ON
THE
STUDY
OF
UKRAN
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
In oduc ion
The aim o his a icle is o ini ia e
a
discussion o he ecen se ies
o s udies o 'u bnn social mo cmen s'. These s udies sha e a common
concep ual amewo k which is de i ed om a 's uc ~~ alis ' cading o
Ma x and is
se
ou in a p elimina y o m by
M.
Cas ells in
La
Q~ es ioiz
U baine. This amewn k ma ks a b eak wi h he angla-saxon adi ion o
'pa icipa ion' s udies which a e cha ac c ized by a ocus on lle indi idual
and his menlbe ship o , o pa icipa ion in, a smaiie o g ea e a ic y
o ' olun a y associa ions' and o he g oupings.' Wi hin l~is adi ion la ge-
scale su ey s udies a e ca ied ou o cs ahlish he deg c o 'pa icipa-
ion', as opposed o he ex en o 'anomie' o he popula ion. The social
implica ions o o ganiza ional membe ship a :
i je ed,
no s udied expli-
ci ly. Thus membe ship may bc secn as en ailing pa icipa ion
in
decision-
making, in so a as he o ganiza ion has an in o mal o o mal posi ion
in he local social s uc u e, o on he o he hand, as acili a ing h : acqui-
si ion o skills and democ a ic alues which enco l age poli ical ac i i y in
o he con ex s. Wha has heen lacking wi hin he 'pa icipa ion' adi ion
is any in ensi e s udy oi olun a y associa ions and o he g oupings o
es ablish empi ically ( a hc han hy in e ence) wha unc ions membe -
ship has.
Con e sely, s udies wi hin
he
'u ban social mo emen s' app oach,
1.
See Picl ance
(1974)
o
a
d~scussion
o
his adi ion.
On
he
S udy
o
U ban
Social
Mouemen
i s ly, de-emphasize he
Jo m
o he o ganiza ion
in
which 'pa icipa ion'
akes place2 and iew o ganiza ion p ima ily as a means by which con-
adic ions a e linked, and, secondly, s ess he
e ec
o o he wise o he
mo emen . These poin s mill he discussed h ic ly, in u n.
O ganiza ions, acco ding o Cas ells
(1972:341)
a e p ecisely he w ong
s a ing-poin o s udies o u ban social mo emen s. llis does no mean
ha conc e e o ganiza ions, o , as As11
(1972:2)
would call hem, ' no e-
men o ganiza ions', can he igno ed. On he con a y, as he s udies o be
discussed wiU indica e, conc e e mo emen o ganiza ions
a c
he locus o
obse ua ion.
The poin is ha hey a e no he ame o
analysis.
The
ocus o analysis is a he on he 'p oblems', 'issues' o 's akes' he o ga-
niza ion pu sues and hei s uc u al de e mina ion. I
is
he s uc u al con-
adic ions which a c he c ucial le el o analysis, and o ganiza ions a e
seen as means o hei exp ession and a icula ion. Thus he poin is
ha o ganiza ions canno
be
analysed wi hou e e ence o hese unc ions,
noi ha o ganiza ions a e unimpo an . In his espec , he 'u ban social
mo emen s' app oach is opposed o he 'pa icipa ion' app oach o which
he analysis o o ganiza ions snd hei esou ces is an impo an ocus
o
analysis, which we will e u n o in sec ion
4.
The emphasis on 'e ec s' is pa o he de ini ion o u ban social mo e-
men s. which mus now he b ie l examined since i is he son ce o some
ambigui y. An
u ban social mo emen
is de ined as:
<a sys em o p ac ices esul ing om he a icula ion o a con-
junc u e o he sys em o u ban agen s wi h o he social p ac ices,
such ha i s de elopmen ends objec i ely owa ds he s uc u ai
ans o ma ion o he u ban sys em, o owa ds a subs an ial change
in he balance o powe
in
he
class s uggle, ha is o say,
in
he
powe o he S a e.n (Cas elis,
1972:329.)
The
impo an poin abou his de ini ion is ha i de ines u han social
mo emen s by a speci ic ype o
e ec .
