D ug T a icking and Democ acy in Colombia in he 1980s
Jona han HARTLYN
Uni e si y o No h Ca olina
Wo king Pape n.70
Ba celona 1993
Obse e s bo h wi hin and ou side o Colombia a e challenged o unde s and
he na u e o he cu en c isis in he coun y. Tha c isis is cha ac e ized by
weakened s a e ins i u ions, loss o e ec i e s a e con ol o e as , hough emo e,
a eas o he coun y, and in ense iolence -gene a ed by d ug a icke s, gue illas,
he mili a y and he police, shadowy dea h squads, and common c iminals, wi h some
12,000 o 16,000 Colombians mee ing iolen dea hs o each o he pas se e al
yea s. Pa adoxically, and in con as o much o he es o he con inen , he
Colombian economy has emained compa a i ely heal hy. And, he cu en
adminis a ion o P esiden Vi gilio Ba co (1986-1990) has unimpeachable
democ a ic c eden ials and appea s o be s i ing since ely o con on he coun y's
iolence and pola iza ion wi h measu es o ins i u ionaliza ion and e o m.
A cen al elemen in unde s anding he na u e o Colombia's con empo a y
c isis, is he co e opic o his book: d ug a icking (1). Some pas Colombian
economic bonanzas ha e been associa ed wi h a deg ee o iolence and ha e
gene a ed massi e accumula ions o capi al la gely ou side o s a e con ol. Ye , d ug
a icking would appea o ha e se e al dis inc i e ea u es: i s illegali y bo h
domes ically and in e na ionally, which is cen al o explaining he as onishing p o i
ma gins and he in e na ional p essu es i gene a es; he ex en o which ac ics no
only o co up ion and in imida ion bu o iolence a e employed agains cen al s a e
agen s as well as o he s in socie y; he ema kably small olume o he p oduc
(pa icula ly o cocaine) ha is in ol ed and he deg ee o concen a ion o bene i s
gene a ed by he luc a i e ade. Also no ewo hy is he abili y o d ug a icke s o
combine udimen a y me hods wi h some o he mos sophis ica ed echnologies,
especially in anspo a ion and communica ions.
This pape ocuses on he impac o d ug a icking on Colombian democ acy
by examining i s e ec s in Colombian socie y, and on he s a e and he egime.
Se e al o he di icul ies o speci ying his impac a e so appa en ha one almos
hesi a es o men ion hem. Ha d da a a e o en absen , es ima es a y widely, and
pa e ns can shi as me hods and ela ionships among a icking g oups, s a e
agen s, local p oduce s and o he ac o s can all change quickly. E en i he analysis
is co ec , i may be abou a si ua ion ha is no longe p esen . Fu he mo e, i is
c i ical o unde s and he in e ac i e e ec s be ween d ug a icke s and di e en
socie al g oups, domes ically o in e na ionally. In addi ion, when ac s a e obscu e o
obscu ed, pe cep ions -o e enues gene a ed, he deg ee o powe o d ug
a icke s, he ex en and na u e o links be ween hem and gue illa g oups, hei
pene a ion o poli ical pa ies, he in en and alidi y o ac ions by he Uni ed S a es,
and so on- ake on added meaning.
I disen angling "d ug a icking" is di icul , complica ions also e ol e a ound
he concep o "democ acy". The Colombian poli ical egime es ablished in 1958 may
be unp oblema ically cha ac e ized as a "democ acy" by poli icians, diploma s and
policy-make s, bu i s ca ego iza ion has ne e been simple o analys s. As i inally
eme ged ollowing app o al o a 1957 cons i u ional plebisci e and a 1959
cons i u ional e o m, he Na ional F on ag eemen be ween he coun y's dominan
poli ical pa ies, he Conse a i e (now Social Conse a i e) and Libe al, s ipula ed
ha om 1958 o 1974 he p esidency would al e na e be ween membe s o he wo
pa ies, and ha all cabine o ices, legisla i e and judicial pos s and o he
go e nmen jobs no co e ed by ci il se ice we e o be di ided equally be ween he
wo pa ies. In addi ion, mos measu es would equi e a wo- hi ds o e in Cong ess
o app o al. A 1968 Cons i u ional Re o m was only able o p og am a pa ial
disman ling o he ag eemen . The Re o m eins i u ed a simple majo i y o e a he
han by wo- hi ds in Cong ess. I also opened elec ions o all pa ies and elimina ed
pa i y in he legisla i e b anch a he municipal and depa men al le el in 1970 and a
he na ional le el in 1974. Compe i i e p esiden ial elec ions we e held in 1974,
al hough pa i y in he cabine and public employmen was ex ended un il 1978. F om
1978 on, he majo i y pa y has been equi ed o o e "adequa e and equi able"
ep esen a ion in he execu i e b anch o he pa y ecei ing he second highes
numbe o o es in he elec ions. F om 1958 o 1986, when Conse a i es e used
pa icipa ion in he newly inaugu a ed go e nmen o Libe al Vi gilio Ba co (1986-
1990), Colombia had a poli ical egime based on coali ion ule (2).
Because o he sha p es ic ions on majo i a ian democ a ic p ac ices
imposed by he Na ional F on ag eemen and because he coun y has been
go e ned o mos o he ime since he la e 1940s unde a s a e o siege, mos
analys s ha e iewed Colombia since 1958 as a quali ied democ acy, using
adjec i es such as "con olled", "oliga chical", o " es ic ed" (3). O he s ha e
cha ac e ized he coun y om he o he side o he de noc acy au ho i a ianism
con inuum as "inclusiona y au ho i a ian" o as "in-be ween hese wo", in a leng hy,
30-yea ansi ion om dic a o ship o democ a ic go e nmen , accele a ed by
democ a ic e o ms enac ed in he mid-1980s (4).
In my iew, he bes cha ac e iza ion o he con empo a y Colombian poli ical
egime is ha is has been a limi ed democ a ic consocia ional egime, cu en ly in an
unce ain p ocess o ans o ma ion. I has been "consocia ional" because a e u n o
ci ilian ule in 1958 was di icul o concei e wi hou he ex ensi e mu ual gua an ees
be ween he wo majo pa ies embodied in he Na ional F on ag eemen (5). Ye ,
he igid consocia ional p ac ices ( elaxed in he pos -1974 pe iod and now in a
u he p ocess o disman ling), combined wi h o he es ic ions, ha e limi ed he
egime's democ a ic na u e. In he 1980s, wha has been inc easingly a issue is no
only whe he he egime is able o ans o m i sel in a mo e ully democ a ic di ec ion,
bu whe he he s a e can egain cohe ence and capaci y o ac . (6)
Two a gumen s, discussed in he nex sec ion, low om hese conside a ions.
One is ha Colombia would ha e had se ious poli ical u moil in he 1980s e en
wi hou he iolence and co up ion gene a ed by d ug a icking, including p oblems
wi h gue illa iolence and wi h he e icacy o he coun y's judicial b anch. Ano he is
ha his u moil has been associa ed wi h e o s o ede ine he poli ical " ules o he
game" o he Colombian poli ical egime es ablished in 1958, a emp ing o mo e he
egime om a consocia ionalism no longe necessa y o p e en in e -pa y iolence
owa d a mo e compe i i e, mo e pa icipa o y and mo e esponsi e di ec ion. In
s udying he impac o d ug a icking on Colombian democ acy, hen, one mus
examine i s impac on socie y, on s a e s uc u es and on poli ical ins i u ions, as well
as on he e o s o e o m, expand and modi y hese s uc u es and ins i u ions.
