Organizational Psychology in Sports Setting
Abstract
New perspectives for research and applied work in top level sports are discussed within the context of organizational psychology (OP). First, the basic concepts of OP are briefly considered: management process, kinds and levels of managers and their roles and functions, organizational environments. Second, manager problems in transition to managerial roles are examined with the special reference ro the concepts of Inner Game of Management (E. Flamholrz) and psychological readiness for change (Y.L.Hanin). Third, the ways to assist sports managers and administrators to cope with their stresses are described with the special emphasis on the strategies of bridging the gaps in their communication with top athletes and coaches. Organizational psychology and spon psychology can definitely enrich each other by enhancing the performance level of both athletes (coaches, operators and managers) . Special problems of application of the best assessment instruments from organizational psychology are also discussed
Full text
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REVISTA DE
PSICOLOGIA
DEL
DEPORTE
Hanin,
Yu i
L.
(1993)
O ganiza ional
Psychology
in
spo
s
se ing
3, 17-30
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
IN
SPORTS
SETTING
Yu i
L.
Hanin *
KEY
WORDS:
O ganiza ional Psycholo
gy,
managemen in
spon
Psychology, assessmen ins umen s.
ABSTRACT: New pe spec i es o esea ch and applied wo k in op l
e el
spo s a e discussed wi hin he con ex
o
o ganiza ional psychology (OP). Fi s , he basic concep s
o OP
a e b ie ly conside ed: managemen p ocess, kinds and l
e els
o
manage s and hei oles and unc ions, o ga
ni
za ional en i onmen s. Second, manage p oblems in ansi ion o manage ial
ol
es
a e examined wi h he special e e ence
o
he concep s
o Inne
Game
o
Managemen
(E.
Flamhol z) and psychological
eadiness o change (Y.L.Hanin). Thi d, he ways o assis spo s manage s and adminis a o s o
co
pe wi h hei s esses a e
desc
ib
ed wi h he special emphasis on he s a egies
o
b idging he gaps in hei communica ion wi h op a hle es and coaches.
O ganiza ional psychology and
spon
psychology can de ini ely en ich each o he
by
enhancing he pe o mance l
e el
o
bo h
a hle es (coaches, ope a o s a
nd
manage
s)
. Special p oblems
o
applica ion
o
he bes assessmen
in
s umen s om
o ganiza ional psychology a e also discussed.
P ALABRAS CLA YE: Psicologia de
las
o ganizaciones, o ganizaci6n y di ecci6n,
in
s umen os de e aluaci6n.
RESUMEN:
Se
discu en en es e es udio nu
e as
pe spec i as pa a la in es igaci6n y
el
abajo aplicado en
los
depone
s de al o
endimien o, den o del con ex o de la Psicologia de
las
O ganizaciones (PO). En p ime luga ,
se
conside an b e emen e
lo
s
p incipios basicos de
la
PO: p oceso de ge enci
a;
ipos y ni eles de ge en es, adminis ado
es
0 di ec o es, asi como sus oles
y unciones; y los ambien es o ganiza i os. En segundo luga ,
se
examinan
lo
s p oblem
as
de
lo
s ge en es en ansici6n a su papel
de adminis a do es, con
es
pecial e e encia a
lo
s concep os de i ados
del
Ju
ego
In
e no de la Ge encia
(E.
Flamhol
z),
y de la
p
epa aci6n psicol6gica pa a
el
cambio
(Y.
L.
Hanin). En e ce luga ,
se
desc iben l
as
di e en es o mas de aseso a a
lo
s
ge
en es
depo i os pa a en en a se con sus
p
oblemas, poniendo especial en asis en l
as
es a egias pa a
sa
l a
la
s
b
ec
has en su
An in i ed Add ess a he 7 h Annual M
ee
ing
o
he Ca alonian Associa ion
o Spon
Ps
yc
hology / ACPE/ No embe 23-
24, 1990, Ba celona, Spain.
Yu i
L.
Hanin,
o S
Pe e bu g, Russia,
is
wi h he Resea ch Ins i u e o Olympic Spo s, Uni e si y Campus, Vesangan ie
SA,
SF
-40700 Jy askyla, Finland.
ORGA
NI
ZA
TIO
NAL PSYCHOLOGY IN SPORT SETTING I
HANIN,
YURI
L.
comunicaci6n con ade as y en enado es de
el
i
e.
La P.O. y la P
si
colog a del
Depone
pueden de ini i amen e en iquece se una
a o a al mejo a
eI
ni el de endimien o an o de a le as y en enado es como de adminis a
do
es
y ge en es. Se discu en
asi
mi
smo p oblemas esped icos en
la
aplicaci6n de
lo
s mejo es ins umen os de
c al
uaci6n p o enien es de
la
P.O.
