Non- o ing in Ca alonia
Joan FONT
Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona
Wo king Pape n.75
Ba celona 1993
This pape aims o p esen a b ie app oach o non- o ing in Ca alonia. I s
de elopmen will be hal way be ween a case s udy and a wide e lec ion on he
issue. Tha is o say ha al hough ocusing discussions and examples on he
ea u es o Ca alan non o ing, many o he subjec s a osen and some o he
hypo heses laid seek o ha e a much mo e gene al alidi y.
The pape is s uc u ed in h ee sec ions: in he i s one we will y o gi e a
gene al diagnose o he subjec by analysing Ca alan non- o ing om a compa a i e
pe spec i e, looking a di e en ia ed beha iou s depending on he elec ion le el and
on esponses o he poli ical con ex . We will emphasize he un inished cha ac e o
he explana ions o each o hese phenomena. In he second sec ion we will
summa ize some o he mos basic e idences on he subjec ha ha e been poin ed
ou by elec o al geog aphy and sociology in Ca alonia, which will help us o de ine
some o he necessa y explana o y elemen s. Finally, he las sec ion will con ain
some hypo heses and e lec ions. We shall p esen he e he main componen s ha
we hink should con o m an explana o y model o non- o ing, and will b ie ly discuss
his beha iou 's a ionali y and i s poli ical impo ance.
1. Some basic ac s
A i s clea cha ac e is ic o non- o ing in Ca alonia and Spain is ha , in he
adi ionally called " i s o de " elec ions i eaches ela i ely high le els in compa ison
wi h Eu ope. Table 1 shows u nou means o 17 Eu opean coun ies as well as o
Spain's 17 Au onomous Communi ies (o Regions). We can app ecia e ha e en he
mos pa icipa i e Region has a highe non- o ing a e han he Eu opean mean, bu
we can also see ha he e a e qui e a ew egions wi h highe o e u nou a es
han F ance, he Uni ed Kingdom o I eland. I is no he case o Ca alonia: his is he
six h Spanish Communi ie acco ding o he highes non- o ing a e, only su passed in
Eu ope by he excep ional case o Swi ze land.
Gi en he adi ional in e p e a ion, associa ing highe non o ing a es wi h
less u banized and de eloped a eas (1), his hie a chy is su p ising since Ca alonia
is one o he i s Spanish a eas acco ding o bo h indica o s. Howe e , eali y has
su icien ly shown ha pa icipa ion ankings canno be explained h ough a unique
cause, ei he a Eu opean o Spanish le el, and e en less by such a mechanicis
a gumen (2).
Local o egional elec ions a e di icul o compa e in e na ionally, gi en bo h
di e si y in he coincidences o di e en le el elec ions as well as e y i egula powe
dis ibu ions among each coun y's adminis a ions. Besides, a he Spanish le el, he
ac ha Regional elec ions a e held simul aneously wi h Local elec ions in 13
Regions makes any compa ison o non- o ing a es wi h he Ca alan case isky.
Thus, in a non-compa a i e pe spec i e, he mos clea e idence is he con inui y o
he adi ional ule by which u nou a es a e highes in i s o de elec ions (Rei ,
1985). Beyond his ac , i seems di icul o s a e any hing else han he appa en
endency o local elec ions o occupy he second place in high u nou a es, and he
pa icula ly low pa icipa i e cha ac e o he unique Eu opean elec ion held on i s
own (1989).
Which a e he easons o his o de ing o pa icipa ion in ensi ies? I he
phenomenon o highe non- o ing in second o de elec ions has al eady been
enough explained, he di e en deg ees o pa icipa ion in hem is qui e an unsol ed
p oblem. Is o ing highe in hose seemingly mo e ele an elec ions? In he ones
whe e mo e powe ul adminis a ions -o ha manage mo e unds-a e elec ed? O ,
inally, people do o e mo e when go e nmen s ha a e seen as close and mo e
likely o be ecep i e o ci izen's demands a e elec ed? 42% o Ca alan people say
ha elec ions o he Spanish Pa liamen a e he mos ele an , in on o 17% ha
hink ha he mos impo an a e o he Ca alan Pa liamen . Only 8% a ibu es his
cha ac e o local elec ions (Fon , 1991). These da a could well be ela ed wi h he
budge dis ibu ion among he di e en Spanish adminis a ions, al hough i is qui e
isky o y o es ablish any causal ela ionship.