The second sec ion below examines he e olu ion o d ug a icking in
Colombia in ecen decades, p o iding es ima es o i s magni ude and emphasizing
i s impac on Colombian socie y in he 1970s. The hi d sec ion hen e iews he
nega i e impac o d ug a icking on Colombian socie al g oups and ins i u ions, on
s a e s uc u es and on he poli ical egime and ins i u ions and on he e o s o
e o m hem (7). The agmen a y e idence a ailable sugges s ha he leading d ug
a icke s did no begin wi h a "poli ical p ojec " o hei own, hough hei ac i i ies
h ough he 1980s ha e led hem inc easingly o iden i y wi h an i-democ a ic igh is
elemen s. D ug a icke s ha e desi ed o p o ec by wha e e means necessa y
hei abili y o con inue li ing in he coun y, while expanding hei a icking
en e p ises and enjoying hei newly-pu chased businesses and landed es a es. They
ha e also sough o possess a deg ee o social accep ance. This has led hem, in
esponse o s a e e o s o inhibi hei ac i i ies, o o m empo a y alliances wi h a
wide a ie y o ac o s and o u hless ac ics o assassina ion, iolence and
in imida ion. These ac ions ha e helped o disa icula e e o s o e o m he egime
and ha e also u he weakened he s a e, gene a ing an en i onmen in which o he
kinds o iolence may also lou ish. O he nega i e consequences, pa icula ly in he
la e 1980s, include inhibi ing e ec s on he mass media, concen a ion o land
holdings, and, mo e specula i ely, popula ion-wide declines in us and social and
ins i u ional solida i y and inc eases in cynicism and esen men by some and mo al
ou age by o he s, a ec ing egime legi imacy.
The nega i e e ec s o d ug a icking on democ acy, wi h ega d o socie y,
he s a e and he egime a e undeniable. Ye , as will also be explo ed in his sec ion,
poo ly-c a ed in e na ional p essu e and incomple e s a e e o s o comba d ug
a icking may h ea en democ acy as se iously as he phenomenon o d ug
a icking i sel . The o me may help spawn a na ionalis a i ude ha may be
ole an o e en p o-na co ics, while he la e may help bo h demons a e and
accele a e s a e weakness, endange he iabili y o he a med o ces as an
ins i u ion o s eng hen suppo o gue illa mo emen s in u al a eas whe e c op
e adica ion e o s a e unde aken. Fo hese easons, i is no su p ising ha bi e
disag eemen s ega ding he dis ibu ion o cos s in he s uggle agains d ug
a icking ha e eme ged be ween Colombia and he Uni ed S a es and ha calls o
conside a ion o legaliza ion as an op ion ha should be se iously conside ed
con inue o eme ge (8).
DEMOCRACY, COALITION RULE AND POLITICAL TURMOIL
The cu en ocus on he impac o d ug a icking in Colombia has led some,
pa icula ly ce ain U.S. policymake s, o gloss o e complex ea u es o Colombian
poli ics (9). Howe e , Colombia p obably would ha e expe ienced poli ical u moil in
he 1980s e en wi hou he addi ional iolence, co up ion and o he social and
economic e ec s o d ug a icking. The poli ical model o coali ion ule es ablished in
1958 be ween he wo adi ional pa ies was in appa en need o ede ini ion and
eaccommoda ion in he 1970s.
F om he 19 h cen u y, Colombia inhe i ed i s wo deeply en enched pa ies
(which di ided he coun y poli ically while helping o in eg a e i na ionally), s ong
egionalism, occasionally pandemic iolence and a weak s a e and mili a y. Indeed,
Colombia has a long eco d o ci ilian, epublican ule, punc ua ed by in e ludes o
in ense ci il wa s which on a numbe o occasions we e esol ed by in e -pa y
accommoda ion (10). The las o hese was known simply as la iolencia ( he
iolence). I began as local-le el iolence ollowing he ic o y o he mino i y
Conse a i e p esiden ial candida e in 1946 aided by a spli in he Libe al pa y, and
hen accele a ed ollowing he Ap il 1948 bogo azo - io ing and demons a ions ha
e up ed in Bogo á ollowing he assassina ion o he Libe al populis leade Jo ge
Eliéce Gai án and ha sp ead o o he ci ies.
The complex pe iod ushe ed in by hese e en s led o an es ima ed 200,000
casual ies, a b eakdown o he coun y's oliga chical democ acy, a mili a y coup and
e en ually nego ia ions be ween leade s o he wo poli ical pa ies o e-es ablish
ci ilian ule (11). Gi en he immedia e pas his o y o in ense iolence be ween pa y
ai h ul, a e u n o ci ilian ule wi hou ex ensi e mu ual gua an ees appea ed
inconcei able. A he same ime, he consocia ional Na ional F on egime was an
eli e esponse o a pe cei ed c isis s emming om he ea o exclusion om powe
by a mili a y go e nmen , po en ial e olu iona y iolence in he coun yside and
economic s agna ion (12).
F om 1958 o 1986, his poli ical amewo k o wo-pa y coali ion ule
accommoda ed as social and economic change. The na u e and unc ioning o
coali ion poli ics played a majo ole in explaining bo h he coun y's compa a i ely
a o able economic pe o mance du ing his pe iod as well as i s inc easing p oblems
in consolida ing legi ima e democ a ic ule. A e hi y yea s, he coun y was
ans o med socially, economically and demog aphically wi h li le poli ical. change.
The coun y's popula ion doubled, and i became a younge , be e educa ed, and

mo e u ban. Popula ion g ow h a es declined d ama ically o e his pe iod and
indus ializa ion ad anced, hough income dis ibu ion pa e ns, always e ibly
unequal, did no imp o e d ama ically (i a all). These socioeconomic changes,
combined wi h he Na ional F on ag eemen i sel -which wice asked o e s o one
pa y o elec a p esiden om ano he - helped disman le he sec a ian pa y
iden i ica ions which had spawned he iolence o he la e 1940s and 1950s and had
been iewed as equi ing he in e -pa y ag eemen s ha ollowed sho ly he ea e ,
A loa ing elec o a e po en ially mobilizable by di e en pa ies o mo emen s began
o eme ge, especially in u ban a eas.
Du ing he Na ional F on pe iod he e was an impo an expansion in he
echnical capaci ies o he s a e, pa icula ly wi h ega d o he abili y o moni o and
p ocess in o ma ion. S a e capaci y o in e ene in and con ol he economy
appea ed o inc ease du ing his pe iod, pa icula ly du ing ce ain p esiden ial
adminis a ions. Howe e , he s a e p esence in many emo e a eas o he coun y
emained small as did i s abili y o con ol smuggling o con aband ac i i ies. Cen al
s a e con ol and e iciency we e also h ea ened by clien elism and by he
consolida ion o adical public sec o unions in he ace o low pay and poo wo king
condi ions. Viewed as in e en ionis , ine icien , e en laby in hine by he business
sec o , he Colombian s a e would ne e heless ha e o be conside ed a weak one
e en p io o he onslaugh by d ug a icke s.
The ea o sec a ianism and a e u n o pa isan iolence con inued o se e
as he excuse o he need o sus ain a poli ical egime based on coali ion ule long
a e i was eally necessa y. Coali ion ule gene a ed powe ul incen i es
encou aging poli icians o bo h pa ies o seek i s con inuance, e en as i gene ally
a o ed powe ul economic in e es s. Access o pa onage and b oke age was
insu ed by coali ion and iewed as essen ial gi en an elec o al sys em o p opo ional
ep esen a ion, mul iple pa y lis s o legisla i e pos s and high abs en ion. Howe e ,
his also os e ed u he pa y ac ionalism and he pa ies became domina ed
inc easingly by egional poli icians in con ol o small cap i e elec o a es, wi h ew
links o mass o ganiza ions. The s uc u ing o majo i y coali ions in Cong ess
in ol ed ex ensi e issue-by-issue nego ia ions and he p omise o sho - e m
bene i s. Fu he mo e, he pa ies la gely ailed o de elop new o ganiza ions o
me hods o appeal o he coun y's g owing u ban popula ion e en as hei
pene a ion in o u al a eas was no e y deep. I onically, wi h he collapse o he
populis ANAPO (Na ional Popula Alliance) mo emen ollowing he 1970 elec ions
and wi h a e u n, o compe i i e elec ions du ing he decade, his made i mo e
di icul o opposi ion pa ies o gain elec o al ep esen a ion e en as he adi ional
pa ies we e inc easingly incapable o channelling dissen (13).
