Tele ision and he cons uc ion o iden i y: Ba celona,
Olympic hos
Miquel de Mo agas; Nancy Ri enbu gh & Nú ia Ga cia
The Cen e d’Es udis Olímpics (CEO-UAB) publishes wo ks aimed o acili a e hei scien i ic discussion. The inclusion
o his ex in his se ies does no limi u u e publica ion by i s au ho who ese es he in eg i y o his igh s. This
publica ion may no be ep oduced, nei he pa ially no o ally, wi hou he au ho ’s pe mission.
This documen , o iginally published as pa o he book The Keys o success: he social, spo ing, economic and
communica ions impac o Ba celona’92, comes om a la ge s udy ha looked a all aspec s o ele ision in he
Olympics and can be ound in i s o iginal e sion, in Miquel de Mo agas Spà, Nancy K. Ri enbu gh and James F.
La son (1996). Tele ision in he Olympics. London: John Libbey.
Re . WP033
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
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To e e o his documen you can use he ollowing e e ence:
Mo agas, Miquel de; Nancy Ri enbu gh and Nu ia Ga cia (1995): Tele ision and he cons uc ion o iden i y: Ba celona,
Olympic hos [online a icle]. Ba celona: Cen e d’Es udis Olímpics UAB. [Consul ed: dd/mm/yy]
<h p://olympics udies.uab.es/pd /wp033_eng.pd >
O iginal e e ence: Mo agas, Miquel de; Nancy Ri enbu gh and Nu ia Ga cia (1995): “Tele ision and he cons uc ion
o iden i y: Ba celona, Olympic hos ", in Miquel de Mo agas & Miquel Bo ella, The Keys o Success: he social, spo ing,
economic and communica ions impac o Ba celona’92. Ba celona: Se ei de Publicacions de la UAB, pp. 76-106.
[Da e o publica ion: 1995]
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
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The a hle es ne e had a chance. No ma e how well hey jumped and an and owed, hey
could ne e domina e hese Summe Games.
The ci y won he Games. The people o Ca alonia won he Games. Always, he e we e he
an as ic spi es o Sag ada Familia shimme ing in he backg ound, o he oun ains o
Mon juic, o he owe s o Tibidabo in he dis ance.
Day o nigh , no ma e how exe cised we go o e he I ish boxe o he Canadian owe o
he A ican unne s o he Ame ican baske ball playe s, we always knew some hing was
happening on he Ramblas. Somebody was cooking calama is. Somebody was pou ing he
ca a. Somebody was singing. Real people we e dancing he sa dana, he swee olk dance o
Ca alonia, in some haun ing plaza. We could eel i . We could hea i .
New Yo k Times, Augus 10, 1992.
Holding he Olympic Games in one's own home is uly excep ional o any wo ld cul u e, and in pa icula
o cul u es la gely unknown as was he case o Ca alan cul u e and he Olympic Games. Ca alonia is an
Au onomous Communi y (Na ion) wi hin he Spanish s a e o which he 1992 hos ci y o Ba celona is he
capi al1. Ca alonia has i s own na ional language (Ca alan) and a Medi e anean cul u e, his o y,
pe sonali y and olk adi ion qui e dis inc om o he pa s o Spain.
The e is a belie by Olympics hos s ha holding a Games ep esen s an oppo uni y o enhance one's
image ab oad. While his is no necessa ily ue, o is ue o a much less ex en han belie ed, i is
none heless a compelling mo i a ion o ci ies and coun ies o ake on such a challenging and expensi e
ea o hos ing an Olympic Games. Fo Ba celona and Ca alonia, hos ing he Olympics held he p omise o
ha ing a global coming ou pa y. A pa y whe e esiden s could ca e ully plan o six yea s jus wha o
wea as hei bes clo hes.
Along wi h his exci ing possibili y, howe e , also comes he inhe en ea o hos ing an unsuccess ul o
un la e ing e en . In eali y, he amoun o a en ion b ough abou by hos ing he Olympics a exceeds he
1 An in oduc o y no e abou Ca alonia. Ca alonia ("Ca alunya" in Ca alan) is a his o ic and au onomous communi y ha
co e s an a ea o app oxima ely 32,000 squa e kilome e s. The popula ion is mo e han 6,000,000 which is abou 16%
o he o al popula ion o Spain. The capi al is Ba celona whose me opoli an a ea has a popula ion o app oxima ely
3,000,000. I is a na ion which has managed o p ese e i s social and cul u al adi ions h oughou he cen u ies, e en
in he ace o he mos ad e se poli ical si ua ions.
F anco's ic o y in he Spanish Ci il Wa (1936-39) b ough abou he epeal o he S a u e o Au onomy which had been
passed by he epublican pa liamen in 1932. Wi hin he legal amewo k o he 1978 Spanish Cons i u ion, Ca alonia
now has a new S a u e o Au onomy (1979) which ecognizes i s own go e nmen and pa liamen ( he Gene ali a ) wi h
di e en esponsibili ies in communica ion policies and exclusi e legal con ol in educa ion and cul u al a ai s. In 1992,
he pa liamen a y majo i y and he go e nmen was made up o a na ionalis ic coali ion (CiU) whose p incipal leade was
M . Jo di Pujol. The main opposi ion is p o ided by he socialis pa y o Ca alonia, associa ed wi h he PSOE (PSC-
PSOE) in Mad id. The mayo o Ba celona in 1992 and p esiden o COOB'92, M . Pascual Ma agall is one o he
Ca alan socialis pa y leade s.
Ca alonia's own o icial language is Ca alan, a Romance language ha eaches a popula ion base o abou 10.5 million
(o which 6 million speak he language), p ima ily in no heas e n Spain (i.e., Ca alonia, pa s o València and A agon),
Ando a, se e al coun ies o sou he n F ance, he Balea ic Islands, and pa o he island o Sa dinia. The Ca alan
language is going h ough a pe iod o linguis ic no maliza ion. I s use in public and in he mass media is slowly
inc easing, bu i is s ill a om o e aking Spanish, which s ill enjoys he s a us o majo i y language in Ca alan e i o y.
Besides he p esence o TVE, he Spanish s a e public ele ision s a ion, and he p i a e s a ions An ena 3, Tele 5 and
Canal Plus (pay channel), Ca alonia has wo au onomous ele ision channels, TV3 and Canal 33, which b oadcas in
Ca alan.
The Ba celona O ganizing Commi ee o he Olympic Games (COOB'92) was made up o he Ba celona Ci y Council,
he Spanish Olympic Commi ee, he Highe Council o Spo s (Spanish Go e nmen ), and he Ca alan au onomous
go e nmen ( he Gene ali a ).
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
4
amoun o con ol he hos ul ima ely has o e he ou come o he Games - despi e me iculous planning.
This ension is undamen al o unde s anding how an e en which las s only 17 days can hold a ci y in
suspense o six yea s.
This s udy ou lines he iden i y goals o he Ba celona Olympic o ganize s hen compa es wha 25
in e na ional b oadcas e s p esen ed o home audiences abou Ba celona, Ca alonia and Spain as Olympic
hos and Eu ope as Olympic se ing. The esul s can be explained o some deg ee by he p epa a ion o
b oadcas e s, as well as hei mo i a ion o educa e o en e ain audiences. Bu i is also clea ha he
b oadcas e po ayals a e condi ioned by domes ic con ex s, in luencing, o example, whe he o p esen
Ca alonia as a na ional and cul u al en i y dis inc om Spain.
