elopmen al and clinical psychology,
and
somewha om sociology. Bu wha
is
missing
is
an h opology, and social-cul u al pe spec i e,
hus adding o indi idual and g oup le el
o
analysis he hi d le el -o ganiza ional.
And
he e o e, addi ional commen s
on
managemen
and manage s
migh
be ele an he e in o de o
app ecia e some
o
he p oblems which spo
adminis a o s and manage s a e acing.
Fi s ,
managemen
as a
p ocess.
Managemen
is
usually de ined
as
a se
o
ac i i ies, including planning,
and
decision
making, o ganizing, leading, and con olling,
di ec ed a an o ganiza ion's human, inancial,
physical, and in o ma ional esou ces, wi h he
aim
o
achie eing o ganiza ional
goals
in an
e icien (using esou ces)andwi hou unnecessa y
was e (and e ec i e) doing he igh hings
(manne ).B ie ly de ined hese ac i i ies
a e:
Planning
and
decision making. -De e -
mining
he o ganiza ional goals and deciding
how
bes o achie e hem.
O ganiz
ing.
-De e mining how bes o
g oup ac i i ies and esou ces.
Leading. -Mo i a ing membe s
o
he
20
o ganiza ion o wo k in he bes in e es s
o
he
o ganiza ion.
Con olling. -Moni o ing
and
co ec ing
ongoing ac i i ies o acili a e goal a ainmen .
And
o
cou se, all hese unc ions a e closely
ela ed.
Bu
wha
is
impo an
wi hin an
o ganiza ion
is
he ac ha manage s can be
also di e en ia ed by le el and a ea. Th ee basic
le els include: op, middle,
and
i s -line
manage s.
Top
manage s con ol he o ganiza ion by
es ablishing he o ganiza ion's goals, o e all
s a egy,
and
ope a ing policies and also by
o icially ep esen ing he o ganiza ion o he
ex e nal en i onmen .
Middle manage s a e p ima ily esponsible
o
implemen ing
he policies
and
plans
de eloped
by
op
managemen
a
nd
o
supe ising and coo dina ing he ac i i ies
o
lowe -le el manage s ( o example, coaches).
Fi s -line manage s supe ise and coo dina e
he ac i i ies
o
ope a ing employees( a hle es).
Manage s a di e en le els may wo k in
a ious a eas
wi hin
an
o ganiza ion,
and
acco dingly he e may be ma ke ing, inancial,
ope a ions,
human
esou ces, adminis a i e,
and o he kinds (public ela ions, esea ch and
de elopmen ,
in e na ional
con ac s)
o
manage s.
C i ical oles and skills
o
manage s
Ce ain oles
and
skills a e usually equi ed
o
all manage s, no ma e wha hei speciali y
o
le el.
Doing
ce ain hings, mee ing ce ain
needs
in
he
o ganiza ion, ha ing ce ain
esponsibili ies equi es managemen skills and
alen s o e ec i e pe o mance.
Basically, he e a e h ee ca ego ies
o
oles:
In e pe sonal (dealing wi h people: igu ehead,
leade , liaison), In o ma ional (p ocessing
o
in o ma ion
:
moni o ,
dissemina o ,
spokespe son)
,
and
Decisional
(making
decisions: en ep eneu , dis u bance handle ,
esou ce alloca o , nego ia o ).
R
EV
I
STA
DE P SICOLOC
IA
DEL D EPORTE - 3
A
numbe
o
speci ic skills a e needed o all
manage s
o
succeed. These usually include:
echnical,
in e pe sonal,
concep ual
and
diagnos ic
and
analy ic.
Bu
hei ela i e
impo ance a ies
a
di e en o ganiza ional
le els.
Fo
ins ance,
as
one p og esses up he
o ganiza ion, ewe
and
ewe echnical skills
a e needed, because op manage s spend li le
ime in ac ual ope a ing
si
ua ions
and
usually a e
conce ned wi h b oade aspec s
o
o ganiza ion.
Concep ual and diagnos ic (analy ic
skills)
become
p opo iona ely mo e and mo e impo an a
highe
le els
o
o ganiza ion. In e pe sonal skills
a e impo an a
all
le els.
These concep s a e e y ele an o spo s
se ings
i
we a e o b idge he gap be ween
di e en
le els
o
managemen
in
spo s
o ganiza ions.