O ganiza ional psychology
III
spo
se ings
Ou
opic
oday,
conce ned
wi h
he
p oblems
o
o ganiza ional psychology which
migh be ele an o spo s se ings,
is
a e y
impo an
and in iguing subjec o discuss.
B idging hese wo a eas
o
esea ch and applied
wo k
is
indeed e y ele a
n
, I pe sonally can
con i m his om my 20 yea s
o
wo king wi h
op a hle es, coaches, spo adminis a o s and
3 yea s
o
consul ing, aining and esea ch,
wi h ou op, middle
and
on-line manage s
du ing pe es oika imes.
The
poin
is
ha
bo h
hese a eas -o ga-
niza ional
and
spo s se ings a e e y simila in
many espec s: achie e
men
o ien a ion, s esses
o
op pe o mance, high isibili y o ou side
en i onmen , o
sa
y no hing
abou
he isks
o
ailu es in ol ed. Bo h disciplines,
as
we shall
see, a e e y ecep i e o he ideas and app oaches
om di e en ields
o
psychology (gene al,
social,
indu
s ial, clinical, en
i onm
en al, e c.).
I
is
in e es ing o no e ha he opic
o
o ganiza ional psychology in spo s se ings is
somewha
unique
compa ed
o
he
mos
discussed opics a he in e na ional
o
na ional
con e ences
and
cong esses.
In
ac , I emembe
an a icle
in
a Canadian jou nal abou some
expe ience in O ganiza ional De elopme
n
in
Child
Spo
and
a ecen F ench publica ion by
Da id
WilkinsonLe
Ma ke ing du Spo
( ansla ed om English,
The
Spo Ma ke ing
Ins i u e).
So
, u ning o O ganiza ional Psychology
as
ela ed o spo s se ings migh be a p omising
a enue o explo e
in
esponse o e e inc easing
p oblems encoun e ed in op pe o mance spo
by spo psychologis
s
, coaches, and spo s
adminis a o s
who
s a o ecognize he need
o speak he sa
me
(common) language
in
18
handling he eal-li e p oblems
o
no only
a hle es
bu
all in ol ed
in
his inc easingly
complex ield
o
human
endea o . The e o e,
he e's no
doub
a
bou
his ele ance
o
he
opics we a e all in e es ed
in
conside ing.
F om he s
po
psychology pe spec i e we
do ha e a
lo
o
hings o o e o op
pe o mance in gene al: especially
a
he le el
o
indi idual
pe o me :
mo o
lea ning,
mo i a ion, a ousal, p e-con es anxie y s a es.
In
ac , he beginning
o SP
was
he applica ion
o
gene al
psychology
p inciples
and
me hodology.
The
second bigges con ibu ion
o SP
is
o
cou se, social psychology: g oup
p ocesses, eam communica ion and wo k,
leade ship, a hle e-coach ela ionships. Again
his a ea was bo owed and
hen
de eloped in
he spo se ing due o he unique p oblems
o
op le
el
spo s. Such concep s
as
op imiza ion
o
in ag oup communica ion, in e pe sonal
and
in ag oup
anxie y we e in ac i s
disco e ed a
nd
applied in spo s a
nd
hen in
manage ial psychology.
Bu i welook om
he le el
o
o ganiza ion,
hen
we can s a e han hese concep s and
app oaches a e unde used.
In
ac ,
ou
sensi i i y
o he social and economical en i onmen in
which op le el spo unc ions
is
jus beginning
o eme g
e.
We
a e jus s a ing o app ecia e
ha he mode n con empo a y spo is mo e
han pe o mance
o
op a hle es.
I
is
a big and
e y complica ed o ganiza ion in e ac ingwi h
o he bodies and o ganiza ions a bo h domes ic
(na ional) and in e na ional le els . Ano he
hing,
is
ha a hle es and coaches a e beginning
o
be a ec ed
mo e
and
mo e
by
spo
adminis a o s,
spo
ede a ions
and
in e na ional e en s
and
social, poli ical and
economical
p ocesses.
Unde s anding
o ganiza ional en i onmen and o ganiza ional
pe spec i e migh be he e o e use ul o spo
RE
VISTA
DE
P S
ICOLOcl
A D
EL
DEI'ORTE - 3
psychologis s
o
enhance
hei
wo king
ela ionships
no
only wi h a hle es
and
coaches
bu
wi h spo manage s. Helping hem o
wo k mo e e ec i ely wi h eams and o un
spo o ganiza ions.
In
ac b idging he gaps
wi hin he spo clubs
and
o ganiza ions and all
he pa icipan s
a
di e en le els migh
be
a
new
and
e y challenging ask o
spo
psychologis s in he
1990's
.