1. Planning an iden i y
P esen day Opening and Closing Olympic ce emony s uc u es allow o signi ican amoun s o cul u al
p esen a ion by he hos . Fo example, in he Ba celona 1992 Opening Ce emony a ull 1 hou , 14 minu es
o a 3 hou , 10 minu e ce emony was dedica ed o hos cul u e pe o mances. In 1986 when Ba celona
was pu o wa d as a candida e, well be o e he ce emonies we e designed, he p ocess o de eloping a
hos iden i y had al eady begun. Tha p ocess in ol ed a numbe o impo an s eps:
1. Selec ing he geopoli ical e e ence o he hos (in his case, "how much" o he hos should be
iden i ied as Ba celona, Ca alonia, o Spain, and how should hese ela ionships be p esen ed);
2. De ining a desi ed "cha ac e " o he hos (o hos s as in his case), g ounded in eali y ye p omo ing
he hos 's mos posi i e ea u es;
3. Choosing app op ia e symbolic ep esen a ions o ha cha ac e , using exis ing u ban and geog aphic
ea u es, as well as newly designed elemen s such as a logo and masco ;
4. De eloping an app oach o he dissemina ion o he hos iden i y locally (e.g., sign, ci y, and enue
design) and in e na ionally (ma e ials o media), and;
5. C ea ing Opening and Closing Ce emony pe o mances which p esen he hos cul u e in an
accessible and appealing way o in e na ional audiences.
To loca e a s a ing poin , he ce emony p oduce s O ideo Bassa Spo conduc ed an in e na ional su ey.
The esul s e ealed ha he e exis ed ema kably ew image associa ions (ou side o Eu ope) wi h
Ba celona - beyond he ac ha i would be an Olympic hos . Fu he , he e was absolu ely no ecogni ion
o Ca alonia ou side o Wes e n Eu ope. Finally, in e na ional associa ions wi h Spain we e la gely limi ed
o ou is -o ien ed s e eo ypes: sou he n Eu opean loca ion, beau i ul women, sun, cheap wine, sies as
a e lunch, bull igh s and lamenco. While many o hese s e eo ypical images ha e been a ac i e o
ou ism o e he yea s hey we e conside ed a d awback o he hos in e ms o p esen ing an in e na ional
pic u e o Spain as an ad anced economy and a mode n democ acy.
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
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1.1. Es ablishing an Olympic peace among planne s
In o de o de ise a wo kable plan a consensus needed o be eached be ween he a ious ac o s in ol ed
in he o ganizing e o s: he Spanish Go e nmen , he Ca alan au onomous go e nmen ( he Gene ali a ),
Ba celona Ci y Council, he Eu opean Communi y, and he Olympic Commi ees. These ac o s ep esen ed
he di e en "image" s akeholde s in he ou come o he 1992 Games.
Fo hese planne s i was a ela i ely easy ask o de elop a lis o iden i y goals o each o he abo e hos
en i ies. The g ea e challenge was deciding how, which, and o wha deg ee, hese chosen a ibu es o
Ba celona, Ca alonia, and Spain would mani es hemsel es in he design o he ce emonies and
elsewhe e. To make he ask e en mo e challenging, good ad e ising p inciples dic a ed ha a complex
eali y be consolida ed in o a ela i ely ew iden i y a ibu es ha we e easy o g asp and well sui ed o
audio- isual po ayals, hus aising he possibili y ha he g oups in ol ed migh ha e o compe e o he
inclusion o " hei " desi ed image agenda as pa o he iden i y campaign.
To an amazing deg ee he iden i y goals (ou lined below) we e ul ima ely ealized in he design o he
ce emonies and look o he ci y despi e he di e se in e es s o he o ganizing ac ions en e ing in o he
p ocess. In la ge pa his was due o he common desi e o he o ganizing commi ee, and o he s in ol ed,
o e e y hing o un smoo hly. Along he way he e came he ealiza ion ha i he Games we e no
success ul, hen e e yone would lose2. Also, each o he pa ies had sligh ly di e en p io i ies, making
comp omises possible.
This does no mean he e was no con o e sy o e hose six yea s o planning. Qui e he con a y. In
Ca alonia, and h oughou Spain, he e was much discussion, deba e, and specula ion o e wha he
Olympic o ganize s should and would do in e ms o he balance be ween Ca alonia and Spain as hos s3.
In e es ingly, his con inuous and a imes con en ious local dialogue ne e ound he same in ensi y in
in e na ional media and as such did no lea e Spanish bo de s in any signi ican way.
1.2 Iden i y goals o Ba celona, Ca alonia, and Spain as Olympic hos
To ge a sense o he success, o no , o he hos 's iden i y campaign as in e p e ed by in e na ional
b oadcas e s, i is necessa y o b ie ly e iew wha was in ended by he Olympic planne s.
A passiona e and democ a ic Spain
Fo Spain, one o he main cul u al objec i es o he ce emonies was o elimina e some o he ou is
2 Two yea s be o e he Olympics he e was a ce emony o he opening o he Mon juïc Olympic s adium. I ained.
E e yone go soaked. The e en was i e wi h p oblems and delays, including na ionalis ic demons a ions and police
p e en ing Ca alan lags om en e ing he s adium. Acco ding o sou ces, ha e en ac ed as a u ning poin o so s in
ha i occu ed o all g oups ha he Olympics could ail and e e yone would lose i hey did no wo k closely oge he o
he end.
3 Fo a discussion o local discou se abou hos iden i y issues see Blain, N., R. Boyle, and H. O'Donnell (1993).
"Cen ali y and Pe iphe ali y a he Ba celona Olympics: Spain, Ca alonia, Sco land, Po ugal", Spo and Na ional
Iden i y in he Eu opean Media. London: Leices e Uni e si y P ess, 156-199.

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s e eo ypes (sies as, bull igh s, slow mo ing). Howe e , no all o he exis ing s e eo ypes no ed abo e
we e seen as nega i e. The o ganize s decided o p omo e he widely held image o Spain as a land o
"passion". In addi ion, he "sun" (also a cen al symbol in Spain's ou is ad e ising campaign, "Spain.
E e y hing unde he sun") appea ed as elemen al o se e al ce emony pe o mances. Mo e b oadly, i
was desi ed ha Spain be ep esen ed as di e se, democ a ic, mode n, and cul u ed. To emphasize Spain
as a land o "cul u e", i was decided o ocus on a is ic ep esen a i es ha al eady had in e na ional
ecogni ion. Fo example, he a is s Picasso, Dalí and Mi ó we e chosen as design models o signs, colo ,
and ce emony se ings, and wo ld amous en e aine s such as Mon se a Caballé and Josep Ca e as
we e chosen o sing in he ce emony. Poli ically, he image o he King Juan Ca los I and Queen So ia in
he digni a ies' box and a a ious enues h oughou he Games cons i u ed he p ima y symbol o Spain
h oughou he Games.