I oliows ha when hese e ec s
a e no ob ained (o, o be p ecise, when he 'objec i e de elopmen ' o
he o ganiza ion would no lead o such e ec s), hen he desc ip ion 'u -
ban social mo emen ' is no appliable. Fo his eason Cas ells iden i ies
wo lowe le els o e ec , namely,
' ejo m',
i.e., change
in
an elemen o
2.
This is e iden om a pe usal
o
any
o
he s udies o be discussed, aThe
genesis oi o paniza ion is no he concem
o
an analysis o social mo emen s, o
only hei e ec s a e o impa ance.~ (Cas ells,
1972:?39.
N.
B.
AU
ansln ions
a e
my own.) In sec ion
4
I
shaii a gue ha
h
esou ces a ailable o an o ganiza ion
a cc bo h i s su i al and success.
On
he
Slud
o
U ban
Social Mouemen
he u ban sys em wi hou any change
in
i s in e na1 ela ions, and 'con-
ol', i.e. he ep oduc ion o he u han sys em. When hese le els o
e ec esul , he co espondign ypes o o ganiza ion a e desc ibcd as 'p o-
es ' and 'pa icipa ion', espec i ely. Thus, acco ding o he e ec s achie-
ed
an
o ganiza ion can he placed on he scale: 'pa icipa ion', 'p o es ',
'u ban social mo emen '. Cas ells a gues ha an o ganiza ion whe e he
con adic ions in ol ed a e pu ely 'u ban', (i.e., conce ned wi h he spa ial
uni o he cp oduc ion o he labou o ce (see Cas ells, 1972:295-304)
e.g. issues such
as
hausing, educa ion, and collec i e acili ies), and no
linked o e 'poli ical' o 'economic' aspec s o class s uggle, can a mos
be
un
'ins umen o e o m' (1972:340). I is only when an u ban social
mo emen uni es economic o poli ical con adic ions wi h u ban con a-
dic ions, ha he e m
in
i s s ic sense can be said o apply.
In he s udies o be discussed u han social mo emen s a e no
linked o ade unions o poli ical pa ies. Howe e we shall ollow he
p ac ice hey adop and use he e m u ban social mo emen i espec i e o
hc le el o e ec s.
The e is also an ambigui y in he use o he e m 'e ec '. We shall
ollow Oli es (1972) and e e o u ban e ec s as hose u ban objec i es
which ha e been success uily achie ed, a he han Lendn (1973) who
includes bo h ailu es and successes.
(A
simila di e ence can be seen in
he ea men
o
'poli icai e ec s'.)
We can now p oceed o analyse a numbe o ea u es o ecen 's uc-
u alis ' s udies
o
u ban social mo emen s in F ance. Ou discussion will
be in ou pa s:
(1)
The iden i ica ion o u ban e ec s.
(2)
Local au ho i ies and u han e ec s.
(1)
Ins i u ionai ac ion and u ban e ec s.
(4 O ganiza ional esou ces and u han e ec s.
My aim is no o ques ion he use ulness o he s uc u alis Ma xis
app oach noc o a emp a £ull-scale cci ique
o
he s udies so
a
ca ied
ou , bu simply o indica e se e al ields which dese e u he cul i a ion.
(1)
The
iden i ica ion o/ u ban e ec s
To alk abou he e ec s o a mo emen o ganiza ion (o 'sys em o
p ac iccs') is o imply ha an an eceden e en causes a suhsequen e en ,
e.g., ha a pe i ion agains e ic ion causes a decision o ehouse he enan s
conce ned, by an au ho i y.
In o dc o make
a
causal in e ence o his so i is necessa y bu no
On
he
S udy
o
U ban
Social
Mouen en s
su icien ha he n o e en s occu in a gi en empo al o de . To es a-
blish be exis ence o a causal ela ion we need addi ional e idence. Sc ic ly
speaking, i we oilow Rlalock's analysis o causali y, i is ne e possible
o obse e causali y, since i is a no ion helonging o a hco c ical a he
han an obsc a ional language. (Blalock, 1964: chaps.
1
and
2.)