The
implica ion
is
sel -e iden :
acqui ing hese skills o become a success ul
spo s
manage
equi es
no
only
sound
educa ional
base
and
con inued
li e-long
educa ional
expe iences
bu
he
special
p epa a ion
and
lea ning
o
basic managemen
skills assis ed by ini ial job expe iences,
and
con inued
expe iences
h ough
a a ie y
o
job
assignmen s. Sel -made manage s in op spo
migh
be a big p oblem conside ing
no
only
hei oles
and
skills,
bu
also he asks and
especially en i onmen s hey ope a e.
The
na u e
o
o ganiza ional
en i onmen s
The
key issue o any manage s
and
people
wo king
wi h
hem
( o
ins ance
spo s
psychologis s!)
is
o
unde s and
hei
en i onmen .
The e
a e a ew use ul concep s
de eloped in 0 P which could be e y help ul in
spo s se ings:
-ex e nal
en i onmen -
is
e e y hing
ou side
an
o ganiza ion
ha
migh
po en ially
a ec i
and
usually
is
composed
o
wo laye s:
he
gene al
en i onmen
(nonspeci ic
dimensions
and
o ces in an o ganiza ion's
su oundings)
and
ask en i onmen (speci ic
o ganiza ions
and
g oups
ha
a e likely o
a ec he o ganiza ion).
-in e nal en i onmen - consis s
o
he
gene al
condi ions
and
o ces
wi hin
he
o ganiza ion (boa d
o
di ec o s, employees,
and
o ganiza ion's cul u e).
Now
i
we look a he gene al en i onmen ,
i e dimensions should be conside ed:
- he economic dimension e e s o he
o e all heal h
o
he economic sys em in which
he o ganiza ion ope a es (in la ion, in e es
a es, unemploymen , and
demand
-all hese
a ec unding o op spo s, and i s p o essional
s a us).
- he echnological dimension e e s o he
se
o
p ocesses
and
sys ems used by he
o ganiza ions o con e esou ces in o p oduc s
o
se ices.
- he sociocul u al dimension
is
made up
o
he
cus oms,
mo es,
and
alues,
and
demog aphic cha ac e is ics
o
he socie y in
which he o ganiza ion unc ions. Sociocul u al
p ocesses de e mine he p oduc s, se ices and
s anda ds
o
conduc
ha
he, socie y
is
likely
o alue.
- he poli ical-legal dimension e e s o
go e nmen egula ion
o
business
and
gene al
ela ionship be ween business
and
go e nmen .
I
is
impo an
o h ee basic easons:
a)
i
imposes ce ain con ain s
on
an
o ganiza ion;
b)
he ex en o which i
is
p o- o an i-business
signi ican ly in luences managemen policy;
c)
i s s abili y
is
an
impo an
elemen
in
long-
ange planning.
- he in e na ional dimension e e s o he
ex en o which an o ganiza ion (spo s club,
eam, ede a ion)
is
in ol ed in o
is
a ec ed by
business in o he coun ies.
I
is
in e es ing o no e
ha
he impac
o
he gene al en i onmen
is
o en ill de ined and
long- e m,
and
he e o e, mo e o ganiza ions
ocus mo e p ecisely
on
ask en i onmen which
is
easie o manage s.
The e
se e al ask
componen s
in
he
ask
en i onmen :
compe i o s
(compe ing
o
esou ces),
21

OR
GANIZATIONAL PSY
CHO
LO
GY
IN
SPORT SETTING I
HA
NI
N,
Y
UR
I
L.
cus ome s (paying
money
o p oduc s and
se ices), supplie s
(p o iding
esou ces),
egula o s (go e nmen agencies and in e es
g oups wi h po en ial o con ol, egula e, o
o he wise in luence he o ganiza ion's policies
and p ac ices), owne s, pa ne s.
In
he spo se ing we a e all conce ned
mainly wi h he in e nal en i onmen ,
a
bes
( he boa d
o
di ec o s and employees). Simila
desc ip ion
o
spo s clubs
o
ede a ions could
be done using his model, which would gi e
us
a big pic u e
o
he complexi ies
o
mode n op
le el spo .
Ano he
impo an
aspec
is
ha
o ganiza ions and hei en i onmen s a ic
each
o he
in
se e al ways. En i onmen al in luence
on
he
o ganiza ion
can
occu
h ough
unce ain y
(deg ee
o
homogenei y
and
change), compe i i e o ces ( h ea
o
new
en an s, jockeying a
mong
con es an s, h ea
o
subs i u e p oduc s, powe
o
buye s and
supplie s),
and/
o
u bulance.