A poli ically and cul u ally dis inc Ca alonia
The p oduce s o he ce emony hemsel es sugges ed ha hei p ojec was o p oduce a 3-hou ele ision
comme cial spo whose aim was o "pu Ba celona and Ca alonia on he map"4. I was a conce n wi hin
many sec o s o Ca alan public opinion ha Spain, as he amilia in e na ional p esence, would
o e shadow any e e ence wha soe e o Ca alonia and i s na ional iden i y. The e o e he p ima y iden i y
objec i es o Ca alonia we e i s o become known, and second o be unde s ood as ha ing a dis inc
poli ical, cul u al, and linguis ic iden i y ela i e o Spain. Pa icula ly in he ce emonies i was el ha he
p esen a ion o Ca alonia and Ca alan cul u e should be "undilu ed" and di e en ia ed om ha o Spain
(bu no necessa ily in con lic wi h Spain). This goal was p ima ily achie ed h ough he use o Ca alan
language as an o icial Olympic language (along wi h Spanish, English, and F ench), he en ance o he
Ca alan lag along side he lags o Spain and Ba celona, he playing o he Ca alan na ional an hem, and
by dedica ing speci ic pe o mance segmen s o he a an -ga de and Medi e anean spi i o Ca alan
music, a , and olk adi ions (speci ically he segmen s o he "Sa dana", a adi ional Ca alan ci cle
dance, and "Els Cas elle s" o he human py amids). Ca alan esiden s joined in he e o by displaying
Ca alan lags in he s adium, ou windows, and o e balconies h oughou he ci y.
Mode n, ye his o ic Ba celona
Fo he hos ci y, Ba celona, he image objec i es we e mo e con en ional and along he lines o wha is
e med "ci y ma ke ing", a s a egy aimed a a ac ing p ojec s ha encou age local economic ac i i y and
de elopmen . Ba celona wan ed o p esen i sel o he wo ld as a mode n ci y which welcomed economic
ac i i y and ini ia i es; i wan ed o p omo e he ci y as he economic hub o sou he n Eu ope. I was
desi ed ha Ba celona be pe cei ed as a h i ing, cosmopoli an ci y eady o he nex cen u y, bu also a
ci y buil upon cen u ies o colo ul his o y. To se e hese goals, i was ob ious ha he ci y's ou s anding
4 Bassa , Lluís (1992). "The Olympics and His o y's Longes Comme cial", Viewpoin . Chicago: Ogil y and Ma he . Also,
see Bassa , Lluís (1993). El lib o ojo de la publicidad. Ba celona: Folio.
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
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a chi ec u al cha ac e would p o ide excellen ele isual symbols ( o example, he Mon juïc Olympic
s adium, he Gaudi-designed Sag ada Familia ca hed al, he s a ue o Columbus, e c.). In addi ion, ce ain
compe i ion enues, such as ha o di ing, we e designed o o e ele ision came as scenic backg ound
images o Ba celona du ing he compe i ions. RTO'92, as Olympic hos b oadcas e , se up i e "beau y"
came as a ound he ci y o o e colo ul and cha ac e is ic ci y scenes o in e na ional b oadcas e s o
use5.
Ano he goal was o demons a e ha Ba celona was economically and adminis a i ely capable o
success ully o ganizing one o he mos complex and popula e en s o ou imes. In his sense, planne s
wan ed he Games o be seen as echnologically inno a i e and well-o ganized (ye iendly and human),
dispensing wi h any gene alized Spanish s e eo ypes o la eness, laziness, o ine iciency.
As is he case wi h any ma ke ing o ad e ising p ocess, he nega i e elemen s also p esen in he ci y
(pollu ion, disc imina ion, ubbish, po e y, a ic, noise, anspo a ion, humidi y, asphal , e c.) we e le ou
o he image selec ion p ocess.
A Medi e anean Olympics
Cen al o he hos iden i y campaign was he decision o emphasize he 1992 Games' Medi e anean
se ing. Using he Medi e anean as an o e all amewo k o he Olympic hos iden i y bo h espec ed and
sol ed many issues o he Olympic planne s. Fi s , because o he e idence ha he Olympic Games a e a
spo s and cul u al phenomenon whose his o ic oo s a e ound in he Medi e anean, and mo e speci ically
in G eek cul u e, his iden i y s a egy con eyed an a i ude o espec owa ds he p o agonism o G eece
in Olympic his o y. The Ba celona o ganize s el his e en mo e impo an when i became known ha
A hens would no be hos o he Games in he Cen ena y yea in 1996, and ha he U.S. ci y o A lan a had
been chosen o his anni e sa y e en .
Second, he Medi e anean p o ided he needed ub ic wi h in which he espec i e iden i ies o Ba celona,
Ca alonia and Spain - and e en Eu ope - could all com o ably i . This concep acili a ed he
es ablishmen o consensus among he di e en poli ical ac o s in ol ed in he o ganiza ion.
Finally, he Medi e anean concep is no only an in e na ionally ecognized geog aphic e e en , bu also a
ecognizable " eeling" and cul u al concep ha links well o aes he ic exp ession. The Medi e anean
concep was in eg a ed in all design aspec s o he hos iden i y, including he Ba celona'92 masco and
logo, he design o he o ch, signage colo s, and ul ima ely he Opening and Closing ce emonies.
As an example, he Ba celona'92 logo, a ib an blue, yellow, and ed symbol, was in ended as an
exp ession o Medi e anean aes he ics. Blue ep esen ed he sea and he sky, yellow as he sun, and
combined wi h ed was in ended o e oke he idea o passion, human quali ies and iendship. The logo
5 The hos b oadcas e , in his case RTO'92, is esponsible o p oducing a isual and sound-only in e na ional ele ision
signal o use by in e na ional b oadcas e s. The in e na ional signal (IS) is in ended o be a neu al and comp ehensi e
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
8
was also a ep oduc ion o he human body in mo emen , hus exp essing he humanis concep s o
classicism, as well as he Medi e anean cha ac e o joy o li e 6.
2. B oadcas p esen a ions o Spain, Ca alonia, and Ba celona
This s udy used a quan i a i e (close o 200 con en ca ego ies) and quali a i e analysis o 25 Opening
Ce emony b oadcas s o be e unde s and how b oadcas e s chose o cha ac e ize he 1992 Olympic
hos 7. The b oadcas s we e chosen o ep esen a di e se selec ion o geog aphic loca ion, media
sys ems, and le el o economic de elopmen . The b oadcas coun ies include G eece, USA, F ance,
Ca alonia, Singapo e, Mexico, Canada, Indonesia, Romania, Slo enia, Japan, Russia, Sou h A ica, B azil,
Aus alia, Ge many, Ko ea, he Uni ed Kingdom, Spain, Cuba, Egyp , Colombia, and China. The s udy also
employed esea ch "co esponden s" na i e o each o he coun ies in ol ed o p o ide addi ional
obse a ion and in e p e a ion o he b oadcas p esen a ions conce ning he pe cep ion o he Olympic
hos in hei espec i e coun ies. While Closing Ce emony b oadcas s we e no subjec ed o he same
analysis, i should be said ha h ough co esponden epo s and a e iew o Closing Ce emony
b oadcas s i was clea ha knowledge abou Ba celona and Ca alonia as hos s inc eased subs an ially
o e he cou se o he Games (and should be kep in mind when e iewing he Opening Ce emony
indings). Add o his he success o he Games and plen y o isual exposu e o he hos ci y and i is sa e
o say ha b oadcas e s inished hei Olympics commen a y ull o posi i e ega d o i s hos . The b oad
iden i y objec i e o c ea ing o enhancing a " a o able" image was ce ainly achie ed.
