On the study of urban social movements

ON THE STUDY OF UKRAN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS In oduc ion The aim o his a icle is o ini ia e a discussion o he ecen se ies o s udies o 'u bnn social mo cmen s'. These s udies sha e a common concep ual amewo k which is de i ed om a 's uc ~~ alis ' cading o Ma x and is se ou in a p elimina y o m by M. Cas ells in La Q~ es ioiz U baine. This amewn k ma ks a b eak wi h he angla-saxon adi ion o 'pa icipa ion' s udies which a e cha ac c ized by a ocus on lle indi idual and his menlbe ship o , o pa icipa ion in, a smaiie o g ea e a ic y o ' olun a y associa ions' and o he g oupings.' Wi hin l~is adi ion la ge- scale su ey s udies a e ca ied ou o cs ahlish he deg c o 'pa icipa- ion', as opposed o he ex en o 'anomie' o he popula ion. The social implica ions o o ganiza ional membe ship a : i je ed, no s udied expli- ci ly. Thus membe ship may bc secn as en ailing pa icipa ion in decision- making, in so a as he o ganiza ion has an in o mal o o mal posi ion in he local social s uc u e, o on he o he hand, as acili a ing h : acqui- si ion o skills and democ a ic alues which enco l age poli ical ac i i y in o he con ex s. Wha has heen lacking wi hin he 'pa icipa ion' adi ion is any in ensi e s udy oi olun a y associa ions and o he g oupings o es ablish empi ically ( a hc han hy in e ence) wha unc ions membe - ship has. Con e sely, s udies wi hin he 'u ban social mo emen s' app oach, 1. See Picl ance (1974) o a d~scussion o his adi ion. On he S udy o U ban Social Mouemen i s ly, de-emphasize he Jo m o he o ganiza ion in which 'pa icipa ion' akes place2 and iew o ganiza ion p ima ily as a means by which con- adic ions a e linked, and, secondly, s ess he e ec o o he wise o he mo emen . These poin s mill he discussed h ic ly, in u n. O ganiza ions, acco ding o Cas ells (1972:341) a e p ecisely he w ong s a ing-poin o s udies o u ban social mo emen s. llis does no mean ha conc e e o ganiza ions, o , as As11 (1972:2) would call hem, ' no e- men o ganiza ions', can he igno ed. On he con a y, as he s udies o be discussed wiU indica e, conc e e mo emen o ganiza ions a c he locus o obse ua ion. The poin is ha hey a e no he ame o analysis. The ocus o analysis is a he on he 'p oblems', 'issues' o 's akes' he o ga- niza ion pu sues and hei s uc u al de e mina ion. I is he s uc u al con- adic ions which a c he c ucial le el o analysis, and o ganiza ions a e seen as means o hei exp ession and a icula ion. Thus he poin is ha o ganiza ions canno be analysed wi hou e e ence o hese unc ions, noi ha o ganiza ions a e unimpo an . In his espec , he 'u ban social mo emen s' app oach is opposed o he 'pa icipa ion' app oach o which he analysis o o ganiza ions snd hei esou ces is an impo an ocus o analysis, which we will e u n o in sec ion 4. The emphasis on 'e ec s' is pa o he de ini ion o u ban social mo e- men s. which mus now he b ie l examined since i is he son ce o some ambigui y. An u ban social mo emen is de ined as: <a sys em o p ac ices esul ing om he a icula ion o a con- junc u e o he sys em o u ban agen s wi h o he social p ac ices, such ha i s de elopmen ends objec i ely owa ds he s uc u ai ans o ma ion o he u ban sys em, o owa ds a subs an ial change in he balance o powe in he class s uggle, ha is o say, in he powe o he S a e.n (Cas elis, 1972:329.) The impo an poin abou his de ini ion is ha i de ines u han social mo emen s by a speci ic ype o e ec . I oliows ha when hese e ec s a e no ob ained (o, o be p ecise, when he 'objec i e de elopmen ' o he o ganiza ion would no lead o such e ec s), hen he desc ip ion 'u - ban social mo emen ' is no appliable. Fo his eason Cas ells iden i ies wo lowe le els o e ec , namely, ' ejo m', i.e., change in an elemen o 2. This is e iden om a pe usal o any o he s udies o be discussed, aThe genesis oi o paniza ion is no he concem o an analysis o social mo emen s, o only hei e ec s a e o impa ance.