O ganiza ions, in
u n
, use in o ma ion
managemen , o ganiza ion design, s a egic
esponse, me ge s, acquisi ions, di ec in luence,
and
social esponsabili y o in luence hei ask
en i onmen ,
and
hey occasionally
y
o
in luence b oade elemen s
o
hei gene al
en i onmen
as
well.
The
ele ance
o
concep s a
nd
app oaches
o
O ganiza ional Psychology o spo S se ings
is
bes seen h ough conside ing some
o
he
simila i ies in he p oblems. Le 's ha e a sho
o e iew
o
se e al such ideas which will
demons a e
ha
i ing
o ganiza ional
pe spec i es in o op le el p o essional spo s
will be a challenge
and
a p omising s ep owa ds
en iching spo psychology.
1)
Spli ing o ganiza ion in o o mal and
in o mal migh be ui ul and he e's no hing
new
abou
he
in o mal
pa
o
spo
psychologis s doing esea ch
and
applied wo k
wi h a hle es
and
eams (in ac , he e a e
pe sonali y
and
g oup
ac o s
o
op
pe o mance).
22
2)
Manage 's ac i i ies ilus a e se e al new
asks o spo s adminis a o s and manage s
and
a lo
o
po en ial psychological p oblems
o hose wi h an a hle ic backg ound and no
p e ious expe ience in a manage ial job.
3)
The
ea u es
o
he o al job si ua ion
migh ep esen a way o look
a
p o essional
a hle e's aining and compe i ion which
is
no
e y adi ional
a
his poin ,
bu
soon op
pe o me s will be ea ed like an eli e wo ke s
g oup
and
he
OB
app oach will be no
doub
use ul in spo s se ings.
4) Mo i a ional p oblems in o ganiza ions
a e
o
cou se he key issues
bo h
heo e ically
and
p ac ically.
The
concep s used he e a e well
known
in social and indus ial psychology
as
well
as
in spo s psychology (Maslow's Hie a chy
o
Needs),
He
zbe g's amous ac o s a ec ing
job sa is ac ion/dissa is ac ion.
5)
And
o
cou se, pe o mance-a ousal
ela ioships come immedia ely o
ou
mind
as
we
look a Con lic In ensi y and 0 ganiza ional
Ou comes and
Demand
-Response Imbalance.
Bu
he e in his a ea i looks asi we in op spo
a e way ahead wi h
ou
Indi idual Zones
o
Op imal
Func ioning (IZOF),
YL.
Hanin,
1975-1990.
6)
As
o he Sou ces
o
Wo k
S ess,
OB
has
indeed a lo
o
o e .
Amo e
ecen de elopmen ,
hough,
Occupa ional
S ess Index
(CL.
Coope , Figu e
1)
is
qui e p omising o op
spo
(sou ces,
pe sonali y
ac o s, s ess
eac ions, coping s a egies).
7)
Comon
Ca ee
s ages is
ano he
in e es ing concep and e y ele an o op
spo se ings (well ela ed o a hle es, coaches
a
nd
spo s manage s). A pe son's ca ee
is
he
se
o
wo k ela ed expe iences, beha io s, and
a i udes encoun e ed h oughou his o he
wo king li e. All ou s ages migh be comple ely
di e en o op spo s
bu
he key issue he e,
specially o a spo psychologis wo king wi h
eams,
is
o iew he cu en wo k
in
he con ex
o
ca ee . Changing he pa hs and jobs h ough
Explo a ion, Es ablishmen , Main enance, and
REV
IS
TA
DE P SICOLOGIA DEL DEPOR
TE
-3
Figu e
I.
S ess
on
h
,
Job,
Ga
y L
Coope ,
1978-1990
Sou
ces
o
S ess
Indi idual
Cha ac e is ics
H
Biog aphical
and
Demog aphical
Fac o s
Con ol
:
O gan
i
za ional
Fo ces
Managemen
P ocesses
Indi idual
In luence
Type
"A"
Beha
io :
A
i
ude
ow
a d
li ing
S yle
o
beha io
Amb
i
ion
Decline s ages can be aced in op pe o mance
spo
as
well,
bu
he e mo e
commonly
would
be epea ed he cycle(A hle e -coac -
adminis a o
-
manage
-execu i e).
Majo i y
o
spo
manage s a e
in
ac " e i ed"
Figu e 2.