This
is
e y
impo an
and
al eady
ecognized by applied
spo
psychologis s
wo king di ec ly wi h a hle es
and
eams.
So
he new app oach
migh
be o
go
om he
pe o mance le el up o managemen .
My
long pe sonal expe ience
o
wo kimg
wi h
op pe o mance eams
and
o ganiza ions
shows ha we a e cons an ly ying o b idge
he gaps: be ween an a hle e
and
coach, a hle e
and
a eam, a hle e and ans.
And
now
he e's
a new gap be ween op pe o mance eam
(coaches, a hle es) and spo managemen (club,
ede a ion,
NeC).
In
o he wo ds, discussing
o ganiza ional psychology issues
as
ela ed o
spo s se ings
is,
in
ac , s essing en i onmen al
p oblems
o
op pe o mance.
And
inally, we' e
go o unde s and ano he e y impo an issue:
u ning o o ganiza ional psychology doesn'
mean ha we a e
a
a s a ing poin .
Top
spo
as
a unique expe ience
is
e y ele an o
o ganiza ional
psychologis s
(s ess
managemen , eam building, op imiza ion
o
eam
communica ions,
psychological
p epa a ion o change).
In
o de o discuss possible implica ions
o
o ganiza ional psychology o spo s se ing le 's
i s make a sho o e iew
o
o ganiza ional
psychology and o ganiza ional beha io
as
a
discipline.
Wha
is
managemen ?
Wha
a e
manage s
doing?
Wha
is
o ganiza ional
beha io ?
Wha
a e he s esses
o
manage s?
The
s ages
o
hei ca ee s?
Who
a e spo
manage s?
Wha
a e hei po en ial
and
eal
p oblems?
And
inally, wha a e he implica ions
o spo s psychologis s wo king wi h eams
and
spo ede a ions.
I
we u n o he main ideas
and
basics in
o ganiza ional
and
manage ial psychology we
shall come o he ollowing.
1.
OP
is
conce ned wi h
people
p oblems
as
encoun e ed and handled in o ganiza ions.
OP
is
a sys ema ic s udy
o
a i udes ( hough s,
eelings, in en ions) and ac ions (beha io and
pe o mance)
ha
people
exhibi
wi hin
o ganiza ions.
No
all ac ions and a i udes
bu
mainly h ee ypes o beha io s ha ha e p o en
o be
impo an
de e minan s
o
employee
pe o mance:
a)
p oduc i i y (absen eeism,
u no e );
b)
job
sa is ac ion;
and
c)
o ganiza ions.
I
is
well
known
ha
psychology
and
sociology do s udy beha io ,
bu
hey do no
concen a e
so
lely
on
wo k- ela ed (pe o -
mance!!) issues.
OP,
in con as , is speci ically
conce ned wi h wo k- ela ed beha io , exac ly
as
spo psychology wi h op pe o mance! and
ha beha io aking place in o ganiza ion.
2. An o ganiza ion
is
a o mal s uc u e
o
planned coo dina ion, in ol ing wo o mo e
people, in o de o achie e a
common
goal.
I
is
cha ac e ized by au ho i y ela ionship and some
deg ee
o
di ision
o
labou .
So
OB
o
OP
encompasses he beha io
o
people in such
di e se o ganiza ions
as
manu ac u ing and
se ice i ms, schools, hospi als, chu che
s,
mili a y uni s, cha i able o ganiza ion
s,
and
local, s a e and ede al go e nmen al agencies.
Top
le el
pe o mance
spo s
om
his
pe spec i e
is
no
doub
a e y
complex
o ganiza ion.
And
as
is
he case wi h he spo
psychology
OP,
a e y speci ic ea u e
o
he
OP
is
ha he e a e usually a
numbe
o
subdisciplines con ibu ing o OB: psychology
( a igue,
bo
e
dom,
wo king
condi ions),
sociology (social sys ems, oles, g oup beha io
in
o ganiza ions),
social
psychology
(in e pe sonal,
in ag oup
beha io s,
implemen a ion
o
change, educing ba ie s o
i s accep ance, decision-making), an h opology
( unc ions
o
cul u e,
no ms
and
alues,
accep able beha io s), poli ical science (con lic ,
19
-1-
OR
GANI
ZA
TIONAL P
SYC
HOLOGY IN SPORT S
E NG
I
HA
NIN,
Y U
RI
L.
alloca ion
o
powe
and
i s manipula ion), ole
o
wide social (en i onmen poli ical).
3.