2.1. A en ion o he hos
Bu wha o mo e speci ic iden i y objec i es? Re lec i e bo h o di e ences in he o e all quan i y o
b oadcas e commen a y and in e es in p esen ing cul u al aspec s o he Opening Ce emony,
b oadcas e s a ied in he ela i e amoun o a en ion spen cha ac e izing he hos and na a ing he
cul u al pe o mances in e ms which e lec ed on a hos iden i y. Figu e 1 compa es hese le els o
a en ion by compa ing he numbe o dis inc commen s o associa ions b oadcas commen a o s made
ha ela e in some way o he po ayal o he hos ei he di ec ly o indi ec ly ( h ough he cha ac e iza ion
b oadcas o all Olympic e en s. Once ecei ed, in e na ional b oadcas e s hen add commen a y o he IS. They a e
also ee o edi and al e he signal in any way hey choose be o e sending he Games b oadcas o home audiences.
6 The ep esen a ion o his symbol du ing he Opening Ce emony caused a ious in e na ional ele ision channels o
ecognize his "Medi e aneanness", and some o he s such as Russian ele ision, o example, o make some qui e
amazing in e p e a ions: "Pe haps, a e he i s look i 's ha d o de e mine wha his emblem means. Howe e , as i s
c ea o Josep T ias belie es, e e y hing is ob ious: a igu e o he man in mo emen is pic u ed on he whi e
backg ound; and he colo s in which he symbolic pa s o he body a e colo ed, unmis akably poin a his Medi e anean
o igin. (...) Blue ep esen s he sea, yellow he sun, ed li e (...). Bu , o ell you he u h, i ( he emblem) also eminds
me o a head o a bull; and co ida and Spain - hese a e insepa able" (Os ankino 1, Russia, Opening Ce emony).
7 The Ba celona Opening Ce emony b oadcas s included in his s udy include he ollowing: ET1, G eece; NBC, USA;
TF1, F ance; Canal Olímpic, Ca alonia; SBC 12, Singapo e; Canal 13, Mexico; CTV (English language) and TVA
(F ench language), Canada; TVRI, Indonesia; RTV, Romania; 2nd Channel, Slo enia; NHK, Japan; Os ankino 1,
Russia; SABC, Sou h A ica; TV Globo, B azil; Ch. 7, Aus alia; ARD, Ge many; MBC, Ko ea; TVE-2, Spain; Tele-
Rebelde, Cuba; RCN, Colombia; CRTV, Came oon; CCTV, China; BBC, UK; and ERTU2, Egyp .
Each b oadcas was bo h isually and e bally ansc ibed (and ansla ed i necessa y) o analysis pu poses. Fo a
mo e comple e desc ip ion o me hods and lis o con en analysis ca ego ies used in his s udy, con ac he Cen e
d'Es udis Olimpics i de l'Espo , Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona, Spain.
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o cul u al segmen s). This igu e does no e lec pu ely desc ip i e commen a y abou he cul u al
pe o mances ("The e a e now 1200 dance s en e ing he s adium"), bu only commen a y which educa es
o p esen s, in some way, in o ma ion ega ding he hos (" hey a e now dancing he Sa dana, a adi ional
Ca alan dance"). Oddly, he e is li le o explain how b oadcas e s a e dis ibu ed along his igu e - excep
a he ex emes, whe e he CCTV (China) commen a o no only didn' say much in gene al, bu showed no
in e es wha soe e in he cul u al o poli ical dis inc i eness o Ba celona and Ca alonia (discussed below),
while ET1 (G eece) commen a o s clea ly e eled in he " e u n" o he Olympics o a Medi e anean po .
2.2. The po ayal o Spain
The Royal Family
A en ion o Spain, ac oss nea ly all b oadcas e s, mos ly ocused on he King and he oyal amily, mos
o en p omp ed by isual images o King Juan Ca los I and amily in he ibunal. As o ganize s hoped, a
ew b oadcas e s emphasized he success and s abili y o Spain's democ a ic ansi ion (in pa icula NBC,
USA; CTV, Canada; Canal 13, Mexico), iden i ying he King as he p o agonis o he new Spanish
democ acy.
And so does [King] Juan Ca los dese e his momen , so ins umen al in guiding his na ion
h ough eache ous wa e s owa d democ acy and ou o he da k ages o ascism unde
Gene alissimo F ancisco F anco (NBC, USA, Opening Ce emony)
Canal 13 (Mexico), Os ankino 1 (Russia) and ARD (Ge many) emphasized he popula i y o he King in he
managemen o poli ical powe . The Russian commen a o , in pa icula , communica ed a sense o a
coun y uni ed by lo e o he King. Se e al b oadcas e s emphasized aspec s o he King ha we e
signi ican ly less poli ical, such as his spo iness (TVE, Spain; SABC, Sou h A ica; 2nd Channel, Slo enia;
and NHK, Japan). S angely enough, his non-poli ical app oach o he oyal amily is also he case o he
BBC which appa en ly did no wan o es ablish any compa isons be ween he B i ish mona chy which, a
he ime o he opening o he Games, was less popula han he Spanish mona chy. CCTV China did no
make any poli ical e e ence o he igu e o he King wha soe e .
Passion o li e
Wi h one o he pe o mance segmen s ( lamenco dance and ope a) i led "Land o Passion" i was no
su p ising ha 10 o he b oadcas s speci ically associa e his a ibu e wi h he Spanish people. All old,
62% o he b oadcas s cha ac e ized he Spanish people as ha ing a deeply el passion and lo e o li e
exp essed h ough music, es i al, and colo . Only NHK (Japan) commen a o s e e o mo e adi ional
s e eo ypes o bull igh s and joined NBC (USA) and TF1 (F ance) in ema king on he beau i ul Spanish
women. (Also, he BBC UK chose as pa o i s opening g aphic o i s daily Olympic b oadcas a pic u e o
a bull igh e , lamenco dance , and ed ca na ions). One Chinese p ess accoun a e he Opening
Ce emony was quo ed as saying, "al hough he e was no he symbol o Spain - bull igh ing - in he
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objec i es we e ound in he p esen a ion o Ca alonia as an au onomous poli ical communi y. This
ou come, howe e , was likely beyond he e o s o he ce emony planne s o con ol. Re iewing he
indings conce ning he p esen a ion o Ca alonia i is clea ha he b oadcas e s associa ed wi h he h ee
iden i y o ien a ions ha did no unde sco e he poli ical dimension o Ca alonia's cha ac e ep esen ed
speci ic ypes o geopoli ical and social en i onmen s lis ed below. These domes ic con ex s may well ha e
a ec ed hei p esen a ion o Ca alonia as hos :
• B oadcas e s om coun ies ha ha e cul u al, linguis ic o na ional plu ali y p oblems ha
poli ically condi ion he commen a o s. This is he case, o example, o CCTV (China) and TVRI
(Indonesia).
• B oadcas e s om coun ies ha ha e social o de elopmen p oblems which clea ly a ec he
in e es hei commen a o s may ha e in he p oblem o na ional and linguis ic mino i ies in
Eu ope. This is he case, o example, o ERTU2 (Egyp ), and CRTV (Came oon).