In o he
wo ds we can ne e ha e enii ely sa is ac o y e idcncc o causali y. Bu
causal in e ence
equi es wo ypes o e idence: e idence abou empo al
o de , and e idence abou he pe cep ions o he ele an ac o s. (These
co espond o Webe 's equi emen s o causal adequacy and ad quacy a
he le el o meaning o sociological unde s anding. Sce Webe , 1947:
98-100).
The a gumen
I
wish o acl ance is ha hc s uc u alis s udies o
u ban social mo emen s equen ly ail o o e bo h ypes o e idence.
In pa icula
hey emphasize he ac ion o he mo enzen o gani a ion u
he expcnse o/
he
nc ion o he 'au ho i y'.
The e would appea o he wo easons o his bias. The i s is p ac i-
cai; he second is heo e ical.
The p sc ical easun de i es om he dii e ing ~ccessibili ~ o mo e-
men o ganiza ions and 'au ho i ies' o he esea ch-wo ke . Mo emen
o ganiza ions a e mo e easily pene a ed by hc csca ch-wo ke and i is
na u al ha he in o ma ion ga he ed on hem wiU he co espondingly
iche . This g ea e a cssibili y acili a es he unde s anding o he suh-
jec i e meaning o ac ion o he ac o s, and enahles i
o
he co ec ly
cha ac e ized as a pa icula ype o 'ac ion' a he han as 'beha iou ', o
ollow Wehe 's dis inc ion. (Webe , 1947:88-90.) Pa icipan obse a ion
in mo emen o ganiza ions also enahles ac ion o he ohse ed as i akes
place and he eby a oids eliance on
accoun s
by pa icipan s gi en a e
he e en in espnsc o in e iewing.
The acccssibili y o mo emen o ganiza ions ca ies wi h i a isk o
he esea ch-wo ke . Namely, ha he comes o iden i y wi h he o gani-
za ion and i s aims, and hus loses his abili y o p esen a ma e comple e
analysis. In pa icula ,
I
sngges ,
he e
is
a
dange ha he esea ch-wo ke
ends o a ibu e oo much causal in luencc o hc ac ioizs o he noue-
men o ganiza ion and insu icien in luence o he ac ions o/ he au ho-
i y. Hi in e ences aho cau e and e ec ih s beconze 'mo emen -cen-
ed' because o his in olue nen in he mo emen o ganiza ion.
Fo example, Len in desc ibes he a emp s by local esiden s o p e-
en he cons uc ion
o
a
new building
in
an old qua e o Pa is, and
he 'ins i u ional npp oaches' hey made, (c.g., a w i en ques ion o he
P e e
o Pa is, sen ia municipal councillo s, an in e iew wi h he
dépu-
é
mai e.)
She h n con inues:
On
be
S udy
o/
U ban Social
Mouen en s
'The e o was na long in coming: a new building pe mi was
issued, his ime accompanied by an ag eemen om he Minis y o
Cul u al A ai s.'
(1973:97)
The ac ha be wo d e o is used indica es he way in which
(nega i e) causal in luence is a ibu ed o he mo emen o ganiza ion. The
ac ha hc pe mi was issued a e he 'ins i u ional app oaches' may,
a he , ha e been a coincidcnce. Fo examplc, he p essu e by
he
de e-
lope s, which Len in alludes o, may ha e been con inuing o sonle
&e.
This leads us o a second and heo e ical eason which could accoun
{o he emphasis placcd on he ac ions o he mo e nen o ganiza ion a
he expense o he ac ions o he au ho i y. Na nely,
he
heo e ical as-
sump ions made abou 'au ho i ies' wi hin he s uc u al Ma xis app oach.
As will be indica ed in mo e de ail in he nex sec ion, i is aken as
axioma ic wi hin his app oach
ha
au ho i ies wiii no @an changes
which h ea en he s abili y o he mode o p oduc ion. Bu , as we saw
ea lie , pu cly u ban social mo emen s a e no conside ed o be capable
o p o oking changes o his scale and he empi ical s udies bea his ou .