In his con ex , in he 1970s non-elec o al opposi ion eme ged o was
s eng hened. Labo o ganiza ions independen om he adi ional pa ies and he
egime gained in s eng h, especially in he public sec o and in manu ac u ing, e en
as he inc easingly weake adi ional labo con ede a ions also dis anced hemsel es
om he egime. In 1977, he e was an unp eceden ed Na ional Ci ic S ike
suppo ed by nea ly all labo con ede a ions. The sha p ise o ci ic mo emen s and
p o es s in he 1970s u he e lec ed he economic. us a ion o u ban g oups,
especially in smalle ci ies, and he declining ole o he adi ional pa ies as e ec i e
in e media ies. And, he 1970s also wi nessed he g owing s eng h o gue illa
g oups. In addi ion o he gue illa g oups ha eme ged adicalized om he pe iod o
la iolencia (p incipally, he FARC), and hose ha eme ged in he 1960s ( he
Cas oi e-in luenced ELN and he Maois EPL), in 1972 he M-19 was es ablished by
igu es om he FARC and he Communis Pa y and adicalized elemen s o he
populis ANAPO (Na ional Populis Alliance) (14). F om s ealing Simón Bolí a 's
swo d om i s museum display case in Ap il 1974, he M-19 shi ed o kidnappings
and o he o en spec acula u ban ac ions (such as he ake-o e o he Dominican
Embassy wi h 14 ambassado s hos age in Feb ua y 1980) be o e shi ing o a u al
s a egy la e in 1980. A he same ime, he Colombian a med o ces, less imbued
wi h adi ional pa isan iden i ica ions han in he pas , we e becoming a mo e
co po a e, au onomous and p o essionalized body.
Na ional poli ical leade s ecognized he need o poli ical e o m in o de o
e i alize he egime, bu hey me esis ance om egional poli icians and
en enched ins i u ional and economic in e es s, as well as skep icism om g oups
seeking mo e adical changes. P esiden Al onso López (1974-1978) sough o
es ablish a Cons i u ional Assembly in 1978 ha was in ended o ca y ou changes
in wo a eas. One was a decen aliza ion o he coun y's adminis a i e s uc u e,
inancially s eng hening he depa men s and municipali ies. The expec a ion was
ha his could encou age a mo e no mal poli ical p ocess o go e nmen -opposi ion
by educing he coun y's su oca ing cen aliza ion ha led mos poli icians o wan
o pa icipa e in he execu i e, e en as i could also educe poli ical i esponsibili y a
he local le el as he cen al go e nmen would no longe be inancially liable o
local p og ams. Ano he was an o e haul o he coun y's a chaic and inc easingly
inope a i e ci ilian judicial sys em ha had no expanded su icien ly wi h espec o
he coun y's g owing popula ion and had no mode nized i s acili ies, equipmen o
p ocedu es. Unde paid jueces de ins ucción (in es iga ing magis a es) we e
o e whelmed by massi e caseloads in which hey we e expec ed o compile
e idence and de e mine i an accused should go o ial. The judicial sys em was
pe cei ed as easily sub e ed bo h by gue illas and by he eme ging d ug a icke s
(15). The p oposal o he Assembly, hough, was decla ed uncons i u ional by he
Sup eme Cou and an impo an oppo uni y o poli ical e o m was los (16).
In sum, in he la e 1970s and ea ly 1980s, poli ical u moil, dissen exp essed
ou side o pa isan poli ical channels, ac ionalism and o ganiza ional weakness o
he adi ional poli ical pa ies, se ious laws in he judicial sys em and gue illa
iolence we e all accele a ing p oblems. And, hese would ha e been p oblems
independen o he se ious complica ions gene a ed by he g owing in luence o d ug
e enues and d ug a icke s and he inc eased p essu e by he Uni ed S a es on he
Colombian s a e o add ess he issue.
This does no mean ha he Colombian egime su e ed a "bi h de ec " as a
consequence o he pac s ha es ablished i . No does i mean ha he c isis
-including he massi e u n o iolence h oughou socie y, he collapse o he
judicia y and he challenge o o he s a e ins i u ions- was in any sense ine i able due
o he cons aining ea u es o he Na ional F on o he changes gene a ed wi hin
Colombian socie y o e he pas hi y yea s. The ans o ma ion o he egime would
almos ce ainly ha e been auma ic, une en and pe haps e en spo adically iolen .
Ye , d ug a icking, by i s de-ins i u ionalizing impac on he s a e, i s demo alizing
e ec s on he egime, i s, di e se empo a y alliances and i s impac on a wide
a ie y o o he social p ocesses, combined wi h he consequences o he a emp ed
esponse o i , has helped p o oke a mo e gene alized c isis o s a e au ho i y and a
wa e o iolence whose consequences and whose e mina ion a e no clea ly in sigh
(17).
THE GROWTH AND INITIAL EFFECTS OF DRUG TRAFFICKING
D ug a icking eme ged as a majo economic phenomenon in Colombia in
he mid-1970s. A i s , i was la gely no dis inguished om mul iple o he illegal o
ques ionable economic ac i i ies in he coun y, e en as some o i s e ec s -such as
he gene a ion o o eign exchange o o employmen - we e o en iewed posi i ely.
Al hough he cul i a ion o ma ihuana p obably began expanding in Colombia
in he mid- o-la e 1960s, he Colombian ma ihuana "boom" did no occu un il he
mid-1970s. Un il 1975, when he Mexican go e nmen began se iously e adica ing
c ops, Mexican p oduce s domina ed he U.S. ma ke . Es ima es o he alue o
ma ihuana expo s a y emendously. One 1979 s udy es ima ed ha US$1,400
million dolla s en e ed he Colombian economy in 1978 as a esul o ma ihuana
expo s, o which US$165 million came in h ough he cen al bank and he es
h ough o he means (18) Ye , o he es ima es place he alue o ma ihuana expo s
du ing his peak pe iod much lowe . A ecen publica ion, based p ima ily on U.S.
go e nmen es ima es, places he o eign exchange alue du ing he 1977-1981
pe iod a no mo e han US$250 million in any gi en yea ; no an insigni ican
amoun , bu only 18 pe cen o he ea lie igu e. This same sou ce ci es Colombia
as supplying 52 pe cen o he Uni ed S a es ma ihuana ma ke in 1977, a igu e ha
climbed s eadily o 79 pe cen in 1981 a e which i began o decline, i s as a
consequence o a se ious d ough and hen because o consume s swi ching o
a ie ies p oduced elsewhe e and e adica ion measu es by he Colombian
go e nmen . By 1985, Colombia was supplying only 22 pe cen o he U.S.
ma ihuana ma ke , which i sel had sh unk om an annual consump ion o some
10,000 ons in ea lie yea s o a ound 8,000 ons (19). To place hese igu es in
pe spec i e, i should be no ed ha he la e 1970s was also a pe iod o an inc edible
co ee boom in he coun y. Reco ded co ee expo s g ew om US$680.5 million in
1975, o US$996.0 million in 1976, o US$1,512.6 million in 1977 and o US$2,026.8
million in 1978, e en as co ee con aband may well ha e expanded du ing his
pe iod (es ima ed by he Colombian Co ee Fede a ion a US$184 million in 1976
and US$135 million in 1977).
Ma ihuana came o be cul i a ed p ima ily along he A lan ic Coas . The
ela i ely unpopula ed Guaji a Peninsula had been a cen e o smuggling o
cen u ies. Es ima es o he hec a es plan ed in ma ihuana du ing he peak pe iod o
he 1970s also a y widely om 7,000-9,000 hec a es o a ound 19,000 hec a es
(20), and es ima es o employmen gene a ed by he cul i a ion hus also oscilla e
widely. Ne e heless, he e is conside able e idence ha he massi e in lux o
money gene a ed by he co ee and ma ihuana expo s in he mid - o la e- 1970s
(and o a lesse ex en , cocaine shipmen s) helped uel egional bonanzas. One
indica o was localized eal es a e booms ha d o e housing p ices on he A lan ic
Coas o le els highe han hose in Bogo á in he la e 1970s, be o e declining
a ound 1980, when hey began o escala e in Medellín, cen e o he cocaine a ic;
ano he is he ise and decline o eal u al wage a es on he A lan ic Coas du ing
his pe iod.