• B oadcas e s om coun ies ha a e subjec o si ua ions o social con lic ha cas a shadow
o e hei in e es in hese ques ions o iden i y. This is he case o he ex eme complexi y o
SABC (Sou h A ica), whose ele ision channel does men ion ha di e ences exis be ween
Ca alonia and Spain al hough ha dly conside s he poli ical dimensions o his di e ence.
• B oadcas e s om coun ies ha a e cu en ly expe iencing g ea ans o ma ions wi h d ama ic
na ionalis ic implica ions and which p e e o concen a e hei a en ion on o he aspec s o he
ce emony such as he eedom and c ea i i y o exp ession (Os ankino 1, Russia), he union o
he a hle es and he alue o Olympism (RTV, Romania and 2nd Channel, Slo enia).
• B oadcas e s om coun ies ha a e cul u ally mo e dis an om Eu ope whose commen a o s
a e mo e in e es ed in he global aspec s o a Medi e anean cul u e han in he speci ic ea u es
o he cul u al o na ional iden i y o Ca alonia. Speci ic desc ip ions ela ed o Ca alan cul u e a e
gi en mo e global in e p e a ions. This is he case o a b oadcas e such as MBC (Ko ea).
Be o e lea ing his discussion o Ca alonia as a hos iden i y, i is wo h e lec ing on a ew special cases.
Su p ise and accep ance in La in Ame ica. The image o Ca alonia and Spain in La in Ame ica, as a
consequence o hei impo an his o ic, cul u al and linguis ic ela ionships, dese es some special
a en ion. Analysis o he commen a ies o TV Globo (B azil), Canal 13 (Mexico), Tele-Rebelde (Cuba), and
RCN (Colombia) e ealed wo in e es ing eac ions o he hos iden i y in he ce emony. Fi s , he e is mo e
su p ise han in o he pa s o he wo ld abou he p esence - and exis ence - o such cul u al and linguis ic
a ie y in Spain. Second, he e is a special in e es ha hese di e si ies exp ess hemsel es in a posi i e
Ca alonia-Spain ela ionship. The B azilian commen a o sugges ed o his iewe s ha " hey a e becoming
imme sed in he capi al o Ca alonia". Wi h ha iden i ica ion, he duali y o Ca alonia / Spain o o Spanish
/ Ca alan cul u e is ully accep ed.
"Le 's see... his is a symbol o he Olympiad. A smile o all Spania ds, no only Ca alans, bu om
all Spania ds o e e yone in he wo ld". (TV Globo, B azil, Opening Ce emony)

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This su p ise and accep ance o he Ca alan / Spanish ela ionship is e en mo e e iden when conside ing
he Ca alan language, i s p o agonism as he o icial language, and i s use by some o he mos impo an
digni a ies in he ce emonies.
E en mo e in iguing o se e al o he La in Ame ican commen a o s, howe e , was he mode niza ion o
Spain, o which Ba celona seemed an admi able exp ession.
J.R.F. Ba celona is p oo o a new Spain. A e-u banized Ba celona, a mode n Ba celona wi h i s
g and a chi ec u e and g and po ha 's a doo o Eu ope...
J.S.: Ba celona has been adically ans o med in he las yea s, a ans o ma ion ha cos 7-8
million dolla s! Bu oday Ba celona is a beau i ul ci y.(Canal 13, Mexico, Opening Ce emony)
Quebec and Ca alonia: bi ds o a ea he ? One o he easons ha he F ench Canadian b oadcas e TVA
was included in his s udy was an in e es in some o he simila i ies be ween Quebec and Ca alonia - bo h
na ions wi h a sense o being linguis ically and cul u ally unique wi hin hei home s a e. As i u ned ou
explici pa allels be ween Ca alonia and Quebec we e no made by TVA commen a o s al hough, wi hou
eading oo much in o hei commen a y, hey did show a special in e es in Ca alonia, in pa icula he
Ca alan language, and sugges ed a imes a sense o cama ade ie, as in he ollowing commen :
[Ou ] Ca alan iends... a gene ous people, a wa m people... a people wi h adi ions... a people
which is ma ked by i s cul u e, bu i s a chi ec s, bu i s a is s and i s pain e s... by i s musicians
and by i s dynamism du ing he 1990s (TVA, Canada, Opening Ce emony)
The Spanish b oadcas e s: sel p esen a ion o he mos humble kind. One inal e e ence should be made
o he uly unique ea men o Ca alonia and he Ca alonia/Spain issue by he Spanish TVE and Ca alan
Canal Olímpic ele ision channels. The e is a g ea deg ee o sel -con ol on he pa o he commen a o s
(in con as o he spon anei y and ease o se e al o he in e na ional b oadcas e s) when dealing wi h he
issue o he Ca alonia-Spain ela ionship. The he o ic seemed o a oid con lic i e ques ions al oge he . In
ac , he e is no one explici e e ence wha soe e h oughou bo h ce emony b oadcas s o he na ional
ques ion o Ca alonia o o i s ela ionship wi h Spain. The excep ion is some emo ional e e ences o a
Ca alan symbol in TVE and making a single unquali ied men ion o he Ca alan language in he Ca alan
Canal Olímpic b oadcas .
2.4 The p esen a ion o he o icial hos : Ba celona
Because o he physical p esence o Olympic ac i i ies wi hin he hos ci y, he image o Ba celona was by
na u e qui e di e en om p esen a ions o he mo e imaged en i ies o Ca alonia and Spain. The ci y was
uni o mly seen h ough i s unique a chi ec u al, a is ic and u ban planning ea u es. P obably as a
consequence o i s isual accessibili y, he numbe o i ems de ining i s image had mo e b ead h and
he e ogenei y, bu he esul ing image was also ema kably consis en ac oss b oadcas s.
Mos b oadly, Ba celona was in e p e ed as he place whe e an his o ic e en was occu ing which a ec s
he whole o humani y. Ba celona was iden i ied as he capi al o Ca alonia in nea ly hal o he b oadcas s,
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bu i was a ci y being ans o med - o he du a ion o he Games - in o a "capi al o he wo ld". This
"special" Olympic capi al ci y s a us allowed many commen a o s o p esen Ba celona as he mos
ascina ing and compelling ci y, especially ega ding he quali y o li e and he a ac ions i o e s o people
isi ing i . These e e ences would become mo e and mo e pe sis en and en husias ic by he ime o he
Closing Ce emony.
A splendid ci y. I 's a ci y ha gi es you a eeling a e a ew hou s o an in ensi y, a i ali y, a
c ea i i y, an in ense c ea i i y. Li e is e e ywhe e, a is e e ywhe e, wi h a simplici y in
communi y li e ha is s unning. (TF1, F ance, Opening Ce emony)
A ci y o con as s and c ea i i y
Speci ically mee ing he goals o he Olympic planne s, Ba celona was in e p e ed a one and he same
ime as being old and new ("The old and he new mixed in Ba celona", TV Globo, B azil, Opening
Ce emony), as his o ic and mode n, as a ci y ha li es in he s ee s. Much o his was able o be
exp essed using he ele ision came as.
Fo se e al b oadcas e s "La Rambla", Ba celona's mos amous s ee , o e ed an excellen isual
ep esen a ion o he "pe sonali y" o Ba celona and i s inhabi an s. Fo example, NBC (USA) began i s
b oadcas o he Opening Ce emony wi h some came a images o his amous p omenade, poin ing ou
ha he wides pa was gi en o e o pedes ians while he na owes pa s on each side we e ese ed o
ca s.