On he o he side, al hough lacking da a limi ed o Ca alonia, we mus ake
in o accoun ha Spania ds see own councils as he ins i u ion ha in luences mos
hei daily li e, as he mos in e es ing o hem, as he le el mo e likely o be
in luenceable by hem(3) o as he mos us able one (Mon e o, 1989). The
combina ion o all hese ac o s, besides a en ion paid o each elec o al campaign in
he media, he mobilizing e o s done in each case by pa ies, as well as he gene al
poli ical clima e -mo e o less compe i i e and/o encou aging and mo e o less
c i ical o hope ul wi h poli ical ac o s-, allow us o explain bo h, he usual o de ings
and luc ua ions and he excep ions ha u nou a es end o su e .
The abo e men ioned ac o s in oduce us in o he las gene al elemen ha
dese es o be men ioned. Ca alonia is no an excep ion in i s non- o ing e olu ion,
e y sensible o he poli ical momen 's phenomena. Changes in o e s u nou ha e
always gone in pa allel wi h hose e idenced in he Spanish case (Fon , 1991). Bo h
Ca alonia and Spain ha e su e ed excep ional luc ua ions in non- o ing a es - e y
unusual in hei size in ecen Eu opean poli ical li e- (Mon e o, 1990). The mos
impo an changes ela e o he e y excep ional ci cums ances o 1977 and 1982.
Howe e , e en i we exclude hese wo cases, we s ill can ind sudden changes in
pa icipa ion le els no usual in ou con ex . Fo ins ance, be ween he 1987 local
elec ions and he ollowing ones in 1991, wi hou any signi ican change in he
poli ical si ua ion o he pa y sys em, o ing alls en poin s in Ca alonia.
Howe e , as in he p e ious case, i is easie o s a e he ac han o explain i ,
especially i we aim o isola e he ac o s ha may eally con ibu e o unde s and his
e olu ion. The elec ion's compe i i eness is one o he mos usual a gumen s in
non- o ing s udies(4). Bu i we in e p e compe i i eness as he dis ance be ween
he wo i s poli ical o ces, no hing explains he e olu ion o pa icipa ion be ween
1977 and 1979 o be ween 1982 and 1986. Be ween he i s wo elec ions he main
pa ies did no su e big changes in hei o e pe cen age, while non- o ing
inc eased abou 10 poin s. In he second pai o elec ions, di e gence be ween
heo y and eali y is s ill la ge since while he main pa ies ended o ge close ,
o ing also dec eased no ably.
Change expec a ions ha e been one o he mos used elemen s o explain he
unusually high u nou o 1982 (Mon e o, 1986). I we unde s and hem as he
possibili y o a change o go e nmen , he a gumen is again weak in espec wi h he
1979 elec ion, when high non- o ing coincided wi h he esul s' unce ain y(5). The
desi abili y o change could be a mo e use ul de ini ion, al hough s ill di icul o
suppo wi h su icien da a.
In conclusion, he diagnose o non- o ing in Ca alonia sha es elemen s o
peculia i y (low u nou ) wi h o he s o no mali y (di e en non- o ing le els acco ding
o he ype o elec ions, as well as sensi i i y o he poli ical momen ). To unde s and
hem, we only coun on some clues and hypo heses, bo h gene al and b oadly
de ined. Ca alonia is no unusual in he ac ha explana ions o i s non- o ing a e no
easy and go necessa ily h ough he combina ion o di e en causal elemen s.
2. Some app oaches
Two o he main adi ional ways o in e p e a ion o elec o al beha iou can
b ing some ligh o unde s and non- o ing: elec o al geog aphy and sociology. The
i s one con ibu es by p esen ing maps o he pa icipa i e in ensi y, he main
ea u es o which ha e changed li le in hese i een yea s o elec ions. Ca alonia's
mos in e io s ip appea s as one o he a eas wi h highe non- o ing a es,
coinciding enough wi h hose less popula ed and mo e adi ional coun ies, om he
Le idan Py enees o he Eb o i e almos wi hou in e up ion. In many elec ions, bu
pa icula ly in he egional ones, a second a ea wi h highes non o ing a es -and wi h
e y di e en poli ical and socioeconomic cha ac e is ics-, comes o join he o me
g oup: Ba celona's me opoli an a ea.