The e enues I gene a ed by hese ac i i ies helped uel a g owing
"unde g ound economy", which appea s o ha e aken added impo ance due o
go e nmen policies dedica ed o inancial libe aliza ion and hen o con olling he
in la iona y consequences o he legal co ee boom. The o icial exchange a e was
e ec i ely e alued and he black ma ke dolla exchange a e ac ually ell below i ,
appa en ly se ing as a powe ul incen i e o he smuggling o ex iles and o he
consume goods in o he coun y. Combined wi h high in e es a es, his helped
spa k an indus ial ecession. The call by he inancial in e es g oup ANIF o he
legaliza ion o ma ihuana appea s ela ed o conce ns abou he "assaul on
espec able s ock companies" by he "unde g ound economy" o which indus ial
i ms inc easingly u ned o loans (21). Go e nmen de egula ion o he now
bu geoning inancial sec o , inc eased ulne abili y o di e en indus ies,
ques ionable loans o a numbe o banks o associa ed conglome a e i ms and
pe haps na co ics seizu es in he Uni ed S a es all helped spa k a c isis in he
coun y's inancial sec o ha e up ed in 1982 du ing he inal weeks o he Tu bay
adminis a ion (22).
The ma ihuana boom was a leas pa ially accep ed by he Colombian
go e nmen e en as i appea ed o bene i al eady powe ul land-owning amilies as
d ama ic, how hei impac on ano he majo s a e ins i u ion, he mili a y, a ec s
democ acy a e much mo e con o e sial and unce ain. Con inued gue illa clashes,
egional con lic s and inc eased le els o iolence ha e b oadened he appeal o
simplis ic au ho i a ian solu ions, inc eased human igh s iola ions on all sides and
ine i ably widened he scope o au onomous ac ion by he a med o ces. As in much
o he es o La in Ame ica, he ex en o ins i u ionalized ci ilian go e nmen al
o e sigh o mili a y ac i i ies is limi ed and a ully democ a ic model o ci il-mili a y
ela ions does no exis .
The Colombian mili a y ha e been igh ing gue illa g oups since he 1950s,
and he e is li le ques ion hey see hese g oups as he p ima y na ional secu i y
challenge. The expe ience in La Guaji a appa en ly made a leas some mili a y wa y
o he dis ac ing igh agains d ug a icking. A he same ime, howe e , blows
agains d ug a icke s in Colombia by he mili a y and police ha e occu ed, and
hey ha e incu ed nume ous casual ies in his s uggle. In Augus 1986, Colonel
Jaime Ramí ez Gómez, who di ec ed he Ma ch 1984 aid agains a massi e cocaine
complex on he Ya í Ri e , was assassina ed. In ea ly and mid-1988, he A my
became mo e ex ensi ely in ol ed in he igh agains d ug a icke s in he Medellín
a ea (44).
Ye , he e is no eason o belie e some elemen s o he a med o ces would
no be emp ed by he as sums associa ed wi h d ug a icking. And as d ug
a icke s ha e occasionally clashed wi h gue illa g oups o ha e a ge ed le is
opposi ion g oups o leade s, he e is e idence ha on some occasions hey ha e
been assis ed by elemen s o he police and he mili a y as well as by e i ed
membe s o he secu i y o ces. P esiden Be ancu 's A o ney Gene al, Ca los
Jiménez Gómez, in an in es iga ion o MAS o de ed by he p esiden , iden i ied 56 o
163 membe s as ei he pas o cu en membe s o he a med o ces o he police
(45). Simila allega ions su aced ollowing massac es o banana wo ke s in he
egion o U abá (46) In es iga ions o his inciden as well as o o he s by Gene al
Maza o he DAS led o indic men s as well as o o ced e i emen s o se e al police
and mili a y o ice s in ea ly 1989, as well as o a ailed assassina ion a emp on
Maza's li e in May.
Indeed, he hub is o he leading d ug a icke s in hei a acks on he s a e is
pe haps mos appa en in hei a ge ing o high go e nmen o icials. On Ap il 30,
1984, Minis e o Jus ice Rod igo La a was assassina ed on he o de s o Medellín
a icke s. He had been un elen ing in his a acks on he p esence o d ug money in
poli ical campaigns and in es men s in a ious businesses and spo s clubs. Bu he
killing was p obably p ecipi a ed by he Ma ch 1984 aid on he huge cocaine e ining
complex on he Ya í Ri e , in which 27,500 pounds o cocaine we e seized. The
assassina ion p o oked P esiden Be ancu o change his mind wi h ega d o
implemen a ion o he 1979 ex adi ion ea y; he had ini ially ejec ed on na ionalis

g ounds he no ion o sending Colombian ci izens ab oad o ace c iminal cha ges.
This was he momen -i he e e e was a p ecise momen -when Colombians
de e mined hey could no longe p esume ha he na co ics issue was essen ially a
U.S. p oblem o be esol ed by he Uni ed S a es (47).
The d ug a icke s hen sough o bea back he h ea o hem ep esen ed
by he ex adi ion ea y. F om hei sa e ha en in Panama, whe e hey had led, hey
a emp ed a i s o nego ia e wi h he Be ancu adminis a ion. They alked i s wi h
ex-P esiden López in May 1984 and hen wi h he A o ney Gene al. In e u n o
immuni y and a p omise o no ex adi ion, hey p omised o shu down hei cocaine
business, o assis in c op subs i u ion and d ug ehabili a ion and o epa ia e hei
as weal h. Howe e , he e was simply no public suppo in Colombia o a deal wi h
he d ug a icke s (48).
Few ealized how un elen ing he a icke s would be in hei de e mina ion o
p o ec hemsel es om ex adi ion. The judge in es iga ing he mu de o La a was
himsel assassina ed a e he cha ged Pablo Escoba wi h being he in ellec ual
au ho o he c ime; in July 1986, a Sup eme Cou Jus ice who had nego ia ed he
ex adi ion ea y was assassina ed. And a hi squad was sen o Hunga y in Janua y
1987 in a ailed a emp o assassina e La a's successo as Minis e o Jus ice,
En ique Pa ejo González, who had signed he ex adi ion o de s agains leading
a icke s. Changes o police commande s in Medellín and elsewhe e ollowed ha
e en , and, unexpec edly, Ca los Lehde Ri as, he mos lamboyan o he Medellín
a icke s, was cap u ed and immedia ely ex adi ed o he Uni ed S a es in Feb ua y
1987. And in Janua y o he ollowing yea , he Conse a i e candida e o he
mayo 's ace in Bogo a, And és Pas ana, was kidnapped by a g oup calling i sel he
"Ex adi ables". Days la e , A o ney Gene al Ca los Mau o Hoyos was kidnapped
and hen killed -nea Medellín whe e he had lown o in es iga e he ques ionable
elease o Jo ge Ochoa in Decembe ; Pas ana was ound unha med ha same day,
appa en ly by mili a y sen o look o Mau o Hoyos.
The ex adi ion ea y ell in a complex and judicially dubious p ocess and
a emp s o e i e i as o mid-1989 we e unsuccess ul. In Decembe 1986, he
Sup eme Cou decla ed he ex adi ion ea y wi h he Uni ed S a es null and oid
because i had no been signed by he P esiden (who had been ou o he coun y)
bu by he cabine minis e who had been ac ing as p esiden . In June 1987, he
Sup eme Cou decla ed uncons i u ional he e o o P esiden Ba co o sanc ion he
ea y by a new law ollowing he i s inding. And, e o s o employ an ea lie ea y
as a basis o ex adi ion we e ejec ed in Ap il and May 1988 by he Council o S a e
(49).