Eigh o'clock, Sa u day e ening in Ba celona, and wha you' e seeing in his Opening Ce emony,
a ibu e o he signa u e boule a d o Ba celona, Las Ramblas. Flowe people, bi d people, he e's
a look a Las Ramblas. The e's no o he boule a d qui e like i in he en i e wo ld, a pedes ian
walkway whe e hose on oo occupy he wide cen e cu and au omobiles nego ia e he na ow
sidelines, as i hey we e consigned o he sidewalks. Newspape kiosks seemingly almos e e y
en o i een ya ds. The e's he huge ood ma ke , you saw jus a momen ago, la Boque ia, and
jus abou e e y wen y o hi y ya ds you'll see me chan s selling caged bi ds o colo ul lowe s,
and ha 's wha he people down on he s adium in ield a e mean o ep esen he e....Las
Ramblas is a nea ly 24 hou s a day kaleidoscope o humani y, s ee pe o me s, mimes, home o
agabond and a is oc a alike, you migh say. I you had jus one day o nigh o spend in
Ba celona, and you wan ed o abso b a good po ion o wha he ci y is abou , you'd spend i
s olling om he cen e o he ci y down o he Columbus s a ue alongside he Medi e anean,
Las Ramblas. (NBC, USA, Opening Ce emony)
Th ough his ype o commen a y Ba celona was po ayed as a colo ul and c ea i e ci y ha has been
able o o e he wo ld g ea "a an -ga de" a is s such as Gaudí, Mi ó, Picasso, Dalí, e c. Some
b oadcas e s such as Japan's NHK, used specially designed s udio se s which eplica ed Gaudi
a chi ec u e o ep esen ed o he a is ic s yles o Ba celona as backg ound he ele ision commen a o s.
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A ci y o enewal
One o he i ems mos emphasized by he in e na ional p ess o e he Games' p epa a o y pe iod was he
excep ional u ban eno a ion expe ienced by Ba celona du ing he Olympic planning pe iod. Du ing he
Opening Ce emony, he ele ision commen a o s also e e ed o he u ban enewal o Ba celona,
especially as ela ed i o he spo s acili ies (e.g., he eno a ion o he s adium). Re e ences o he
mode niza ion p ocess, he weal h o Ca alonia and Ba celona, and he e iciency o he o ganiza ion o he
Games we e mos equen in he b oadcas s o Indonesia (TVRI), Egyp (ERTU2), Cuba (Tele-Rebelde),
Romania (RTV), Slo enia (2nd channel) and China (CCTV). Ba celona was de ini ely no associa ed wi h a
sies a-s yle pace.
The p og ess achie ed by Ba celona, in cul u e, economics...gi es Ba celona a good chance o
become he g ea es ci y in he wo ld. And hey ha e p o ed his. They a e capable o becoming
he hos o he 25 h Olympics (TVRI, Indonesia, Opening Ce emony)
B oadcas e s demons a ed li le in e es in mo e s ic ly economic ealms, such as ade and indus y
a ibu es, al hough he e we e gene alized e e ences o Ba celona as he "economic capi al" o Spain
(e.g., ERTU2, Egyp ). Despi e a ew e e ences in some Opening Ce emony b oadcas s o a ic, high
ho el p ices, un iendly police, and he like, Ba celona came away looking h ough he lens o he ele ision
came a like a gem o a , and a chi ec u e wi h spo s-lo ing and hospi able people, mo e han capable o
hos ing a success ul Olympic Games.
3. The cul u al con ex o he games
3.1 Eu ope as pa o he hos iden i y
The Eu opean Communi y in 1992 (now Eu opean Union) also saw i sel as hos . To his end, he
Eu opean Commission es ablished an EC Olympic P og amme and con ibu ed money o ha e a p esence
in Ba celona ( h ough s ee lags and banne s) and in he Opening Ce emony du ing a 22-minu e
pe o mance pa en i led "Music and Eu ope" which included ope a, he human py amids ("Els Cas elle s
which linked a adi ional Ca alan olk ac i i y o he symbols o he EC lag and i s 12 membe na ions),
and he playing o he Eu opean an hem "Ode o Joy" wi h accompanying i ewo ks 17. Locally, he EC
ac i ely p omo ed i sel o isi o s and p o essionals in a endance a he Games. Fo example,
b oadcas e s in he in e na ional media cen e we e exposed o he EC's p omo ion o i s high-de ini ion
ele ision (HDTV) echnology. The EC had in ol ed i sel in a simila way ea lie in he yea a he
17 In he in oduc ion o he Opening Ce emony P ess Guide, a ew indi ec e e ences o Eu ope we e made: "Spain is
he sou h-eas e n ga eway o Eu ope", "Ba celona is a g ea Eu opean ci y". The guide de ined he Eu opean
Communi y as: "Today, wel e coun ies go o make up he Communi y Eu ope, a land whe e 348 million speak a leas
nine di e en languages. Uni ed by he blue lag wi h wel e golden s a s, he coun ies o he Eu opean Communi y
sha e he goals o economic policy and a e on hei way o poli ical union. Today, he Eu opean Communi y is he
wo ld's la ges ma ke and he c adle o eedom and democ acy ha e lec s he ichness o i s cul u al di e si y. The
EC is o med by: Ge many, Belgium, Denma k, Spain, F ance, G eece, Holland, I eland, I aly, Luxembou g, Po ugal
and he Uni ed Kingdom". (COOB'92, Opening Ce emony. P ess Guide). The EC also p o ided a supplemen a y media
guide o b oadcas e s, which was no no iceably used in he b oadcas commen a ies.
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Albe ille, F ance win e Olympics18.
Did b oadcas e s no ice his publici y campaign? The answe would ha e o be only ma ginally and ne e
o he le el o cen ali y ha Ba celona, Ca alonia and Spain played as hos en i ies. To unde s and his
ou come, i is wo h poin ing ou some o he challenges he EC aced in ying o p omo e i s image
h ough an Olympic Games.
Fi s , he image o Eu ope ha was p ojec ed in Ba celona aced he di icul y o con usion o e he global
idea o Eu ope and he idea o he Eu opean Union as a poli ical and economic en i y o 12 Eu opean
s a es. The idea o Eu opean cul u e, mo eo e , ex ends beyond he p esen bounda ies o he "Eu ope o
he 12". Fu he , any inco ec delimi a ion could ha e caused dissa is ac ion among he non-Communi y
Eu opean coun ies and posed a p oblem o ma ching he Eu opean poli ical iden i y o he cul u al iden i y.
Second, he image o he Eu opean Union came up agains some special di icul ies in he amewo k o
he Olympic Games, domina ed by he cen al ole ha "na ion-s a es" play in cons uc ing he my hologies
o spo s ep esen a ion and ce emony p o ocol. The Eu opean Union did no ac as a na ion among
na ions in he Olympic Games, and did no appea as such in he a hle es' pa ade.
Finally, his was a ime o g ea his o ic changes, which we e p esen ing di icul ies in he consolida ion
p ocess (Maas ich T ea y), wi h un esol ed expec a ions o ex ending he Union (Aus ia, Sweden,
No way, e c.) and he up u e o he his o ic di ision be ween Eas and Wes wi h he subsequen opening
up o new Eu opean ela ions.