I appea s o me ha
a
di e en heo e ical assump ion is also heing
made, namely, lia 'au ho i ies' wiU no g an concessions
o any scale
wi hou be in e en ion o social mo emen s. This assump ion,
i
indeed
i is being made, is highly deha ablc, and, in any case, does na oilow
om he axiom jus men ioned. Thus,
I
sugges ,
accep ance o he assump-
ion ha 'au ho i ies'
will
g an nu concessions a all unless o ced o
by
social mo emen s is a second possible explann ion o he mouemen -cen ed
in e ences
abo
cause and e ec .
In
o de o iden i y he causes o u han e ec s mo e accu a ely i
would seem necessa y:
-
o
be awa e o he isl s o o c -in ol emen in mo emen o ganiza-
ions, and
-
o examine he assump ions being made abou he ole o au ho i ies
as
causes o ehenge. This cqui es empi ical
s udy
o he au ho i ies.
I is
o
his subjec ha we now u n.
(2)
Local au ho iiies and u ban e ec s
,..
The ela i e oles
o
he S a e and u ban social mo emen s in p o-
ducing u ban e ec s s e speued ou by Cas ells as oiiows:
<<I
i
is ue ha he S a e exp esses,
in he las ins ance
and
349

On
he
S udy
o
U ban
Social
Mo ,eien
h ough he nccessa y media ions,
he o e all in e es s o he domi-
nan classes, u ban planning canno be an ins umen o£ social change,
bu o domina ion, in eg a ion and
egula ion o con adic ions.
aA
p ocess o social change s a ing om his new ield o u ban
con adic ions occu s when, on he basis o hese hemes, popula
mobiliza ion akes place, social in e es s a e ansla ed in o poli ical
will and o he o ms o o ganiza ion o collec i e consump ion, in
con adic ion wi h he dominan social logic, a e pu in o place.
Thus
i is u ban social noue nen s and no planni g ins i u ions uhicb
a e he ue so ces o change and inno a ion in he ci y.~
(1973:
IS,
19)
These wo quo a ions iden i y u ban planning, on he one band, and
u han social mo emen s, on he o he , wi h he unc ions o£ con ol and
inno a ion, espec i ely. They de i e om a speci ically Ma xis iew o
he S a e, and i is his iew which equi es examina ion. The
wo
quo-
a ions con ain
a
sligh ambigui y, namely, as
o
whe he he 'social
change' which au ho i ies seek o con ol e e s only o majo changes, o
whe he i also e e s o mino changes. We shall assume he la e in e -
p e a ion is co ec , and he e o e ha e en smali changes can only he
b ough abou by social mo emen s. This ce ainly seems o be he assump-
ion o he empi ical s udies o u ban social mo emen s.
In his sec ion ou aim is o a gue ha go e nmen al ins i u ions
canno he dismissed as souxces o mino changes, and o his ex en mus
be ea ed as sou ces o u han e ec s in he same way as social mo e-
men s. In o he wo ds ha he ole o au ho i ies in ini ia ing changes is
an empi ical ques ion equi ing analysis o policy- o ma ion wi hin go e n-
men al ins i u ions.
In he p e ious sec ion we a gued ha he inaccessibili y o au ho i ies
o he esea ch-wo ke was one p ac ica1 eason o hei neglec as sou -
ces o u ban e ec s. I is only hy s ndying p ocesses o policy- o n~a ion
wi hin au ho i ies (i.e. es ablishing hei deg ee o au onomy) hai one
can co ec ly es ima e he ela i e impo ance o social mo emen s, on he
one hand, and ac o s in e na1 o he S a e, on he o he .
One s ndy which does a emp o conside policy-making is hai by
Dea lo e
(1973)
which conce ns he London bo ough o Kensing on and
Chelsea. He sbows ha p essu e g oups a e e alua ed hy he local au ho-
i y in e ms o h ee ac o s: hei imagen ('help ul' o 'unhelp ui'), he
demands hey ad ance (con o ming o con lic ing wi h exis ing policy and
esou ce alloca ion) and hei s yle o ac ion (communica ion ia local coun-
cillo s, pe i ions, usc o
local
p ess, demons a ions, e c.) (Dea lo e,
1973:
On
!he
S!udy
o
U ban
Social Mooemen s
chap.