OP
as
a discipline includes b anches
o
beha io al science, hei con ibu ions, uni
s
o
analysis (indi idual g oup, and o ganiza ion
sys em) and an
ou pu (
s udy
o
OB).
F om applied
poin
o
iew,
OB
(OP
is
conce ned wi h de elopmen
o
people skills
in
o ganiza ional con ex ).
The
goals
o
OB,
as
goals
o
any applied psychological science a e o
help
p
ac i ione s (manage s adminis a o s,
employees) o explain, p edic , and con ol he
beha io
o
indi idual pe o me s, g oup uni s
and whole o ganiza ion by
ass
is ing hem o
success ully unc ion
in
he social economical
en i onmen (in e ac ing be ween hemsel es
and
wi h hei coun e pa s).
I
is
qui e clea ha
in
he SP se ing his
app oach
is
e y ele an .
We
a e applying
con ibu ions
om
gene al,
social,
de elopmen al and clinical psychology,
and
somewha om sociology. Bu wha
is
missing
is
an h opology, and social-cul u al pe spec i e,
hus adding o indi idual and g oup le el
o
analysis he hi d le el -o ganiza ional.
And
he e o e, addi ional commen s
on
managemen
and manage s
migh
be ele an he e in o de o
app ecia e some
o
he p oblems which spo
adminis a o s and manage s a e acing.
Fi s ,
managemen
as a
p ocess.
Managemen
is
usually de ined
as
a se
o
ac i i ies, including planning,
and
decision
making, o ganizing, leading, and con olling,
di ec ed a an o ganiza ion's human, inancial,
physical, and in o ma ional esou ces, wi h he
aim
o
achie eing o ganiza ional
goals
in an
e icien (using esou ces)andwi hou unnecessa y
was e (and e ec i e) doing he igh hings
(manne ).B ie ly de ined hese ac i i ies
a e:
Planning
and
decision making. -De e -
mining
he o ganiza ional goals and deciding
how
bes o achie e hem.
O ganiz
ing.
-De e mining how bes o
g oup ac i i ies and esou ces.
Leading. -Mo i a ing membe s
o
he
20
o ganiza ion o wo k in he bes in e es s
o
he
o ganiza ion.
Con olling. -Moni o ing
and
co ec ing
ongoing ac i i ies o acili a e goal a ainmen .
And
o
cou se, all hese unc ions a e closely
ela ed.
Bu
wha
is
impo an
wi hin an
o ganiza ion
is
he ac ha manage s can be
also di e en ia ed by le el and a ea. Th ee basic
le els include: op, middle,
and
i s -line
manage s.
Top
manage s con ol he o ganiza ion by
es ablishing he o ganiza ion's goals, o e all
s a egy,
and
ope a ing policies and also by
o icially ep esen ing he o ganiza ion o he
ex e nal en i onmen .
Middle manage s a e p ima ily esponsible
o
implemen ing
he policies
and
plans
de eloped
by
op
managemen
a
nd
o
supe ising and coo dina ing he ac i i ies
o
lowe -le el manage s ( o example, coaches).
Fi s -line manage s supe ise and coo dina e
he ac i i ies
o
ope a ing employees( a hle es).
Manage s a di e en le els may wo k in
a ious a eas
wi hin
an
o ganiza ion,
and
acco dingly he e may be ma ke ing, inancial,
ope a ions,
human
esou ces, adminis a i e,
and o he kinds (public ela ions, esea ch and
de elopmen ,
in e na ional
con ac s)
o
manage s.
C i ical oles and skills
o
manage s
Ce ain oles
and
skills a e usually equi ed
o
all manage s, no ma e wha hei speciali y
o
le el.
Doing
ce ain hings, mee ing ce ain
needs
in
he
o ganiza ion, ha ing ce ain
esponsibili ies equi es managemen skills and
alen s o e ec i e pe o mance.
Basically, he e a e h ee ca ego ies
o
oles:
In e pe sonal (dealing wi h people: igu ehead,
leade , liaison), In o ma ional (p ocessing
o
in o ma ion
:
moni o ,
dissemina o ,
spokespe son)
,
and
Decisional
(making
decisions: en ep eneu , dis u bance handle ,
esou ce alloca o , nego ia o ).
R
EV
I
STA
DE P SICOLOC
IA
DEL D EPORTE - 3
A
numbe
o
speci ic skills a e needed o all
manage s
o
succeed. These usually include:
echnical,
in e pe sonal,
concep ual
and
diagnos ic
and
analy ic.
Bu
hei ela i e
impo ance a ies
a
di e en o ganiza ional
le els.
Fo
ins ance,
as
one p og esses up he
o ganiza ion, ewe
and
ewe echnical skills
a e needed, because op manage s spend li le
ime in ac ual ope a ing
si
ua ions
and
usually a e
conce ned wi h b oade aspec s
o
o ganiza ion.