Tendencies ollowed by each o hese a eas a e nei he clea no linea .
Fi s ly, we mus conside ha he 50% o he Ca alan popula ion li ing in Ba celona's
a ea has no go an homogeneous beha iou . Thus, non- o ing e olu ion in
Ba celona mus a leas be analysed in wo di e en g oups, he capi al and i s
me opoli an su oundings. These wo a eas ha e ollowed e y di e en pa hs. In he
i s elec ions he capi al was one o he a eas wi h highes non- o ing, while a e
1982 i s u nou a es ha e been highe han he me opoli an a ea's (Table 2).
Besides, compa ison o hese a eas wi h he es o Ca alonia also shows i egula
endencies which can only be explained om mul icausal pe spec i es ha conside
bo h, he di e en popula ions o each o hese a eas and hei poli ical ideli y -and
hus he di e en answe s hey will gi e o changes in he poli ical momen - We will
ha e o ake also in o accoun such ac o s as he in e ac ion be ween ype o habi a
and ype o elec ion o he unequal impac o possible p oblems in he elec o al oll.
Fo ins ance, in he i s local elec ions he highes u nou was ha o
Ba celona's me opoli an a ea. Fou yea s la e his a e jus inc eased in wo poin s,
while in he ci y o Ba celona i inc eased up o hi een poin s and in he es o
Ca alonia almos 19. Wha does explain such di e en endencies? P obably hese
di e en e olu ions a e somehow ela ed wi h he clea ic o y o he le e e ywhe e,
bu pa icula ly in Ba celona's me opoli an a ea, wi h he s ill sca ce pa y build-up in
many a eas o he non-me opoli an Ca alonia o wi h possible p oblems in he
elec o al oll in he Ca alan capi al in he elec ions p e ious o 1982 (6). As ano he
example, he deepening pa icipa i e di e ences be ween Ba celona's su oundings
and he es o Ca alonia in egional elec ions canno be explained wi hou aking in o
accoun he popula ion cha ac e is ics o he i s a ea (mos ly wo king-class
immig a ion om Spain's Sou he n egions), as well as he consolida ion o he
elec o al hegemony o a go e nmen coali ion (CiU) which does no ep esen his
g oup's in e es s in Ca alan poli ics.
I hus seems ha elec o al sociology may con ibu e wi h new elemen s o
unde s and ou objec o s udy and i s dis ibu ion in ime and space. Gene ally
speaking, mos non- o ing g oups in Ca alonia a e no e y a om Lipse 's classical
cha ac e iza ion (1987): he you h and he old, as well as immig an s, less educa ed
o wo king class people o e less. Howe e , he compa ison o p o iles o hose who
did no o e in di e en elec ions will p e en us om alling in any sociological
de e minism. Changes in he di e ences' in ensi y be ween hese g oups and he es
o he popula ion, he disappea ance o some o hem in ce ain con ex s o he
eme gence o new non o e s' g oups in ce ain elec ions will make clea he
unexis ance o any simplis ic ela ion be ween social posi ion and poli ical beha iou .
We will p esen a i s example wi h he mos us able exis ing da a, hose
ob ained om ep esen a i e samples o he elec o al oll (7). In he ci y o Ba celona,
non- o ing inc eases almos 5 poin s be ween he 1988 egional elec ions and he
1991 local ones. Bu hese di e ences concen a e among e y speci ic g oups
(Table 3): 6 poin s among he younges and jus 1 among people olde han 50; i
does no a y among hose wi hou p ima y s udies and ises 5 poin s among people
wi h Uni e si y educa ion; i ises 7 poin s among people who w i e in Ca alan and
alls 4 among non-Ca alan speake s. In sho , while some o he al eady exis ing

di e ences in 1988 g ow (as he case o age), o he s disappea (place o o igin) o
diminish (educa ional le el o knowledge o he Ca alan language).