A “cos -bene i ” analysis om a Colombian pe spec i e, in e ospec , migh
challenge he wisdom o e using o nego ia e Wi h he. a icke s and o going. along
wi h he U.S. "supply-side" s a egy. O e , he 1984-1988 pe iod, Colombians
inc easingly came o ask hemsel es why so many o hei own, judges, law
en o cemen o ice s, and. high go e nmen o icials we e being killed by d ug
a icke s, in con as o o he La in Ame ican and Ca ibbean coun ies, e en as he
coun y gained inc eased no o ie y in e na ionally and con on ed con inuing p essu e
om he Uni ed S a es. The b u al, and o da e la gely e ec i e, coun e - esponse o
s a e en o cemen e o s u he e oded judicial capaci y, espec o he ule o law
and s a e legi imacy and p esence. Rejec ing "legaliza ion" as an un ealis ic op ion, i
is no su p ising he Ba co adminis a ion is calling o a mo e mul ila e al,
collabo a i e app oach o he d ug p oblem, A he same ime, in ea ly 1989 he
s uggle agains d ug a icke s and c iminal in es iga ions o he dea h squads ha
some imes linked a icke s o membe s o he a med o ces, con inued, a g ea cos
o hose di ec ly in ol ed.
Poli ical S uc u es: The coun y's poli ical s uc u es ha e no been immune o
he impac o d ug a icking. The decen alized, ac ionalized na u e o he poli ical
pa ies, hei eliance on clien elism and machine-s yle poli ics o ge ou he o e,
and he o al absence o con ols on campaign inancing, all acili a ed he en y o
d ug money in o he poli ical p ocess.
Access, in luence, in o ma ion, p o ec ion and opposi ion o he ex adi ion
ea y, a he han a cohe en ideological ision, appea ed o be he p incipal
mo i a ions. Allega ions o campaigns ed in pa by d ug money eme ged in he la e
1970s on he A lan ic Coas , a egion whe e o e-buying p ac ices ha e been mos
en enched. Rumo s o he p esence o d ug money in campaigns g ew du ing he
1982 campaign. Pablo Escoba sough elec ion o Cong ess on he lis s o he
e o mis Galanis a "New Libe alism" ac ion (o which Rod igo La a was a leade );
howe e , Escoba was ejec ed because o his alleged d ug connec ions. A sepa a e
Libe al lis was es ablished, and Escoba gained elec ion as an al e na e o he
House o Rep esen a i es. He gained popula suppo in Medellín by dona ing money
o build low-income housing and by con ibu ing o chu ch- un cha i ies. As Minis e
o Jus ice, La a led a campaign agains Escoba , b inging his d ug connec ions in o
he open and o cing him o wi hd aw om poli ics (50).
Mo e lamboyan we e he ac ions o Ca los Lehde du ing his pe iod. He
c ea ed his own poli ical pa y, he Mo imien o Cí ico La ino Nacional (MCLN), and
h ough his newspape Quindio Lib e p omo ed iews ha we e aguely na ionalis
and, somewha ascis bu clea ly opposed o he ex adi ion ea y. Subsequen ly,
om hiding, he h ea ened o suppo he M-19 while con inuing o p aise Hi le (51).
Ye , i has been wi h ega d o e o s o inco po a e gue illa g oups in o he
poli ical, p ocess o he coun y ha a ious di ec and indi ec consequences. o
ac i i ies by d ug a icke s ha e had mos e ec . This pape canno analyze in de ail
P esiden Be ancu 's e o s o seek "peace" wi h he gue illas, and many ac o s
appea o ha e played a ole in he ailu e o hese e o s o s op he gue illa
iolence and success ully inco po a e hese g oups in o he democ a ic p ocess (52) .
Among hese would be di isions wi hin he s a e, wi h he mili a y ques ioning he
logic and app op ia eness o a ious adminis a ion measu es; an ambiguous
nego ia ing s a egy on he pa o he adminis a ion; lack o uni y among he gue illa
g oups o e whe he o gi e up he goal o seeking s a e powe ; and, nega i e
sho - e m economic ci cums ances. Ye ano he would clea ly ha e o be d ug
a icking: indi ec ly, by con ibu ing o an a mosphe e o iolence and helping o
p o oke he collapse o he judicia y o he capaci y o he s a e o in es iga e c imes
success ully; di ec ly, by i s appa en a ge ing o le -wing poli ical igu es and social
ac i is s, some imes alone and some imes in collabo a ion wi h o he s, such as
egional landowne s o elemen s o he a med o ces.
A cen al example has been he iolence and in imida ion o leade s and
ac i is s o he le is opposi ion pa y, Pa io ic Uni y (UP). The UP was o med by he
coun y's oldes and la ges gue illa g oup, he FARC, in Ma ch 1985 ollowing he
uce es ablished wi h he Be ancu go e nmen in 1984. I was in ended o
symbolize he willingness o he gue illa o ganiza ion o ejoin he poli ical p ocess
h ough elec o al means. Unlike wha occu ed wi h o he gue illa o ganiza ions, he
uce be ween he Be ancu go e nmen and he FARC was ne e o mally b oken.
Howe e , as ensions buil anew he FARC began o claim i was o ganiza ionally
dis inc om he UP. The UP pa icipa ed in he 1986 elec ions, winning a plu ali y o
a majo i y o he o es in o e a dozen municipali ies and 12 cong essional sea s
(including sea s in coali ion wi h Libe al pa y ac ions). F om Janua y 1986 o Ap il
1988, 334 membe s o he UP and o popula o ganiza ions we e assassina ed,
including hei p esiden ial candida e o he 1986 elec ions, 4 cong essmen, 2
mayo s and 11 mayo al candida es (53).
Some o he iolence in ea ly 1988 e ol ed a ound he upcoming elec ions,
in which mayo s we e o be popula ly elec ed o he i s ime. The popula elec ion
o mayo s (combined wi h limi ed measu es o iscal decen aliza ion) was he mos
impo an poli ical e o m app o ed du ing he Be ancu adminis a ion. Joined wi h
he mo e away om coali ion- ule as Ba co sough o es ablish a
"go e nmen -opposi ion" sys em, i o med a key componen o ' policies o
eaccommoda e he poli ical egime, opening up he poli ical p ocess and seeking o
in eg a e gue illa g oups and o he g oups in o peace ul, elec o al o ms o s uggle.
Al hough elec ion day was ema kably peace ul, he a mosphe e o inc edible
iolence and a ge ed assassina ions o poli ical ac i is s ha su ounded he
elec ions unques ionably es ic ed hei po en ial decen alizing, democ a izing and
inco po a ing impac (54).
A sel - ein o cing cycle o pola iza ion appea ed o be ope a ing whe eby UP
leade s, lacking us wi h ega d o hei pe sonal sa e y and he democ a ic p ocess,
emained ambiguous wi h ega d o he gue illa op ion and he use o o ce; his in
u n, helped igh -wing g oups (whe he d ug a icke s, landowne s o membe s o
he a med o ces) o jus i y he use o he iolence agains hem. Shadowy dea h
squads, o which some 140 we e iden i ied by he go e nmen , ha e aken
esponsibili y o many o he assassina ions o UP ac i is s and leade s. O e 1988
and 1989, hey ha e also been in ol ed in many la ge -scale massac es. Gi en he
se ious h ea o democ a ic ins i u ions and democ a ic alues ep esen ed by he
iolen alliances and ac ions o he coun y's majo d ug a icke s, p ima y
suppo e s o many o hese dea h squads, he Ba co adminis a ion has con inued o
seek o s op hei ac ions and b ing hem o jus ice. Bu , wi h a weak and pene a ed
s a e, i s ew successes ha e a bes been pa ial and incomple e.
As he Ba co adminis a ion con inues commi ed o he s uggle agains d ug
a icke s and he iolence hey engende , o he Colombian oices, some e y
espec able, sugges ha i empo a y accommoda ion, e en i aci o almos
unin en ional, is he p ice o pay o egain adequa e judicial and ins i u ional s a e
cohe ence, i may be wo h i . Ye , gi en he eme ging an idemoc a ic alliances ha
a e aking shape in pa in eac ion o pas s a e e o s, i may be oo la e o such an
app oach.