Concep ual and diagnos ic (analy ic
skills)
become
p opo iona ely mo e and mo e impo an a
highe
le els
o
o ganiza ion. In e pe sonal skills
a e impo an a
all
le els.
These concep s a e e y ele an o spo s
se ings
i
we a e o b idge he gap be ween
di e en
le els
o
managemen
in
spo s
o ganiza ions.
The
implica ion
is
sel -e iden :
acqui ing hese skills o become a success ul
spo s
manage
equi es
no
only
sound
educa ional
base
and
con inued
li e-long
educa ional
expe iences
bu
he
special
p epa a ion
and
lea ning
o
basic managemen
skills assis ed by ini ial job expe iences,
and
con inued
expe iences
h ough
a a ie y
o
job
assignmen s. Sel -made manage s in op spo
migh
be a big p oblem conside ing
no
only
hei oles
and
skills,
bu
also he asks and
especially en i onmen s hey ope a e.
The
na u e
o
o ganiza ional
en i onmen s
The
key issue o any manage s
and
people
wo king
wi h
hem
( o
ins ance
spo s
psychologis s!)
is
o
unde s and
hei
en i onmen .
The e
a e a ew use ul concep s
de eloped in 0 P which could be e y help ul in
spo s se ings:
-ex e nal
en i onmen -
is
e e y hing
ou side
an
o ganiza ion
ha
migh
po en ially
a ec i
and
usually
is
composed
o
wo laye s:
he
gene al
en i onmen
(nonspeci ic
dimensions
and
o ces in an o ganiza ion's
su oundings)
and
ask en i onmen (speci ic
o ganiza ions
and
g oups
ha
a e likely o
a ec he o ganiza ion).
-in e nal en i onmen - consis s
o
he
gene al
condi ions
and
o ces
wi hin
he
o ganiza ion (boa d
o
di ec o s, employees,
and
o ganiza ion's cul u e).
Now
i
we look a he gene al en i onmen ,
i e dimensions should be conside ed:
- he economic dimension e e s o he
o e all heal h
o
he economic sys em in which
he o ganiza ion ope a es (in la ion, in e es
a es, unemploymen , and
demand
-all hese
a ec unding o op spo s, and i s p o essional
s a us).
- he echnological dimension e e s o he
se
o
p ocesses
and
sys ems used by he
o ganiza ions o con e esou ces in o p oduc s
o
se ices.
- he sociocul u al dimension
is
made up
o
he
cus oms,
mo es,
and
alues,
and
demog aphic cha ac e is ics
o
he socie y in
which he o ganiza ion unc ions. Sociocul u al
p ocesses de e mine he p oduc s, se ices and
s anda ds
o
conduc
ha
he, socie y
is
likely
o alue.
- he poli ical-legal dimension e e s o
go e nmen egula ion
o
business
and
gene al
ela ionship be ween business
and
go e nmen .
I
is
impo an
o h ee basic easons:
a)
i
imposes ce ain con ain s
on
an
o ganiza ion;
b)
he ex en o which i
is
p o- o an i-business
signi ican ly in luences managemen policy;
c)
i s s abili y
is
an
impo an
elemen
in
long-
ange planning.
- he in e na ional dimension e e s o he
ex en o which an o ganiza ion (spo s club,
eam, ede a ion)
is
in ol ed in o
is
a ec ed by
business in o he coun ies.
I
is
in e es ing o no e
ha
he impac
o
he gene al en i onmen
is
o en ill de ined and
long- e m,
and
he e o e, mo e o ganiza ions
ocus mo e p ecisely
on
ask en i onmen which
is
easie o manage s.
The e
se e al ask
componen s
in
he
ask
en i onmen :
compe i o s
(compe ing
o
esou ces),
21
OR
GANIZATIONAL PSY
CHO
LO
GY
IN
SPORT SETTING I
HA
NI
N,
Y
UR
I
L.
cus ome s (paying
money
o p oduc s and
se ices), supplie s
(p o iding
esou ces),
egula o s (go e nmen agencies and in e es
g oups wi h po en ial o con ol, egula e, o
o he wise in luence he o ganiza ion's policies
and p ac ices), owne s, pa ne s.
In
he spo se ing we a e all conce ned
mainly wi h he in e nal en i onmen ,
a
bes
( he boa d
o
di ec o s and employees). Simila
desc ip ion
o
spo s clubs
o
ede a ions could
be done using his model, which would gi e
us
a big pic u e
o
he complexi ies
o
mode n op
le el spo .