8)
He sugges s ha he mos success ul p essu e g oups a e hose
which a e pe cei ed as 'help ul', hose whose demands con o m o council
policy, and hose who adop 'accep able' modes o ac ion. Un o una ely
his conclusions a e based on in e iews wi h councillo s on policy-making
in gene al a he han on a de niled analysis o he o ma ion o speci ic
policies which would enable his a gumen abou he ela i e success o
a e en
p cssu e g oups o he es ed. Thus he docs no succeed in de-
mons a ing he au ho i y's au onomy in dealing wi h p essu e g oups.
Howe e he councillo 's pe cep ions he eppo s a e consis en wi h he
exis ence o such au onomy. (I may also be no ed ha mass suppo
was
no
a
c i e ion by which p essu e g oups we e e alua ed.)
A second s udy conce ning an u ban social mo emen whose success
is explici ly ela cd by he au ho o p essu es
in e nal
o he local au ho-
d y is ha by Fe is (1972) ca ied ou in he London bo ough o Is-
ling on. The s udy shows,
in e
alia,
how he Ba nsbu y Associa ion, an
o ganiza ion o ncwly-a i ed middle-class owne -occupie s conce ned o e
he h ea o he ameni y alue o he a ea posed by council cdc clopmcn
pians, p opos~s and is success ul in ge ing app o ed a ' a ic managemen
scheme' by which a ic is mu ed a ound he a ea. (The majo i y o he
popula ion, long-es ablished enan s, opposed he a ic schemc which
hey saw as i ele an o hei needs, and h ough ano he o ganiza ion,
he Ba nsbu y Ac ion G oup, sough o imp o e hei own housing con-
di ions, i necessa y h ough council ede elopmen .) The a ic scheme
was no accep ed wi hou conside able e o by he Associa ion. This in-
cluded ge ing Associa ion membe s clec cd as local councillo s and pu ing
p essu e on he local au ho i y in his way. Howe e hc impo an poin
o p esen pu poses is ha he Ba nsbu y Associa ion's a ic p oposals
i ed in wi h
cen al goue n nen policy
which was ' o change local au ho-
i y a i udes owa ds la ge ede elopmen p ojec s' since he la c we e
e y cos ly in e ns o public unds, and o encou age 'ways o£ upg ading
esis ing en i onmen s
...
[by applying] Buchanan's ideas on a ic, and
imp o ing olde housing whe e possible.' (Fe is, 1972:66.) I seems un-
likely ha be Associa ion would ha e been success ul wi hou he a ou-
able
'policy en i onmen '
o cen al go e nmen . Thus he 'u ban e ec '
ob ained was he esul o he mo emen o ganiza ion
and ac o s in e nal
o
he au ho i y.)
Fe is's s udy is unusual
in
ha i does examine ac o s o he han
3.
Admi edly he ue ec n posed
no
h ca o he u han sys em: i
was
a ou ed
by
p ope y de elope s sincc i aised p ope y alues, bu opposed by he
local
au hod y o inancial easons.
social mo emen s in p oducing u ban e ec s. Dea lo e, as uTe ha e seen,
sugges s ha councillo 's pe cep ions o p essu e g oups a c cle an o
council policy. Che ki has a gued ha 'whe e e he isks o mobiliza ion,
o u he squa ing, o poli ical de elopmen , a e limi ed
...
squa ing is
ole a ed' (1973:85). P esumably his
co ela ion
can be aced back o
he
local au ho i y's pe cep ion
o he (limi ed) challenge o i sel , in sueh
cascs.
The impo ance o p essu e o he han ha by social no e nen s is
hin ed a in wo o he s udies. Pingeo and Robe ,
in
hei s udy o a
mo emen agains a p oposa1 o expand an ai po , w i e ha he majo
pa o he s uggle in he second (nnd decisi e) phase 'no longe ook
place in public (in he s ee and in he p ess) bu in he co ido s o P e.
ec o a es and Minis ies' (1973:137), whe e ' he p essu e h ough o bea
is a di ec e lec ion o he place o each o he p o agonis s in he social
s uc n e' (1973:141). Simila ly, Len in, a gues ha he decision o issue
o
huilding pe mi 'in i es us o suppose he sup emacy o one minis y
o e ano hc , e lec ing he s eng h o he p essu e g oup cons i u ed by
he p ope y de elope s o e he bea e s o£ u ban ideology, e~ esen cd by
he Minis y o Cul u al A ai s'. (1971:97.)