CONCLUSION
The emp a ion o comp ehend Colombia by assimila ing e en s he e o
expe iences in o he coun ies, pa icula ly by ou side obse e s, is o en g ea .
Po en ial u u e scena ios o he coun y a ound images o "A gen iniza ion"
( ep essi e mili a y ule) o "Sal ado iza ion" (ci il wa ), howe e , may play oo g ea
a ole in in e p e ing con empo a y e en s (55). F om he bu eauc a ic au ho i a ian
egimes o he Sou he n Cone, such as he ones A gen ina expe ienced, comes he
no ion ha p o essional a med o ces, in luenced by an ideology o na ional secu i y
and wi h di ec ion and coo dina ion om i s op hie a chy, can ca y ou a b u al "di y
wa " o ex e mina ion no only agains insu ec iona y g oups bu e en agains o he
indi iduals and o ganiza ions ei he pe cei ed o be linked o hem o iewed as
dange ous o "socie y" o o he easons. F om Cen al Ame ica, he p ima y image
ha is gene a ed is ha " es ic ed democ acies" can exis in which a ci ilian acade
disguises wha is almos comple e mili a y au onomy o ac wi h o al and b u al
impuni y, ei he di ec ly o h ough he o ma ion o dea h squads ha also can ac
eely wi h li le conce n o e ibu ion.
Al hough hese images may be use ul in disce ning ends in he coun y ha
could be magni ied in he u u e, and hei e oca ion may be pa o a alid e o
seeking o mobilize opinion o p e en u he de e io a ion o an in ole able si ua ion
o poli ical iolence in he coun y, hey a e a om ep esen ing a alid, undis o ed
pic u e o he con empo a y si ua ion in Colombia. They do no do ull jus ice o he
na u e o he egime, he in en ions o he adminis a ion, he cu en ci il-mili a y
ela ionship o he dis o ing consequences o he p esence o majo d ug- a icking
g oups.
Colombia would almos ce ainly ha e con on ed poli ical u moil in he 1980s.
indeed, he language o "c isis" in speaking o he si ua ion in Colombia p eceded
analy ic conside a ion o d ug a icking by se e al yea s. Economis s may di e on
he cos s and bene i s o d ug a icking o Colombia, con as ing o eign exchange
and employmen , on he one hand, wi h in la ion and he consequences o a
en -seeking men ali y, on he o he . Bu , i is di icul o a gue ha he consequences
o d ug a icking and o go e nmen e o s o ep ess i ha e no come a a hea y
cos o Colombian democ acy, howe e one may wish o quali y i , and o he
possibili ies o i s expansion and consolida ion.
How migh he Colombian poli ical egime ha e a ed in he 1980s wi hou he
impac o he d ug ade? Poli ics would ha e been con lic i e and occasionally
iolen . A success ul eaccommoda ion o he egime, in a mo e compe i i e, open
di ec ion would no ha e been assu ed. Bu , he p ess would ha e el ee and he
judicia y would be in a poo s a e, bu no in collapse. The a ious complex pa e ns
o iolence p esen in di e en ci ies and egions o he coun y may no ha e had
hei cu en dimensions o e en, in some cases, ha e been unleashed a all. E o s
a poli ical einco po a ion migh ha e p og essed u he , as hose opposed o i
wi hin he s a e o om adi ional sec o s would ha e been missing a c i ical, e en i
a imes only indi ec , suppo . Gue illa g oups would ha e con on ed a mo e
cohe en s a e, pe haps be e able o en o ce ag eemen s and assu e he physical
in eg i y o poli ical leade s, o cing hem o de ine hei own objec i es mo e clea ly,
e en as he inancial impo ance o ce ain emo e a eas unde hei con ol would
ha e been much less. Cynicism, co up ion, esen men , he loss o us in public
ins i u ions, and he b eakdown o social solida i y would no ha e eached cu en
heigh s.
E en as he e is g owing consciousness ha i he ou e o e o m and
inco po a ion is no a leas pa ially aken, he coun y now appea s almos
inexo ably d awn in o a con inuing spi al o iolence and o asso ed pola ized
s uggles in di e en egional con ex s, all complica ed by he in luence o he d ug
ade.

NOTES
(1) This pape was ini ially p esen ed a he Con e ence on D ug T a icking, Human Righ s and
Democ acy in Colombia, held in Washing on, D.C., Ma ch 1989. Commen s by a ious con e ence
pa icipan s a e deeply app ecia ed. Re isions we e comple ed in May 1989.
By "d ug a icking", I mean he ac i i ies o majo indi iduals o g oups in ol ed in a anging
he cul i a ion o ma ijuana o coca, he p ocessing o coca in o cocaine and/o he ans-shipmen o
ma ijuana o cocaine o consume ma ke s in he Uni ed S a es o Eu ope. Some o hese g oups
ha e also been in ol ed in he p oduc ion and ans-shipmen o o he d ugs such as me haqualone,
and in o he coun ies, he cul i a ion o opium poppies and he p oduc ion o he oin a e o g ea e
signi icance. "D ug a icke s", hen, need o be dis inguished om peasan g oups ha ac ually
cul i a e he ma ijuana o coca, om small-scale dis ibu o s o local consump ion o na co ics in
Colombia, and om d ug consume s wi hin he coun y.
(2) This language ollows closely ha o Jona han HARTLYN: The poli ics o coali ion ule in Colombia.
Camb idge, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 1988, p.4.
(3) Fo he i s e m, see WILLIAMS, Miles: "El F en e Nacional: Colombia's Expe imen in Con olled
Democ acy", Ph.D. Diss., Vande bil Uni e si y, 1976 and BAGLEY, B uce M.: “Poli ical Powe ,
Public Policy and he S a e in Colombia: Case S udies o he U ban and Ag a ian Re o ms Du ing
he Na ional F on , 1958-1974”, Ph.D. diss., Uni e si y o Cali o nia a Los Angeles, 1979; o he
second e m, see WILDE, Alexande : "Con e sa ions among Gen lemen: Oliga chical Democ acy
in Colombia" in: LINZ, Juan and STEPAN, Al ed (eds.): The B eakdown o Democ a ic Regimes:
La in Ame ica. Bal imo e, Johns Hopkins Uni e si y P ess, 1978; o he hi d e m (democ acia
es ingida) see LEAL BUITRAGO F ancisco: Es ado y polí ica en Colombia. Bogo á, Siglo XXI,
1984, as well as he discussion o he eme gence o his e m by Colombian analys s beginning
a ound 1980 in PÉCAUT, Daniel: C ónica de dos décadas de polí ica colombiana. 1968-1988.
Bogo á, Siglo XXI, 1988, esp. p. 369-376, who no es he use o he e m e en by P esiden
Belisa io Be ancu .
(4) BAGLEY, B uce M.: “Na ional F on and Economic De elopmen ” in: WESSON, Robe (ed.):
Poli ics. Policies and Economic De elopmen in La in Ame ica S an o d, Hoo e Ins i u ion, 1984;
and CHERNICK, Ma c W.: “Nego ia ions and A med Con lic : A S udy o he Colombian Peace
P ocess (1982-1987)”, pape p esen ed o he 13 h In e na ional Cong ess o he La in Ame ican
S udies Associa ion, 1988, espec i ely.
(5) The consocia ional li e a u e analyzes coun ies in which iolen con lic s ac oss majo segmen s o
socie ies ha e been esol ed wi hin he con ex o open poli ical egimes by means o o e -a ching
eli e coope a ion; o a e iew, discussion and explana ion o how he Colombian poli ical pa ies
may be conside ed unc ional al e na i es i no exac equi alen s o he eligious, linguis ic, e hnic
o o he segmen s conside ed by analys s o o he coun ies, see HARTLYN, J.: The poli ics o
coali ion ule, p. 1-27.