Ano he
impo an
aspec
is
ha
o ganiza ions and hei en i onmen s a ic
each
o he
in
se e al ways. En i onmen al in luence
on
he
o ganiza ion
can
occu
h ough
unce ain y
(deg ee
o
homogenei y
and
change), compe i i e o ces ( h ea
o
new
en an s, jockeying a
mong
con es an s, h ea
o
subs i u e p oduc s, powe
o
buye s and
supplie s),
and/
o
u bulance.
O ganiza ions, in
u n
, use in o ma ion
managemen , o ganiza ion design, s a egic
esponse, me ge s, acquisi ions, di ec in luence,
and
social esponsabili y o in luence hei ask
en i onmen ,
and
hey occasionally
y
o
in luence b oade elemen s
o
hei gene al
en i onmen
as
well.
The
ele ance
o
concep s a
nd
app oaches
o
O ganiza ional Psychology o spo S se ings
is
bes seen h ough conside ing some
o
he
simila i ies in he p oblems. Le 's ha e a sho
o e iew
o
se e al such ideas which will
demons a e
ha
i ing
o ganiza ional
pe spec i es in o op le el p o essional spo s
will be a challenge
and
a p omising s ep owa ds
en iching spo psychology.
1)
Spli ing o ganiza ion in o o mal and
in o mal migh be ui ul and he e's no hing
new
abou
he
in o mal
pa
o
spo
psychologis s doing esea ch
and
applied wo k
wi h a hle es
and
eams (in ac , he e a e
pe sonali y
and
g oup
ac o s
o
op
pe o mance).
22
2)
Manage 's ac i i ies ilus a e se e al new
asks o spo s adminis a o s and manage s
and
a lo
o
po en ial psychological p oblems
o hose wi h an a hle ic backg ound and no
p e ious expe ience in a manage ial job.
3)
The
ea u es
o
he o al job si ua ion
migh ep esen a way o look
a
p o essional
a hle e's aining and compe i ion which
is
no
e y adi ional
a
his poin ,
bu
soon op
pe o me s will be ea ed like an eli e wo ke s
g oup
and
he
OB
app oach will be no
doub
use ul in spo s se ings.
4) Mo i a ional p oblems in o ganiza ions
a e
o
cou se he key issues
bo h
heo e ically
and
p ac ically.
The
concep s used he e a e well
known
in social and indus ial psychology
as
well
as
in spo s psychology (Maslow's Hie a chy
o
Needs),
He
zbe g's amous ac o s a ec ing
job sa is ac ion/dissa is ac ion.
5)
And
o
cou se, pe o mance-a ousal
ela ioships come immedia ely o
ou
mind
as
we
look a Con lic In ensi y and 0 ganiza ional
Ou comes and
Demand
-Response Imbalance.
Bu
he e in his a ea i looks asi we in op spo
a e way ahead wi h
ou
Indi idual Zones
o
Op imal
Func ioning (IZOF),
YL.
Hanin,
1975-1990.
6)
As
o he Sou ces
o
Wo k
S ess,
OB
has
indeed a lo
o
o e .
Amo e
ecen de elopmen ,
hough,
Occupa ional
S ess Index
(CL.
Coope , Figu e
1)
is
qui e p omising o op
spo
(sou ces,
pe sonali y
ac o s, s ess
eac ions, coping s a egies).
7)
Comon
Ca ee
s ages is
ano he
in e es ing concep and e y ele an o op
spo se ings (well ela ed o a hle es, coaches
a
nd
spo s manage s). A pe son's ca ee
is
he
se
o
wo k ela ed expe iences, beha io s, and
a i udes encoun e ed h oughou his o he
wo king li e. All ou s ages migh be comple ely
di e en o op spo s
bu
he key issue he e,
specially o a spo psychologis wo king wi h
eams,
is
o iew he cu en wo k
in
he con ex
o
ca ee . Changing he pa hs and jobs h ough
Explo a ion, Es ablishmen , Main enance, and
REV
IS
TA
DE P SICOLOGIA DEL DEPOR
TE
-3
Figu e
I.
S ess
on
h
,
Job,
Ga
y L
Coope ,
1978-1990
Sou
ces
o
S ess
Indi idual
Cha ac e is ics
H
Biog aphical
and
Demog aphical
Fac o s
Con ol
:
O gan
i
za ional
Fo ces
Managemen
P ocesses
Indi idual
In luence
Type
"A"
Beha
io :
A
i
ude
ow
a d
li ing
S yle
o
beha io
Amb
i
ion
Decline s ages can be aced in op pe o mance
spo
as
well,
bu
he e mo e
commonly
would
be epea ed he cycle(A hle e -coac -
adminis a o
-
manage
-execu i e).