Common
Ca ee S ages,
(D.I. Hall, 1976)
~
c
ca
E
o
' :
£
High
Low
Coping
S a egies
I
I
Social
Suppo
I
I
Task
S a egies
I
I
Logic
I
H
Home
and
wo k
I
Rela ionships
I
Time
1
I
In ol emen
I
Indi idual
H
Men al
Heal h
H
Physical
Heal h
Job
Sa
i
s ac ion:
Ach
i
e emen
Value
and
g ow h
Job
I
sel
O ganiza ional
Design
and
S uc u e
O ganiza ional
P ocesses
Pe sona
l
Re
l
a
i
onsh
i
ps
E
ec
s
l
O ganiza ional
l
L{
Low
Mo ale
l
~
POO JOb
I
Pe o mance
H
High
Tu no e
I
I
Absen eism
I
Y
Deminished
E ic
iency
I
a hle es s a ing new ca ee s "la e" in li e,
and
s a ing
hem
om sc a ch! (see, Figu e 2).
Gi en his basic unde s anding
o
how
ca ee s un old,
and
gi en he impo ance
o
a
ca ee o ' he pe son in ol ed, we should
no
be
o 5
10
15
20 25
30
35
40 45
50 55
60 65
70 75
Exp o a ion Es ablishmen Main enance
Dec ine
23
OR
GAN
I
ZAT
I
ONAL
PS
YCHOLOGY
IN
SPO
RT
SETT
I
NG
I H
ANIN
. Y
URl
L.
su p ised
o lea n
h
a managing ca ee
is
impo an
bo h
o
indi iduals
and
o
o ganiza ions. In ac , a las yea 's
Co
lo ado
Sp ings
Wo ld
Cong ess he whole session was
de o ed o
he
managemen
o
pos ac i e
pe o mance ca ee s age
o
op Ame ican a hle es.
8) Pa e ns
o
Change
(Figu e 3)
is
alsoa
e y p omising a enue
o
esea ch
and
applied
wo k
wi h
indi idual pe o me s, uni s
and
Fi
gu e 3.-
Th ee
Pa e m o[Change.
(J.B. Gibson e
al.
198
5)
.
Ini ial
pe omance
le el
l
:
II
E
o
' :
Q)
a..
Change
occu s
(Time
0)
whole o ganiza ion. Besides pe o mance le el
o e ime, he e a e o Phases
o
Change:
diagnosis ( inding he
p oblem
, selec ing a
solu ion), un eezing (p epa ing o change),
mo emen
(making
o
implemen ing
he
changes)
and
e ee
zi
ng
(ins i u ionalizing he
changes). The opic
o
planned change and changed
managemen
is
going o
be
e y ele an
o
all
he
a eas
o
op pe o mance including op
le el
spo s.
So
he Psychological eadiness o change
is
one
o
he
key
issues
oday o spo psychologis s.
A lis
o
all hese p oblems
is
ele an o he
si ua ion in
op
le el spo s.
Bu
pe haps he
issues
o
he ansi i
on
o a
man
age ial ole
and
psychological eadiness o change a e
he
mos
u gen
in
iew
o
he
p ospec s
o
close
coope a ion be ween
spo
psychologis s
and
spo
adminis a o s
and
in he con ex
o
Ba celona Olympics.
24
The
Inne Game
o
Managemen
Managemen
is
ypically de ined
as
h
e
p ocess
o
u
sing
esou ces
o
achie e
o ganiza ional objec i es.
This
concep
o
ma
nagemen
is
based
on
he
iew
ha
managemen
is
a se
o
ac i i ies
o
unc ions
(such
as
planning, o ganizing, leading, s a ing,
and
con olling) he manage
mus
pe o m.
a
Time
--------~.~
Al hough
ha
is
no
a o ally inco ec iew
o
managemen
,
i
is
su icien ly encompassing.
Managemen
can also be iewed
as
a game.
In i s b oades sense, a game in ol es "p ocedu es
o
s a egies o gaining ce ain ends" (Webs e 's
New
Collegia e
Dic iona y).
F om
his
pe spec i e, he desi ed
end
o
he game
o
managemen
is
o use esou ces( people, money,
ideas, equipmen , ools) o gain ce ain ends
desi ed
by
he o ganiza ion.
Bu
wha
is
impo an
is
ha all games a e
played a wo di e en
le els.
Fi s , he e
is
he
su oce
o
ou e
le el which in ol es he speci ied
asks
o
ac i i ies
o
he game (W.
Timo hy
Callwey,
"The
Inne Game
o
Tennis", N.Y.:
Ban am
Books, 1974;
o
R.
M.
Nidde e "The
Inne A hle e',
T.C
C owell
Company
N.Y.
1976).