These e olu ions al eady show ha he ela ion be ween social s uc u e and
elec o al beha iou is no an easy one. Many o he changes jus desc ibed can be
explained by he speci ic cha ac e and di e en ia ed esul s o egional elec ions in
Ca alonia (8). Howe e , e en in he same ype o elec ions we ind di e en answe s
o he ci cums ances. Fo ins ance, be ween he 1984 and 1988 egional elec ions
non- o ing a es inc ease in he whole e i o y, bu pa icula ly among he mos
educa ed g oups -s uden s o manage s- while hey all o do no a y among he old,
he unemployed, o he people wi h lowes educa ion le els (Fon , 1991). I he 1984
non o e s' p o iles we e mo e simila o Lipse 's classical po ai , in 1988 -an
elec ion wi h an announced winne -, non o e s' p o iles ade away as li le poli icized
social g oups ha usually o e s ayed a home.
Bu hese a ia ions in non- o ing p o iles a e no ei he an exclusi e
phenomenon o he Ca alan case. Al hough he e a e some g oups ha end o o e
mo e han o he s, in ensi ies o hese di e ences will be qui e di e se acco ding o
he poli ical con ex and momen in he Spanish, he F ench o he Ame ican case.
Socioeconomic inequali ies cha ac e is ic o he capi alis sys em will end o
ep oduce in he poli ical sphe e in he o m o di e en u nou a es. Bu he
ansla ion o hese inequali ies in o e y o li le di e en ia ed beha iou in
acco dance wi h age, class, gende o eligion g oup will essen ially depend upon
each o hese g oups' poli ical ep esen a ion. The ac ha pa icipa i e di e ences
be ween classes a e pa icula ly sca ce in Sweden and specially high in he USA is
no a p oduc o chance bu o he in e en ion's capabili y ha he wo king classes o
each o hese wo coun ies has had in hei espec i e poli ical li e (Bu nham, 1980).
I is no by chance, ei he , ha he F ench you h o e mo e in he i s ound o
elec ions, when g een candida es a e p esen (Pe che on, 1985) o ha Ge many,
wi h a g een pa y pa icula ly add essed o he young popula ion, is whe e
pa icipa i e di e ences acco ding o age appea o be smalle .
3. Some conclusions
A i s clea conclusion o all he commen s al eady made is ha non- o ing
equi es a mul icausal and complex explana ion which will ha e o include e y
di e se elemen s: i will be essen ial o ake in o accoun sociological and ins i u ional
ac o s, he elec o al ma ke ole and he cha ac e is ics o poli ical con lic . Figu e 1
shows a possible a emp o summa izing hese elemen s in an explana o y model
ha we ha e de eloped, and o a g ea ex en e i ied, in a longe s udy (9).
B ie ly, we hink ha any a emp o explain non- o ing needs 6
comp ehensi e elemen s: he indi idual's social posi ion, his gene al poli ical
a i udes, he social con ex whe e she/he li es, he ole o he main poli ical ac o s,
he his o ic si ua ion and he speci ic poli ical momen (Figu e 1). These elemen s do
no ope a e in a chao ic and simul aneous way on he decision o o e o non o e
(S ai s, 1990). As i seems ob ious, he close cha ac e is ics o an indi idual and
olun a y beha iou as o ing will also be hose ha ul il hese condi ions: poli ical
a i udes. I we con ine ou sel es o conside ing non- o ing as a dependen a iable
and all he o he ac o s as equal explana o y elemen s, i could well be ha hey
added li le, s a is ically speaking, o a i udes con ibu ion. Howe e , hese a i udes
ha e no been c ea ed in a acuum. To limi ou sel es o analysing hem could mean
going li le beyond au ology. Asse ing ha people do no o e because hey a e no
in e es ed o ha e no poli ical iden i ica ions is li e ally ue bu subs an i ely li le
in o ma i e.
Thus, s ill in he indi idual domain, we mus look o pa o poli ical
pe cep ions oo s in he indi idual social cha ac e is ics and all he in e es s,
iden i ica ions o in e p e a ions o he wo ld ha i b ings abou (Hea h e al, 1985). In
addi ion, o sea ch he explana ion o poli ical beha iou s in exclusi ely indi idual
ac o s is an a leas insu icien s a egy. Iden ical posi ions acco ding o social
classes, age o eligious g oups will gene a e di e en pe cep ions o poli ics
depending on he social con ex whe e one li es. Al hough poli ical ac o s could in
ac be conside ed as pa o his con ex , we hink ha hei essen ial ole jus i ies an
independen analysis. They a e no only an elemen o he con ex ha will in luence
a i udes' o ma ion bu may also wo k in p eelec o al momen s and, wi hou al e ing
a i udes, mobilize ci izens mo e o less e icien ly.