(6) HARTLYN, Jona han: “Colombia: The Poli ics o Violence and Accommoda ion” in: DIAMOND,
La y; LINZ, Juan and LIPSET, Seymou Ma in (ads.): Democ acy in De eloping Coun ies: La in
Ame ica Boulde , Lynne Reinne , 1989.
(7) Seeking o d aw a i m dis inc ion be ween he "s a e" and he "poli ical egime" would equi e a
heo e ical discussion a oo leng hy and a cane o he pu poses o his pape . A one le el, one
migh wish o conside he a med o ces and he judicia y as pa o he “s a e”, elemen s ha would
emain ega dless o he na u e o he egime, whe eas he Cong ess and he ole o pa y leade s
as incumben s o key go e nmen al decision-making posi ions a e undamen ally dependen on he
na u e o Colombia's poli ical egime. A he same ime, gi en he ac ha he ole and impac o
he a med o ces and he judicia y could a y emendously depending on he na u e o he egime,
one could iew he poli ical egime as a less abs ac concep han he s a e, hough mo e ele an
o ou pa icula analy ic conce ns he e. See HARTLYN, J.: The poli ics o coali ion ule, p. 4-8.
(8) One o he mos hough ul discussions o he legaliza ion op ion, weighing he social and poli ical
cos s associa ed wi h making he a icking in and consump ion o na co ics illegal agains he
po en ial public heal h cos s o legalizing i , is NADELMANN, E han: "U.S. D ug Policy: A Bad
Expo ", Fo eign Policy, nº 70/sp ing 1988, p. 83-108. Fo a discussion o U.S. and Colombian
pe spec i es on he dis ibu ion o cos s o cu en an i-d ug policies, see TOKATLIAN, Juan:
“Na ional Secu i y and D ugs: Thei Impac on Colombian-U.S. Rela ions” Jou nal o In e ame ican
S udies and Wo ld A ai s, ol. 30 (Fall 1989) p. 133-160.
(9) Pa icula ly in he a e ma h o he ake-o e o he Colombian Palace o Jus ice in
No embe 1985 by he M-19 and he mili a y aid o eco e i which lead o nea ly one hund ed
dea hs, o icials o he p e ious Reagan adminis a ion sough o link Cuba, Nica agua, na co ics
a icking and e o ism in one g and conspi acy; see he exce p s o speeches by Sec e a y o S a e
Geo ge Schul z and by P esiden Reagan in SHANNON, Elaine: Despe ados: La in D ug Lo ds. U.S.
Lawmen, and he Wa Ame ica Can' Win. New Yo k, Viking, 1988, p. 174-175.
(10) See HARTLYN, J.: The poli ics o coali ion ule, p. 16-53; a summa y o he coun y's majo ci il
wa s in he 1827-1910 pe iod is on p. 21-24.
(11) Use ull English-language sou ces include: DIX, Robe H.: Colombia: The Poli ical Dimensions o
Change. New Ha en, Yale Uni e si y P ess, 1967; MARTZ, John: Colombia: A Con empo a y
Poli ical Su ey. Chapel Hill, Uni e si y o No h Ca olina P ess, 1962; OQUIST, Paul: Violence.
Con lic an Poli ics in Colombia . New Yo k, Academic P ess, 1980 and WILDE, A.: “Con e sa ions
among gen lemen: Oliga chical democ acy in Colombia”.
(12) On consocia ionalism and he es ablishmen o he Na ional F on , see HARTLYN, J., The poli ics
o coali ion ule, p. 54-74; see also DIX, Robe H.: "Consocia ional democ acy: The Case o
Colombia", Compa a i e Poli ics ol. 12/Ap il, 1980, p. 303-321.
(13) ANAPO was ounded by Gene al Gus a o Rojas Pinilla, who go e ned om 1953 o 1957; in
1970, Rojas could main ain he ambiguous s a u e o populis opposi ion igu e and candida e
wi hin he Conse a i e Pa y. Due o he equi emen o al e na ion, o e s in u ban a eas,
p edominan ly Libe al, had no Libe al p esiden ial candida e o whom o o e. Many we e
con inced ha aud assu ed he na ow ic o y o he o icial Na ional F on candida e, Misael
Pas ana, and he M-19 gue illa mo emen akes i s names om he da e o hese 1970 elec ions
(Ap il 19).
(14) Fo a b ie e iew o he es ablishmen o he coun y's a ious gue illa g oups, see HARTLYN,
J.: The poli ics o coali ion ule, p. 191-194; see also PIZARRO, Edua do: "La Gue illa
Re oluciona ia en Colombia", in SANCHEZ, Gonzalo and PEÑARANDA, Rica do (eds.): Pasado y
P esen e de la Violencia en Colombia. Bogo á, Fondo Edi o ial CEREC, 1986.
(15) HARTLYN, J.: The poli ics o coali ion ule, p. 208-210; see also LONG, William: “’Law o Gun’
Endange s Colombian Jus ice Sys em”, Los Angeles Times, Feb ua y 5/1989.
(16) The Cou based i s judgemen in pa on he ailu e o Cong ess o ollow igo ously equi emen s
o cong essional quo um and o ing majo i ies. Many poli ical obse e s el he Cou may aIso
ha e been in luenced by i s ea o po en ial changes o he judicial sys em. Unde he exis ing
sys em, judges o he Sup eme Cou , hough limi ed by he equi emen o poli ical pa i y, eplaced
acancies on he Cou , hemsel es (known as coop ación) and elec ed judges o he lowe cou ,
who in u n elec ed he judges o he lowes cou s (see HARTLYN, J: The poli ics o coali ion ule,
p, 289 nº 12).
(17) Fo an in e p e a ion o he con empo a y Colombian si ua ion ha sha es ce ain simila i ies wi h
he iew exp essed he e, while s essing socie al aspec s mo e han poli ical dynamics, see
PÉCAUT, Daniel: C ónica de dos décadas de polí ica colombiana. 1968-1988. Bogo á, Siglo XXI,
1988, p. 8-36, esp. p.30.
(18) SAMPER PIZANO, E nes o: “Ma ihuana: En e la ep esión y la legalización” in ANIF: Ma ihuana:
legalización o ep esión. Bogo á, 1979, p. 6. BAGLEY, B uce: “Colombia and he Wa on D ugs”,
Fo eign A ai s, ol. 67, nº I (Fall 1988), p. 73, w i es ha “(by) he ea ly 1970s, Colombians had
eme ged as majo U.S. supplie s, ea ning a leas $1 billion annually, al hough Mexican a icke s
emained dominan ”. In a co e s o y: "The Colombian Connec ion", Time, Janua y 29/1979
claimed “(i) is by a he la ges business in Colombia, p o iding mo e e enue han co ee” (p.
23-24). TIRADO CARDONA, Nancy: “Impac o de una nue a ac i idad sob e el desa ollo de una
egión: el caso de la ma ihuana”. Bogo á, Uni e sidad de los Andes, P og ama de Pos g ado
Plani icación del Desa ollo Regional, 1978, da es ini ial c ops in he 1963-1965 pe iod and i s
p oli e a ion beginning in 1974.
(19) GÓMEZ, Hemando José: “La economía ilegal en Colombia: amaño, e olución, ca ac e ís icas e
impac o económico”, Coyun u a Económica. 1988, p.94-97.
(20) The i s om GÓMEZ, "La economia ilegal," p. 96; he second om RUIZ HERNÁNDEZ,
He nando: “Implicaciones sociales y económicas de la p oducción de la ma ihuana en Colombia”,
in ANIF, Ma ihuana, p. 123. The coun y's A o ney Gene al (P ocu ado ) in 1979 asse ed he
go e nmen es ima ed he e we e some 70,000 hec a es o ma ihuana unde cul i a ion; see
GONZÁLEZ CHARRY, Guille mo: "Ma ihuana, Mi o y Realidad," in ANIF, Ma ihuana, P. 19.
(21) SAMPER, E nes o: “Ma ihuana” p. 6.
(22) DONADIO, Albe o: Banque os en el banquillo. Bogo á, El Anco a Edi o es, 1983, in e iews.