The
inne side
o
he game in ol es he
men al and emo ional (psychological) p ocesses
RE
VISTA
DE
PSICOLOG A
DEL
D EPORTE -3
o
he playe s: he ex en
o
which one
is
willing
o
ake a isk, o be ag essi e, and o be con iden
abou he "mo es" one makes.
And
his
is,
in pa ,
de e mined by he pe sonali ies
o
he playe s.
I u ns
ou
ha winning any game depends
no
only
on
how
well you play he ou e o
su ace game
o
nominal ac i i ies
bu
also on
how
well you play he inne game.
Like o he games, he game
o
managemen
has ou e
and
inne componen s. We' e al eady
discussed he ou e o su ace game
o
managemen
in ol ing pe o ming he asks
o
planning,
budge ing, decision making, ime managemen ,
pe o mance app aisal, and he like. These asks
o
managemen unc ions a e well known and
lea ned in business cou ses. Ye ,
in
spi e
o
he
ac ha o me a hle es
know
wha hey a e
supposed o do
as
spo manage s, many
ail
o
do
i (Example: I. Rodnina - amous igu e- ska e,
"se e al op Socce playe s
as
coaches"). And
people
ail
o
manage e ec i ely because he basic
managemen asks
we
ha e ci ed a e no me ely
echnical unc ions o be pe o med.
They
ha
e
a men al
and
psychological
componen
as
well.
Fo
example, people who a e manage s know
wha delega ion
is
and hey
ough
o delega e
bu
many s ill do
no
do i well.
Many
o
hose who expe ience di icul ies
in
delega ion
o
any
o he
managemen
unc ions do so because hey ha e
no
de eloped
he
in ellec ual
and
emo ional mindse s ha
would allow hem o
eel
con o able pe o ming
such unc ions, e en hough hey know wha
hey ough o be doing.
In
o he wo ds, hey
ha e ailed o mas e
he
Inne
Game
o
Managemen (IGM), which
is
an essen ial
p e equisi e o e ec i e pe o mance
o
basic
managemen unc ions.
The
IGM
is
he game ha akes place
in
he
mind
o
he manage .
I
is
he way an indi idual
deals wi h he men al
and
psychological issues
o
Sel -Es eem,
Need
o Con ol, and Desi e
o be Liked. These issues play an
impo an
ole
in he day- o-day pe o mance
o he
manage 's
job. Mas e ing he I
GM
in ol es unde s anding
and accep ance
o
one's ole
as
manage and
de eloping
he
men al
and
psychological
pe spec i es
ha
a e consis en
wi h
he
equi emen s
o
his ole. A ole
as
a se
o
expec ed beha io s
is
usually based
on
he
posi ion a pe son occupies in he o ganiza ional
hie a chy. This hie a chy de ines he ypical
ca ee p og ession
o
people
in
o ganiza ions.
I.
En y
le el posi ion in ol es di ec
pe o mance (Doe 's ole an a hle e)
II.
Fi s -line
supe ise
(a
coach):
pe o mance
o
some echnical
wo k
,
bu
p ima ily managemen
o
people a he han
he di ec pe o mance
o
wo k.
Ill. Middle-manage (spo s adminis a o ):
managing o he s manage s (coaches).
IV
. Senio managemen : managing se e al
le els
o
manage s.
V. P esiden
o
Chai man (chie ope a ing
o ice ).
The
ole
o !
GM
in manage ial success
To
be a succes ul manage
as
you mo e
om one le el o he nex in he o ganiza ional
ca ee hie a chy, you
no
only ha e o lea n
di e en skills such
as
planning, o ganizing,
and con olling (o he game ac i i ies); mo e
impo an ly, you need o de elop di e en
ways
o
hinking (Inne Game Ac i i ies) . Taken
oge he , hese wo hings de e mine, in u n,
o e all manage ial e ec i eness and success,
as
shown schema ically in Fig. 4.
Abili y o play he
IGM,
hen, may be a
c i ical a iable ha de e mines whe he o
no
a pe son succeeds
o
ails
as
a manage .
In
ac ,
on
he basis
o
esea ch conduc ed by D . E ic
G. Flamhol z om
UCLA
who p oposed his
concep
and
ou
s udies and expe ience in
wo king wi h manage s i was es ima ed
ha
mo e han
90%
o
people who expe ience
di icul ies in hei managemen ca ee s o
ul ima ely ail
as
manage s do
so
no
because
o
hei lack
o
in elligence o mo i a iol1S, o a
lack o echnicalskills
as
a manage ,
bu
because
25