Majo i y
o
spo
manage s a e
in
ac " e i ed"
Figu e 2.
Common
Ca ee S ages,
(D.I. Hall, 1976)
~
c
ca
E
o
' :
£
High
Low
Coping
S a egies
I
I
Social
Suppo
I
I
Task
S a egies
I
I
Logic
I
H
Home
and
wo k
I
Rela ionships
I
Time
1
I
In ol emen
I
Indi idual
H
Men al
Heal h
H
Physical
Heal h
Job
Sa
i
s ac ion:
Ach
i
e emen
Value
and
g ow h
Job
I
sel
O ganiza ional
Design
and
S uc u e
O ganiza ional
P ocesses
Pe sona
l
Re
l
a
i
onsh
i
ps
E
ec
s
l
O ganiza ional
l
L{
Low
Mo ale
l
~
POO JOb
I
Pe o mance
H
High
Tu no e
I
I
Absen eism
I
Y
Deminished
E ic
iency
I
a hle es s a ing new ca ee s "la e" in li e,
and
s a ing
hem
om sc a ch! (see, Figu e 2).
Gi en his basic unde s anding
o
how
ca ee s un old,
and
gi en he impo ance
o
a
ca ee o ' he pe son in ol ed, we should
no
be
o 5
10
15
20 25
30
35
40 45
50 55
60 65
70 75
Exp o a ion Es ablishmen Main enance
Dec ine
23
OR
GAN
I
ZAT
I
ONAL
PS
YCHOLOGY
IN
SPO
RT
SETT
I
NG
I H
ANIN
. Y
URl
L.
su p ised
o lea n
h
a managing ca ee
is
impo an
bo h
o
indi iduals
and
o
o ganiza ions. In ac , a las yea 's
Co
lo ado
Sp ings
Wo ld
Cong ess he whole session was
de o ed o
he
managemen
o
pos ac i e
pe o mance ca ee s age
o
op Ame ican a hle es.
8) Pa e ns
o
Change
(Figu e 3)
is
alsoa
e y p omising a enue
o
esea ch
and
applied
wo k
wi h
indi idual pe o me s, uni s
and
Fi
gu e 3.-
Th ee
Pa e m o[Change.
(J.B. Gibson e
al.
198
5)
.
Ini ial
pe omance
le el
l
:
II
E
o
' :
Q)
a..
Change
occu s
(Time
0)
whole o ganiza ion. Besides pe o mance le el
o e ime, he e a e o Phases
o
Change:
diagnosis ( inding he
p oblem
, selec ing a
solu ion), un eezing (p epa ing o change),
mo emen
(making
o
implemen ing
he
changes)
and
e ee
zi
ng
(ins i u ionalizing he
changes). The opic
o
planned change and changed
managemen
is
going o
be
e y ele an
o
all
he
a eas
o
op pe o mance including op
le el
spo s.
So
he Psychological eadiness o change
is
one
o
he
key
issues
oday o spo psychologis s.
A lis
o
all hese p oblems
is
ele an o he
si ua ion in
op
le el spo s.
Bu
pe haps he
issues
o
he ansi i
on
o a
man
age ial ole
and
psychological eadiness o change a e
he
mos
u gen
in
iew
o
he
p ospec s
o
close
coope a ion be ween
spo
psychologis s
and
spo
adminis a o s
and
in he con ex
o
Ba celona Olympics.
24
The
Inne Game
o
Managemen
Managemen
is
ypically de ined
as
h
e
p ocess
o
u
sing
esou ces
o
achie e
o ganiza ional objec i es.
This
concep
o
ma
nagemen
is
based
on
he
iew
ha
managemen
is
a se
o
ac i i ies
o
unc ions
(such
as
planning, o ganizing, leading, s a ing,
and
con olling) he manage
mus
pe o m.
a
Time
--------~.~
Al hough
ha
is
no
a o ally inco ec iew
o
managemen
,
i
is
su icien ly encompassing.
Managemen
can also be iewed
as
a game.
In i s b oades sense, a game in ol es "p ocedu es
o
s a egies o gaining ce ain ends" (Webs e 's
New
Collegia e
Dic iona y).
F om
his
pe spec i e, he desi ed
end
o
he game
o
managemen
is
o use esou ces( people, money,
ideas, equipmen , ools) o gain ce ain ends
desi ed
by
he o ganiza ion.
Bu
wha
is
impo an
is
ha all games a e
played a wo di e en
le els.
Fi s , he e
is
he
su oce
o
ou e
le el which in ol es he speci ied
asks
o
ac i i ies
o
he game (W.
Timo hy
Callwey,
"The
Inne Game
o
Tennis", N.Y.:
Ban am
Books, 1974;
o
R.