None o hese ela ions is ne e heless o a de e minan kind. Al hough he
ac ha young people o ing less is a egula enough phenomenon, his is no a
p oduc o any necessa y ela ion. Which a e he impo an sociological clea ages o
unde s and non- o ing will depend on he s uc u e o poli ical con lic in each speci ic
socie y. Tha is o say, social posi ions will ansla e in o a i udes shaped by a
speci ic his o ical si ua ion. Social ela ions and poli ical ins i u ions will make
class- e e ences and o he sociological iden i ies mo e o less de e minan ,
depending on he coun y, o unde s and poli ical a i udes and, h ough hem,
elec o al pa icipa ion.
A he same ime, poli ical a i udes do no change ab up ly. Al hough hey may
be in a pe manen ede ini ion, hei essen ial guidelines keep qui e cons an along
ime. On he con a y, we ha e seen ha u nou does e ol e qui e quickly. Indeed,
ansla ion o poli ical pe cep ions in o beha iou s is nei he au oma ic, bu depends
on he poli ical momen . The speci ic poli ical ci cums ances will p o oke ha people
mo e o less in e es ed o wi h a mo e o less in ense iden i ica ion wi h poli ical
ac o s ge ou o o e o no . Ca alan people in e es in poli ics did no inc ease
signi ican ly be ween 1979 and 1982: i was he di e en poli ical momen which
b ough o o e e en hose less in e es ed.
Conside a ion o all hese elemen s in any explana o y model o non- o ing
seems o us one o he i s essen ial s eps o unde s and he phenomenon. By
o de ing hem app op ia ely we will be able o see ha all o hem a e impo an , e en
hough hei con ibu ion o he di ec explana ion o he decision o o e o no is e y
di e en (10).
Two inal e lec ions seem impo an o us. Fi s ly, om many o he abo e
men ioned conside a ions clea ly esul s he image o non- o ing as a a ional and
unde s andable phenomenon. I s e olu ion does no depend on a e bu on he
changing ela ions be ween socie y and poli ics. Tu nou a es a e an answe o he
condi ions o each pa icula poli ical si ua ion. Ca alan people o e mo e a he mo e
decisi e elec ions o o elec mo e powe ul ins i u ions. The g oups ha eel mo e
p o agonis o be e ep esen ed on he poli ical a ena a e also hose who o e mo e
in ensely. Bu he ac ha o ing is a a ional answe o poli ical ci cums ances does
no mean ha i is done on s ic ly u ili a ian e ms. Conside ing o e as a ci ic du y
s ill cons i u es a necessa y ool o unde s and why in many elec ions a majo i y o
people o e, and nei he pa y-iden i ica ions no he pe cei ed closeness o
compe i ion appea o ac in s ic e ms o expec ed gains.
Las ly, i is wo hwhile o ques ion ou sel es on he eal impo ance o he high
non- o ing a e e i ied in he Ca alan case. The i s answe is no heo e ically
ele an , bu i ma e s in a coun y whe e he goodness o social and poli ical
phenomena is judged acco ding o hei Eu opeanism. I we accep ed his c i e ion,
we should clea ly ha e o answe ha Ca alan non- o ing is no Eu opean.
Consequen ly, i mus become one o he ocus o hose who u n all Eu opeanism's
ea u es in o hei poli ical goal.
As usual, he answe o which is he ele ance o non- o ing will depend on
he pa adigm we s a om: i is a wo ying ac om he democ a ic heo y ha builds
om a ci izens' pa icipa ion p esump ion, as i is om he new Ca holic ca hechism.
I s consequences may be less clea i we pu all he s ess on poli ical s abili y (11).
Las ly, i wha in e es s us is democ acy's ole as a sys em o egula e poli ical
con lic he answe will o ce us o e u n o non- o ing's social dis ibu ion. A
somewha sca ce bu socially dis ibu ed pa icipa ion would be, om his s and-poin
less wo ying han a highe absolu e le el which implied in p ac ice he exclusion o a
ele an pa icula g oup o he coun y's elec o al li e. I is qui e un hinkable ha his
g oup would s op ha ing poli ical demands. And, i hey a e no ep esen ed a he
poli ical ins i u ions, hese would lose hei egula o y capabili y and con lic would
ha e o be sol ed in o he a enas.
Table1