Thus in
all
hese cases
i
is accep ed ha u ban social mo emen s a e
no he exclusi e sou ccs o (small) chnngcs, and hs hei demands a e
pe cei ed by he au ho i ies and balanced agains hei own policy p e-
e ences and agains he p essu es o o he u ban ac o s.
l
is only when
uu ho i ies he nsel es a e nade he s bjec o s udy, ad zi edly
a
di icul
equi emen o mee , ha i will be possible o a ibu c 'u ban e ec s' o
he ac iuns o u ban social mo emen s, au ho i y policy, and o he u ban
ac o s (e.~. p ope y de elope s, o he le els o au ho i y, e c.4)
(3)
Ins i u ional ac ion and u han e ec s
A eading o he s uc u alis s udies o u ban social mo emen s
in
F ance makes clea he emphasis on he ole o 'popula mobiliza ion' and
'non-ins i u ional' means in achie ing u ban e ec s. Ry con as , 'ins i u-
ional' ac ion in de-emphasized. Thus, o example, Len in w i es ha he
issuing o a building pe mi despi e he app oaches o local esiden s 'shows
he limi s o ins i u ional ac ion' (1973:97). Bu , as men ioned he o e,
4.
The dis inc ion
be wecn
u ban
social
mo emen s,
a ho i y
policy
and
n he
u ban ac o s
is
unsa is a~ o ~, since,
o
cxa nplc,
au ho i y
pi~licy
i s l
wiii
be
pa dy
a
esponse
o
p essu e
om
p e i us
social
no nen s
(eg
o
puhlic
housing)
and
o he
u ban
ac o s.
On
he
S udy
o
U ban
Social
Mo emen s
Len in he sel e e s o he p essu e o he p ope y de elope s,
which
would appea o
be
an al ema i e explana ion o he esiden s' ' ailu e'.
In o he wo ds, he cha ac e iza ion o he ' ailu e' indica es a ce ain a i-
ude o 'ins i u ional ac ion'.
I
is wo h no ing he e ha he e m 'ins i u ional ac ion' is somewha
a nbiguous, since he concep 'ins i u ion' is i sel open o a ious in e -
p e a ions. I will be assumed he e ha 'ins i u ional ac ion' is ac ion
which akes place wi hin cxis ing poli ical ins i u ions (e.g. o ing, pe i ions
n local councillo s, depu a ions, legal demons a ions, o he o ma ion u
legal poli ical pa ies) o wi hin he i aiue~~ o k o he law. 'Non-ins i u-
ional' ac ion hus includes iilegal ac ion ( iolen demons a ions, 'di ec
ac iun') and he o ma ion o illegal yoli~ical pa ies. Mohiliza ion ca no
i sel he said
o
he ins i u ional o o he wise; his depends on he o ns
which i akes.
The ques ion we need o ask is whe he 'popula mobiliza ion' is in
ac he only success ul mode o poli ical ac ion. The s udy by Oli es
( 972) is pa icula ly help ul in answe ing his ques ion. Oli es discusses
16 u ban social mo emen s in he 'Ci - d'Alia e' in Pa is. In nine cases
(Nos.
1,
3-10
he objec i es sough a e a leas pa ly n ained.s In he
emaining sc cn cases (Nos.
2,
11-16) ailu es esul .
In
011
bu n o o he nine cascs, he clemen s o ganiza ion, mohiliza-
ion, social base and 's ong' s ~kes we e p esen . In o he wo ds hese
se en cases co espond o he idea o poli ical ac ion h ough mobiliza ion.
I
will be ins uc i e o examine he wo exccp ions o his ule. They a e
cases
7
and
8.
In case
8
an immig an u el a e associa ion used pe i ions o secu e
adequa e ehousing o immig an s h ea ened wi h e ic ion. This appa en
success does no i in wi h he idea o change h ough mobiliza ion. I
co esponds o he
poliii al
ei ec desc ibed as 'social in eg a ion (pa e -
nalism)' by Cas ells (Oli es, 1972:16). In case
7
he same wel a e asso-
cia ion again succeeded in ob aining 'adequa e ehousing' o immig an s
h ea ened wi h e ic ion;
a
'local poli ical o ganiza ion' was also in ol ed.