M.
Nidde e "The
Inne A hle e',
T.C
C owell
Company
N.Y.
1976).
The
inne side
o
he game in ol es he
men al and emo ional (psychological) p ocesses
RE
VISTA
DE
PSICOLOG A
DEL
D EPORTE -3
o
he playe s: he ex en
o
which one
is
willing
o
ake a isk, o be ag essi e, and o be con iden
abou he "mo es" one makes.
And
his
is,
in pa ,
de e mined by he pe sonali ies
o
he playe s.
I u ns
ou
ha winning any game depends
no
only
on
how
well you play he ou e o
su ace game
o
nominal ac i i ies
bu
also on
how
well you play he inne game.
Like o he games, he game
o
managemen
has ou e
and
inne componen s. We' e al eady
discussed he ou e o su ace game
o
managemen
in ol ing pe o ming he asks
o
planning,
budge ing, decision making, ime managemen ,
pe o mance app aisal, and he like. These asks
o
managemen unc ions a e well known and
lea ned in business cou ses. Ye ,
in
spi e
o
he
ac ha o me a hle es
know
wha hey a e
supposed o do
as
spo manage s, many
ail
o
do
i (Example: I. Rodnina - amous igu e- ska e,
"se e al op Socce playe s
as
coaches"). And
people
ail
o
manage e ec i ely because he basic
managemen asks
we
ha e ci ed a e no me ely
echnical unc ions o be pe o med.
They
ha
e
a men al
and
psychological
componen
as
well.
Fo
example, people who a e manage s know
wha delega ion
is
and hey
ough
o delega e
bu
many s ill do
no
do i well.
Many
o
hose who expe ience di icul ies
in
delega ion
o
any
o he
managemen
unc ions do so because hey ha e
no
de eloped
he
in ellec ual
and
emo ional mindse s ha
would allow hem o
eel
con o able pe o ming
such unc ions, e en hough hey know wha
hey ough o be doing.
In
o he wo ds, hey
ha e ailed o mas e
he
Inne
Game
o
Managemen (IGM), which
is
an essen ial
p e equisi e o e ec i e pe o mance
o
basic
managemen unc ions.
The
IGM
is
he game ha akes place
in
he
mind
o
he manage .
I
is
he way an indi idual
deals wi h he men al
and
psychological issues
o
Sel -Es eem,
Need
o Con ol, and Desi e
o be Liked. These issues play an
impo an
ole
in he day- o-day pe o mance
o he
manage 's
job. Mas e ing he I
GM
in ol es unde s anding
and accep ance
o
one's ole
as
manage and
de eloping
he
men al
and
psychological
pe spec i es
ha
a e consis en
wi h
he
equi emen s
o
his ole. A ole
as
a se
o
expec ed beha io s
is
usually based
on
he
posi ion a pe son occupies in he o ganiza ional
hie a chy. This hie a chy de ines he ypical
ca ee p og ession
o
people
in
o ganiza ions.
I.
En y
le el posi ion in ol es di ec
pe o mance (Doe 's ole an a hle e)
II.
Fi s -line
supe ise
(a
coach):
pe o mance
o
some echnical
wo k
,
bu
p ima ily managemen
o
people a he han
he di ec pe o mance
o
wo k.
Ill. Middle-manage (spo s adminis a o ):
managing o he s manage s (coaches).
IV
. Senio managemen : managing se e al
le els
o
manage s.
V. P esiden
o
Chai man (chie ope a ing
o ice ).
The
ole
o !
GM
in manage ial success
To
be a succes ul manage
as
you mo e
om one le el o he nex in he o ganiza ional
ca ee hie a chy, you
no
only ha e o lea n
di e en skills such
as
planning, o ganizing,
and con olling (o he game ac i i ies); mo e
impo an ly, you need o de elop di e en
ways
o
hinking (Inne Game Ac i i ies) . Taken
oge he , hese wo hings de e mine, in u n,
o e all manage ial e ec i eness and success,
as
shown schema ically in Fig. 4.
Abili y o play he
IGM,
hen, may be a
c i ical a iable ha de e mines whe he o
no
a pe son succeeds
o
ails
as
a manage .
In
ac ,
on
he basis
o
esea ch conduc ed by D . E ic
G. Flamhol z om
UCLA
who p oposed his
concep
and
ou
s udies and expe ience in
wo king wi h manage s i was es ima ed
ha
mo e han
90%
o
people who expe ience
di icul ies in hei managemen ca ee s o
ul ima ely ail
as
manage s do
so
no
because
o
hei lack
o
in elligence o mo i a iol1S, o a
lack o echnicalskills
as
a manage ,
bu
because
25