Unde hese condi ions, he idea o Eu ope was de eloped a isk o appea ing, in he eyes o o he
in e na ional communi ies, as a "compe i i e communi y", as a "ma ke " o e en as a ye poli ically
unde ined and incomple e en i y. Gi en he challenges no ed abo e, he EC chose he posi i e aspec o
his image, he idea o he coope a i e communi y o he u u e, as i s image ocus. Howe e , in he end,
e en his ai ly un h ea ening s a egy did no ind i s niche wi hin he geopoli ical images o Ba celona'92.
Table 2. Re e ences o Eu ope and he EC in he Opening Ce emony
Commen a y e e ences % o b oadcas s
(numbe o b oadcas s)*
Men ion Eu ope and he Eu opean Communi y 58% (15)
Men ion Eu ope bu no he Eu opean Communi y 11% (3)
Do no men ion Eu ope 15% (4)
Men ion Ba celona as a Eu opean ci y 7% (2)
* N = 26
Table 2 summa izes e e ences o Eu ope and he Eu opean Communi y demons a ing he ma ginal ocus
pu on his aspec o he hos iden i y. The b oadcas s ha ca ied no explici men ion o Eu ope a e ARD
(Ge many), CCTV (China), ERTU2 (Egyp ) and Os ankino 1 (Russia). O e 70% o he men ions o Eu ope
came du ing he human py amids (Els Cas elle s) segmen as in ended by he ce emony planne s. Only six
o he b oadcas s e e ed o Eu ope du ing he playing o he Eu opean an hem "Ode o Joy", and hese
b oadcas e s ended o link hei men ions o Eu ope and i s an hem wi h e e ences o he alues o
uni e sali y, uni y, solida i y, and so o h, mo e in keeping wi h he Olympic spi i . Fo he Japanese NHK
18 Fo example, he EC backed a se ies o ad e isemen s and banne s in he s ee s o Ba celona and Albe ille
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commen a o s, he Eu opean an hem e oked e e ence o Ge man uni ica ion. Fo Mexican (Canal 13)
commen a o s, he Eu opean an hem was he "wo ld an hem". Fo Russian (Os ankino 1) and Romanian
(RTV) commen a o s, he an hem had mo e humani a ian and emo ional conno a ions han Eu opean
ones:
Wha 's happening in he Olympic s adium now is e y symbolic. The Ode o Joy is being
pe o med by a 13-yea -old boy (...) He e hey a e - he Olympic Games! The celeb a ion, ha
uni es all o humani y has inally begun". (Os ankino 1, Russia, Opening Ce emony).
Only G eek (ET1) ele ision, he b oadcas e ha emphasized he Eu opean con ex mos , desc ibed he
"Ode o Joy" in e ms o Eu opean uni y as was he in en o ce emony planne s.
And his is he Ode o Joy, he Eu opean an hem sang by a boy 13 yea s old. (...). This yea 's
Olympic Games coincide wi h a his o ic e en o Eu ope. Beginning wi h he i s day o 1993 all
economic ba ie s will be emo ed be ween he membe coun ies o he Eu opean Economic
Communi y. The Olympic Games and he Expo'92 bo h o which a e being held he e in Se ille,
ca y a message, impo an o all Eu opeans: Uni e. (ET1, G eece, Opening Ce emony)
While pe haps he image o Eu ope in he Games was in ac a ai h ul e lec ion o he limi s and
condi ions in line wi h which he image o he Eu opean Communi y a ha ime, he ma ginal deg ee o
a en ion paid o hings Eu opean also ela es o he s uc u e o he na a ion o he ce emony, which did
no si ua e hings Eu opean in he cen e o i s discou se. Inclusion o "Eu ope" in he design o he
ce emony is as an a bi a y symbolic e e en . Thus, o example, in he human py amid segmen , he
e e ences o Eu ope do no a ise di ec ly om he na a i e o wha i ep esen s. Ins ead, hey a ise om
indi ec e e ences: wel e human py amids ha ep esen he wel e coun ies o he Eu opean
Communi y. Thus, wo iden i ica ion symbols a e employed: Ca alan olklo e (cul u al e e en ) and i s
homage o Eu ope (a bi a y symbolic e e en ). In addi ion, he segmen los some o i s in ended impac
when, igno ing he ins uc ions ha hey had been gi en, he spec a o s began o ligh up hei la es (which
we e in ended o p esen he EC lag) a he w ong ime (ea lie when he Olympic o ch en e ed he
s adium), e ec i ely uining he iconic o ce planned o his segmen and, o cou se, losing he e e ences
o Eu ope ha had been o eseen wi h he pa icipa ion o he spec a o s 19.
Finally in he segmen dedica ed o ope a las ing 13.5 minu es, pe o mances we e gi en by Spanish
singe s only, and as such did no manage o e oke he idea o Eu ope in spi e o he o icial indica ions
("The music Eu ope c ea ed o he uni e se", "A clea example o Eu opean cul u e") o e ed in he media
sc ip and guide. Ins ead, he ope a segmen ac ed mo e as a sign o p es ige o he o ganize s - Ca alan
and Spanish - han as a sign o iden i ica ion o Eu ope and i s cul u e. The only b oadcas e ha e e ed
o he Eu opean meaning o ope a we e TVE o Spain and Tele-Rebelde o Cuba.
ep esen ing he image o an a hle e holding a o ch deco a ed wi h he 12 s a s o he communi y lag.
19 Izod e al (1992) op ci . sugges ha he design o he segmen i sel was qui e ill-concei ed. They said, "I was no a
s ong momen , no leas because only some o he wel e cas les we e seen [on ele ision]... Fu he mo e he majo
s uggle in each owe building exe cise was in ol ed in building each cas le [symbolically one EC coun y] - any
o e a ching s uc u e linking hem would ha e been a chi ec u ally inconcei able. Thus he symbolism se ed i s
os ensible pu pose weakly".

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As NBC (USA) did wi h he poli ical meaning o Ca alonia, only he G eek ET1 commen a o s ake hei
e e ences o Eu ope, Eu opean cul u e and Eu opeanness o he Games a beyond he p oposals
con ained in he o icial sc ip :
We ha e o say o hose who a e wa ching wha is going on now. People om Ca alonia ha e
begun o o m 12 human py amids. This o icially ma ks he hi d pa o he Opening Ce emony o
he Olympic Games. Wha do hese py amids s and o ? They ep esen he 12 membe coun ies
o he Eu opean Communi y. I hink we men ioned ea lie ha he people o Spain ha e pu g ea
emphasis on hei ole in he Eu opean Communi y.
Bu so did we. In he ce emony ha ook place on he hill o Olympia on June 6 and du ing he
es i i ies in he Pana henaikon S adium wo days la e , in bo h cases we aised he lag o Eu ope
and played he an hem o he Eu opean Economic Communi y (...) i is e y ob ious ha Eu ope
is he u u e o he wo ld...These cas ells, hese py amids ha a e being o med ep esen he
uni y o s eng h and solida i y o he cons uc ion o Eu ope. (ET1, G eece, Opening Ce emony).