(23) Ci ed in CRAIG, Richa d: "Domes ic Implica ions o Illici Colombian D ug P oduc ion and
T a icking", Jou nal o In e ame ican S udies and Wo ld A ai s, ol. 25, nº 3/Summe 1983, p. 329.
(24) BAGLEY, B.M.: "Colombia and he Wa on D ugs", p. 79.
(25) CRAIG, R.: “Domes ic Implica ions” p. 331.
(26) BAGLEY, B.M.: “Colombia and he Wa on D ugs” p. 75-76 (quo a ion om p. 75); RICKS,
Thomas E.: “The Cocaine Business: Big Risks and P o i s, High Labo Tu no e ”, Wall S ee
Jou nal, June 30/1986.
(27) GÓMEZ, H.J.: "La economía ilegal", p. 102-103; CABALLERO ARGÁEZ, Ca los: “La economía
de la cocaína, algunos es ima i os pa a 1988”. Coyun u a Económica, 1988, p. 179-183; BAGLEY,
B.M.: "Colombia and he Wa on D ugs", p. 76. To p o ide a ame o e e ence, he alue o
Colombia's me chandise expo s (in US$ million) was: 2,970 in 1983, 4,273 in 1984, 3,650 in 1985
and 5,375 in 1986; om in e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank, Economic and Social P og ess in La in
Ame ica, 1988 Repo . Washing on, D.C., 1988, p. 376.
(28) The e enues gene a ed by cocaine a icking a e mo e hea ily concen a ed because he mos
labo in ensi e pa o he ope a ion, he g owing o coca, is s ill concen a ed in Boli ia and Pe u.
Ma ihuana, in con as , gene a ed p opo ionally mo e di ec employmen in Colombia.
(29) See he discussion in CAMACHO GUIZADO, Al a o: D oga y Sociedad en Colombia: El pode y
el es igma. Bogo á, CIDSE, Uni e sidad del Valle & Fondo Edi o ial CEREC, 1988, p. 92-98.
(30) Indica o s o he la e include he ailed campaign o e i ed Gene al Al a o Valencia To a o he
1978 elec ions and he na u e o some o he appeals o Luis Ca los Galán wi hin he Libe al Pa y.
(31) The ea y, pa icula ly he measu e pe mi ing Colombian na ionals o be sen o he Uni ed
S a es o ace cha ges, was ho ly deba ed wi hin he Colombian Cong ess. Howe e , a law
app o ing he ea y was inally passed in Oc obe 1980. The U.S. Sena e hen app o ed i in 1981
and he ea y wen in o e ec in Ma ch 1982. Fo u he de ails, including he legal a gumen s
inally employed o decla e he ea y uncons i u ional in Colombia and he ailed e o s o he
Ba co adminis a ion o e i e i ( h ough ea ly 1988), see KAVASS, Igo : “Fin del T a ado de
Ex adición Colombia-Es ados Unidos de 1979: Una Comedia de E o es?”. Bogo á, Cen o de
Es udios In e nacionales, Uni e sidad de los Andes, Documen os Ocasionales nº 3/mayo-junio
1988.
(32) GÓMEZ, H.J.: "La economía ilegal", p. 96; RICKS, T.E.: “The Cocaine Business”
(33) EDDY, Paul; SABOGAL, Hugo & WALDEN, Sa a: The Cocaine Wa s. New Yo k, W.W. No on,
1988, p. 285-290; and SHANNON, E.: Despe ados, p. 98-106.
(34) SANCHEZ, Gonzalo e . al.: Colombia: iolencia y democ acia. Bogo á, Uni e sidad Nacional de
Colombia, 1987.
(35) COLLETT, Me ill: "The My h o he ‘Na co-Gue illas’", The Na ion Augus 13-20/1989, p. 131,
(36) COLLETT, M.: “The My h”, p. 132, ci es esea ch on a “ iangle o e o ” among anche s, he
mili a y and MAS in he middle Magdalena alley. Fo a discussion o he si ua ion in U abá,
including he pola iza ion be ween d ug a icke s, businessmen and anche s, on he one hand,
and gue illas, banana wo ke s and le is poli ical pa ies and g oups, on he o he , see
BEJARANO, Ana Ma ía: “La Violencia Regional y sus P o agonis as: El caso de U abá”, Análisis
Polí ico, nº 4/Mayo-Agos o 1988, p. 43-54.
(37) Fo es ima es o d ug consump ion in Colombia, based on a na ion-wide u ban household su ey,
see TORRES DE CALVIS, Yolanda and MURRELLE, Lenn: Es udio Nacional sob e Alcoholismo y
Consumo de Sus ancias que P oducen Dependencia. Medellín, Uni e sidad de An ioquia, Facul ad
Nacional de Salud Pública, 1987.
(38) Fo iews on he impac o d ug a icking on Colombian alues, see THOUMI, F ancisco: "Some
Implica ions o he G ow h o he Unde g ound Economy in Colombia", Jou nal o In e am ican
S udies and Wo ld A ai s, ol. 20, nº 2/Summe 1987, p. 44-50.
(39) Nume ous examples, aken om he Colombian p ess, a e ci ed in CRAIG, R.: “Domes ic
Implica ions”, p. 336-337. A DEA pe spec i e, ha in Colombia he p oblem was mo e one o e o
han o co up ion is p esen ed in SHANNON, E.: Despe ados, esp. p. 91-97.
(40) LOSADA LORA, Rod igo y VÉLEZ BUSTILLO, Edua do: Mue es iolen as en Colombia.
1979-1986: In o me de in es igación. Bogo á, Ins i u o SER de In es igación, 1988.
(41) As wo d leaked ou ha 15 o 28 jus ices ound he Re o m uncons i u ional, P esiden Tu bay
sough o sa e he Cons i u ional Re o m by dec eeing ha a h ee- ou hs majo i y was necessa y
o decla e cons i u ional e o ms uncons i u ional. Leading poli ical igu es and he Sup eme Cou
ejec ed he e o o block he decision (El Tiempo, No embe 3 and 4, 1981)
(42) P esiden López had dec eed a ax e o m in 1974 employing special S a e o Na ional Economic
Eme gency powe s; al hough his use o such powe s was con o e sial a he ime, he cou s
upheld mos o he dec ees. Howe e , a ax e o m e o by P esiden Be ancu unde simila
ci cums ances was decla ed uncons i u ional some eigh yea s la e .
(43) See he analysis by VALENCIA VILLA, He nando: "Vida, pasión y mue e del T ibunal Especial
de Ins ucción", Análisis Polí ico, nº 2/Sep embe -Decembe , 1987, p. 92-97.
(44) Fo a po ai o B igadie Gene a Jaime Ruiz Ba e a and his e o o dis up he cocaine
a icke s in Medellín, see ROSENBERG, Tina: "Colombia: Mu de Ci y". A lan ic Magazine,
No embe 1988, p. 20-28.
(45) See El Espec ado , Feb. 20/1983; VÁZQUEZ CARRIZOSA, Al edo: "Colombia en e la
Espe anza y la Desespe ación" in CEPEDA ESPINOSA, Manuel José: Es ado de Si io y
Eme gencia Económica. Bogo á, Con alo iá Gene al de la República, 1985.
(46) The e is e idence o he in ol emen o membe s o he Colombian mili a y in "di y wa " ac ics.
Many g oups employ such ac ics, occasionally in appa en collabo a ion wi h membe s o he
mili a y, bu a o he imes independen ly. See FELLNER, Jamie: "A Mu de ous Democ acy",
Commonweal, Jan. 15/1988, p. 7. D ug a icke s would appea o be one o hose g oups, and he
de e io a ion o he coun y's judicial sys em, accele a ed by hei ac ions, has helped o s imula e
he impuni y wi h which all hese di e en g oups ac .
(47) Con ibu ing o his pe cep ion a he ime we e he cha ges o a "na cogue illa" connec ion based
on he ac ha membe s o he FARC had been p o ec ing he Ya í Ri e cocaine si e aided in