(The co esponding poli ical e ec he e is desc ibed
as
u oli ic al
disin eg a-
ion (ins i u ional poli ical in eg a ion)').
Oli es's commen s on cases
7
and
8
a e in e es ing:
'In [ hesel cases
-
e en i hc success in ob aininS [adequa el
T.
These igu es a e hased on he ables in he a icle
(pp.
18-27).
On
p.
13
Oli-
es
e e s o he nsc en ac ions which had an u ban
c ec u.
He appea s o ha e
escluded cases
7
and
8
om
he nine cases so desc ibed in he ables.
On
he
S udy
o/
U ba z
Social
Mom menl
I migh be objec cd ha eliance on pe sonal ne wo ks and cumula ed
posi ions is
a
esponse dic a ed by he b anch's lack o money. On he
one hand, one couid answe ha since his is he condi ion o many
olun a y associa ions so such eliance will be ex ensi e elsewhe e. Bu , in
my iew, eliance on his ypc o esou ce is
no
due o li ni ed unds, bu
is likely o be a ea u e o all o ganiza ions since he occupa ion o posi ions
in se e a1 s uc u es and he possession o pe sonal ne wo ks is qui e ge.
ne al ( hough a iable in deg ee). Fo his eason,
1
would no ag ee wi h
Bonnie hai he use o pe sonal ela ions in poli ical ac ion is in any
way an 'old' pa e n.
In o de o iUus a e he impo ance o he esou ces a ailable o
olun a y associa ions and u ban social mo emen s h ough he cumnla ed
posi ions and pe sonal ne wo ks o hei membe s we will e e b ie ly
again o Fe is's s udy o Ba nsbu y. (Fe is, 1972.) Fi s ly, hc Ba nsbu y
Associa ion included p o essional planne s and a chi ec s who used hei
p o essional skills and knowledge in d awing up he a ic scheme. (Fo
example, ' hey o mula ed hei objec i es in such
a
way as o make hem
accep able o he Miiis y o Housing and Local Go e nmen '. (Fe is,
1972: 351, and ook ad an age o hei knowledge o he a ou able
clima e o a ic schemes.) The (Labou ) local councillo s suspec ed ha
hey we e using 'in o ma ion gaincd in hei p o essional capaci ies wi hin
local au ho i ies and had also exploi ed p o essional con ac s in he Mi-
nis y o Housing and elsewhe e' (1972:64). Secondly, Ba nshu y Associa-
ion membe s we e elec ed o he local council in 1968 as 'independen s'.
They used hei posi ions as counciiio s, assis ed by he a ou able a i ude
o hc new Conse a i e majo i y, o ad ance he ends o he Associa ion.
One inal example o o ganiza ional esou ces desc ibes by Fe is e e s
o he i al Ba nsbu y Ac ion G oup whose Sec e a y was
xa
publishing
execu i e who was able o con ibu e om his business o ice acili ies such
as yping and iling. He was also ahle o use his knowlcdge o he media
o ge p ess s a emen s publishedn (1972:56). Thus we see how knowlcdge
and semiccs de i ed om cumula ed posi ions and pe sonal ne wo ks a e
impo an esou ces o u ban social mo emen s.
So
a we ha e been discl~ssing wha Ross caus he
'associa ion p o-
blem',
namely, he p oblems encoun e ed and eso~l ces usell by u ~ani-
za ions
in
hei e o s o ench goals. To conclude, we shail e e b ie ly
o wha he caus he
'uolun a ism p obkm',
i.e., how membe s n e ec ui ed
and kep .
(Thc
e m ' olun a ism' would pe haps be be e epleced hy
he e m ' olun ee ' since i is he nnpaid ns u e
o
pa licipa ion in olun-
a y associa ions and noi any idea ha pa icipa ion in olun a y associa-

On
he
S udg
a
U ban
Social
hlocemen
ions and no any idea ha pa icipa ion is uncaused, ha is impo an .
See Palisi (1968), Ross (1972:27-8), Pick ance (1974).)