3.2. The Medi e anean cul u e o he Ba celona'92 Olympic Games
Ul ima ely mo e a ac i e o he in e na ional b oadcas e s han he idea o a "Eu opean cul u e" hos ing
he Games was he hos as Medi e anean cul u e. In ac , 17 o 68% o he b oadcas s s udied explici ly
iden i y Ca alonia as a Medi e anean coun y and/o Ba celona as a Medi e anean ci y, while he e we e
no explici e e ences o iden i y ei he Ca alonia o Spain as a "Eu opean coun ies" (and only wo which
iden i y Ba celona as Eu opean, Mexico's Canal 13 and Indonesia's TVRI). The Medi e anean, unlike
Eu ope, appea s o be a non-poli ical and non-ins i u ional concep , much easie o iden i y wi h he Ca alan
iden i y han wi h he concep o Eu ope. Fu he i was consis en ly in e p e ed as a posi i e cul u al alue:
his o ic, ep esen a i e o enewal, and c ea i e.
As no ed ea lie , his in e p e a ion by b oadcas e s was ully compa ible wi h he desi es o he Olympic
planne s who, om he ini ial s ages o candida u e, el com o able wi h he idea o exp essing
Medi e anean alues as a s a ing poin , amewo k, and common denomina o in he cul u al iden i y
p og am. And, many b oadcas e s ela ed well o he choice o his well known body o wa e as con ex o
he a o emen ioned pe o mance segmen called "The Medi e anean Sea". I 's wo h no ing ha as wi h
he Eu opean con ex , o G eek ET1 commen a o s he choice o he Medi e anean concep as cen al o
he Games and o he Opening Ce emony held e y special meaning. I ep esen ed he main link among
classical Olympism, he enewal o he Games in A hens in 1896, and he "new Medi e anean Games" in
Ba celona'92.
We hea he i s no es o "Medi e anea" 360 d ums sha e he silence wi h hei loud bea (...).
And he pa ha ollows ladies and gen lemen has as heme he Medi e anean he Olympic Sea
(...), he heme could ha e also been " e u n o he Medi e anean". A e 96 yea s he Olympic
Games e u ned o he Medi e anean. The i s Games we e held a he Pana henaikon S adium
o A hens in 1896. Since hen all he Olympiads ha e been hos ed by coun ies close o he
Medi e anean bu ne e bo de ed by his peace o e ing sea, he sea o ci iliza ion. And hey
Mo agas, Ri enbu gh & Ga cia – Tele ision and cons uc ion o iden i y
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ha e come back o he Medi e anean a e 96 yea s. Unde s andably he e o e, he people o
Spain, he Ca alans, hono he Medi e anean, ou sea, he e in Ba celona (...). Ryuichi Sakamo o,
Japanese, 40 yea s old has composed his piece dedica ed o he Medi e anean and i is i onic
he ac ha someone om Japan has w i en a music hono ing he Medi e anean (...). (ET1,
G eece, Opening Ce emony)
4. The plan succeeds
The s a egy o p ojec a a o able hos iden i y succeeded in he ways deemed mos impo an o Olympic
planne s. They we e no only able o balance he p esen a ion he di e en geopoli ical en i ies in ol ed,
bu we e able o consolida e he disc e e needs o hese di e en hos s in o simpli ied isual and cul u al
hemes ha uly emphasized he in e sec ion o hese iden i ies: Medi e anean, colo , li e, mode ni y,
his o y, passion, a , and wa m h. Fu he , he planne s seemed o succeed in connec ing hese local
cul u al a ibu es o mo e uni e sal eelings.
4.1 P ojec ing a local cul u e as global
In la ge pa he iden i y goal o Ca alonia - o ge on he map - was eadily me . Ca alan cul u e was
p esen ed, by mos b oadcas e s, as elemen al o cul u al aspec s o he ce emony. Howe e , i is doub ul
ha mos in e na ional audiences came away wi h an unde s anding o Ca alonia as a poli ically
au onomous communi y wi hin Spain. Only a ew b oadcas s eally pu sued a s o y line o a his o y o
poli ical and cul u al con lic be ween Ca alonia and he es o Spain, and e en his was p ima ily used by
hese b oadcas e s o p omo e a mo e anscenden , uni e sal emo ion o he Games as a place o
esolu ion and no o u he a poli ical agenda o he Ca alan people.
This ou come, howe e , does no con adic he iden i y goals o he planne s. In ac , i was conside ed
c i ical o he success o he Opening Ce emony o ha e he local aspec s o he olklo ic pe o mances
seen wi hin he con ex o a global e en , se ing o connec he hos o a b oade global condi ion. Thus,
o example, he s ess he commen a o s pu on he "Ca alan", "Cana ian", "Mad id", "Andalusian", e c.
o igin o he a ious singe s and ac o s was hoped o seem pe ec ly compa ible wi h he in e na ional
na u e o hese same igu es. The ope a singe Mon se a Caballé, o example, was on many occasions
in b oadcas commen a ies e e enced as bo h "Ca alan" and "uni e sal" o "wo ld amous", and he image
upholds his ambigui y pe ec ly well. Simila ly, i was he desi e o Olympic planne s o gi e he cha ac e
o Ba celona, Ca alonia, and Spain in e na ional essence and connec ion. Ro henbuhle admi es he
audaci y o his a emp : "Ul ima ely, i was cha ming o ealize ha Ba celona was po aying i sel as a he
cen e o he o igin o ci iliza ion - and doing i wi h con incing s yle" 20.
20 Ro henbuhle , E ic (1992). "Co esponden Repo o he Uni ed S a es", Tele ision in he Olympics P ojec A chi e.
Ba celona: Cen e d'Es udis Olimpics i de l'Espo , Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona.
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4.2 The in luence o ele ision on hos iden i y
Thinking o ele ision in he Olympics, mos b oadcas e p esen a ions o he Olympic hos discussed he e
we e p omp ed by angible, isual image y s a egically loca ed by Olympic planne s wi hin he ce emony
and a ound he ci y: Ca alan lags in he s ee s o Ba celona p omp ed Channel 7 (Aus alian)
commen a o s o cha ac e ize he ci y as " e en ly Ca alan", he linked hands o he sa dana ci cle dance
p o oked an associa ion wi h he collec i e spi i o Ca alonia, a smiling King Juan Ca los speaking Ca alan
ep esen ed a posi i e Spanish / Ca alonia ela ionship, and so o h. Mo e abs ac iden i y goals
(democ a ic s abili y, encou agemen o economic ini ia i e, poli ical his o y, g owing indus ies, a Eu opean
communi y) we e less no iced by b oadcas e s and no b ough up wi hou some speci ic connec ion
be ween a b oadcas e 's cul u al con ex and he hos (e.g., an in e es in u ban eno a ion) and in some
cases was pu posely a oided (China's CCTV no wan ing o unde sco e he poli ical au onomy o
na ionalism o Ca alonia wi hin Spain). In pa icula , se e al o he s udy co esponden s w o e o he
impac ha isual images had on pe cep ions o Ba celona, by associa ing local landma ks, people,
a chi ec u e, cul u al pe o mance, Olympic enue se ings and design ea u es. Somehow hese images
encou aged ele ision b oadcas e s o link he hos iden i y wi h passion, his o y, cul u e, inno a ion,
mode nism, Medi e anean, and so o h wi h g ea consis ency ac oss b oadcas s. Thus, i was o c edi o
he 1992 Olympic o ganize s ha hey chose hos iden i y goals no only compa ible wi h he isual
cha ac e o ele ision, bu which held a simplici y o meaning eadily unde s ood ac oss many di e en
cul u al o ien a ions.