One o he mos ui ul ways o ackling he ' olun a ism p oblem'
would appea o be ia he social exchange app oach, in so a as po en ial
membe s o a social mo emen balance he ewa ds o pa icipd ion agains
he cos s incu ed.
So
a , o my knowledge, only one w i e has a emp ed
o apply he social exchange model in his ield. This is lie s udy by
Weissman (1970) o a communi y council in an Ame ican ci y which
seems o ha e been ela i ely success ul in oh aining be e 'u ban' aci-
li ies o he a ea, a leas in i s ea lie phase.
Weissman (1970:20-21) dis inguishes ou ypcs oi ewa ds a ailable o
indi iduals who pa icipa e in he council:
-
emo ional ewa ds: iendship, p aise, sel -es eem,
-
se ice ewn ds: engcnde ed by se ices hc council p oduces, e.g.,
a
new school,
-
ideological ewa ds; hose ha sa is y ideological commi men s such
as
'being
a
goud Ame ican',
-
nego iable ewa ds: hose which ha e
a
nego iablc alue in s uc u es
o he han he council, e.g., ge ing onesel in he public eye.
(A
simila analysis is applied o he council's success in ec ui ing di e en
e hnic g oups in hc communi y. This ills ou he nu iun o in eg a ion
wi h he communi y, discussed ea lie .
The
council u as in ac in eg a cd
ho i on aliy and e ically, wi h o ganiza ions and he communi y a la ge.)
The
ca ego y 'nego iable ewa ds' ela es o ou ea 1i . emphasis on
cumula ed posi ions. Whe eas p e iously we showed ha pe sonal ne wo ks
and cumula ed posi ions could be used o
'impo '
esou ces in o an
associa ion, by he 'ex ension' o social ela ionships, he idea o 'nego-
iable ewa ds' indica cs how pa icipa ion in an associa ion can esul in
esou ccs which can be
'expo ed'
o he pe son's posi ions and ela ions in
o he s uc u es. 'Nego iable ewa ds' may be di icul o assess sincc people
a e eluc an o admi o hem (Weissmann, 1970:98). In he
UNA
h anch
hey ce ainly exis : o examplc, he poli ical candida e o insu ance h oke
who make known hese iden i ies in he cou se o a alk.
Weissman
(1970:
chap.
8)
a gues hai he absence o wo king-class
pa icipan s i11 he council as due o he need o social skills, ee ime,
money, and willingness o engage in slow o mal p ocedu es which imposed
highe cos s on hcm. Con e sely he council's spo s commi ee, wbe e
e bal skills and o mal p ocedu es n e e na necessa , was la gcly n o king-
class in composi ion. The absence o I alians om he council is e plained
On he S udy o U ba i Social Mouemen
in
c ms o i s connexion ai h
a
P o es an se lemen and cle gy: only
h ough he spo s commi ee did he I alians pa icipa e, and his was
because oi he (nego iable) ewa ds he basehail league u nished hem
in hei posi ions as chu chgoc s a he a ious Ca holic chu ches whose
eams made up he league.
This s udy indica es hc po cn ial o
a
social exchange app olich o he
' olun a ism p oblem'. Howe e i depends on he esea chwo ke being
able o es ablish empi ically which ypes o ewa d, and wha cos s a e asso-
da ed wi h pa icipa ion.
I
he exchange model is o be p ese ed om
au ology, i is no su icicn simply o
in e
he exis ence o cos s and
ewa ds o cxplain pa icipa ion.
In his sec ion we ha e a gued ha o ganiza ion plays
a
g ea e ole
in social mo emen s han simply pe mi ing he linking o con adic ions.
I
is sugges ed ha he su i al and success o such mo emen s depends
on he esou ces hey a e able o ob ain, í ee o h ough social exchange,
om o ganiza ions in he communi y, om highc le cls a hie a chies, and
o n he pe sonal nc wo ks and cumula ed posi ions o hei membe s. This
is ue i espec i e o whe he he unde lying heo y o poli icnl ac ion
s esses mohiliza ion o he hase, ins i u ional meams, o pe sonal ela ions,
hough in he la e case i is mo c pa en .
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