~ (Cas ells, 1972:?39. N. B. AU ansln ions a e my own.) In sec ion 4 I shaii a gue ha h esou ces a ailable o an o ganiza ion a cc bo h i s su i al and success. On he Slud o U ban Social Mouemen he u ban sys em wi hou any change in i s in e na1 ela ions, and 'con- ol', i.e. he ep oduc ion o he u han sys em. When hese le els o e ec esul , he co espondign ypes o o ganiza ion a e desc ibcd as 'p o- es ' and 'pa icipa ion', espec i ely. Thus, acco ding o he e ec s achie- ed an o ganiza ion can he placed on he scale: 'pa icipa ion', 'p o es ', 'u ban social mo emen '. Cas ells a gues ha an o ganiza ion whe e he con adic ions in ol ed a e pu ely 'u ban', (i.e., conce ned wi h he spa ial uni o he cp oduc ion o he labou o ce (see Cas ells, 1972:295-304) e.g. issues such as hausing, educa ion, and collec i e acili ies), and no linked o e 'poli ical' o 'economic' aspec s o class s uggle, can a mos be un 'ins umen o e o m' (1972:340). I is only when an u ban social mo emen uni es economic o poli ical con adic ions wi h u ban con a- dic ions, ha he e m in i s s ic sense can be said o apply. In he s udies o be discussed u han social mo emen s a e no linked o ade unions o poli ical pa ies. Howe e we shall ollow he p ac ice hey adop and use he e m u ban social mo emen i espec i e o hc le el o e ec s. The e is also an ambigui y in he use o he e m 'e ec '. We shall ollow Oli es (1972) and e e o u ban e ec s as hose u ban objec i es which ha e been success uily achie ed, a he han Lendn (1973) who includes bo h ailu es and successes. (A simila di e ence can be seen in he ea men o 'poli icai e ec s'.) We can now p oceed o analyse a numbe o ea u es o ecen 's uc- u alis ' s udies o u ban social mo emen s in F ance. Ou discussion will be in ou pa s: (1) The iden i ica ion o u ban e ec s. (2) Local au ho i ies and u han e ec s. (1) Ins i u ionai ac ion and u ban e ec s. (4 O ganiza ional esou ces and u han e ec s. My aim is no o ques ion he use ulness o he s uc u alis Ma xis app oach noc o a emp a £ull-scale cci ique o he s udies so a ca ied ou , bu simply o indica e se e al ields which dese e u he cul i a ion. (1) The iden i ica ion o/ u ban e ec s To alk abou he e ec s o a mo emen o ganiza ion (o 'sys em o p ac iccs') is o imply ha an an eceden e en causes a suhsequen e en , e.g., ha a pe i ion agains e ic ion causes a decision o ehouse he enan s conce ned, by an au ho i y. In o dc o make a causal in e ence o his so i is necessa y bu no On he S udy o U ban Social Mouen en s su icien ha he n o e en s occu in a gi en empo al o de . To es a- blish be exis ence o a causal ela ion we need addi ional e idence. Sc ic ly speaking, i we oilow Rlalock's analysis o causali y, i is ne e possible o obse e causali y, since i is a no ion helonging o a hco c ical a he han an obsc a ional language. (Blalock, 1964: chaps. 1 and 2.) In o he wo ds we can ne e ha e enii ely sa is ac o y e idcncc o causali y. Bu causal in e ence equi es wo ypes o e idence: e idence abou empo al o de , and e idence abou he pe cep ions o he ele an ac o s. (These co espond o Webe 's equi emen s o causal adequacy and ad quacy a he le el o meaning o sociological unde s anding. Sce Webe , 1947: 98-100). The a gumen I wish o acl ance is ha hc s uc u alis s udies o u ban social mo emen s equen ly ail o o e bo h ypes o e idence. In pa icula hey emphasize he ac ion o he mo enzen o gani a ion u he expcnse o/ he nc ion o he 'au ho i y'. The e would appea o he wo easons o his bias. The i s is p ac i- cai; he second is heo e ical. The p sc ical easun de i es om he dii e ing ~ccessibili ~ o mo e- men o ganiza ions and 'au ho i ies' o he esea ch-wo ke . Mo emen o ganiza ions a e mo e easily pene a ed by hc csca ch-wo ke and i is na u al ha he in o ma ion ga he ed on hem wiU he co espondingly iche . This g ea e a cssibili y acili a es he unde s anding o he suh- jec i e meaning o ac ion o he ac o s, and enahles i o he co ec ly cha ac e ized as a pa icula ype o 'ac ion' a he han as 'beha iou ', o ollow Wehe 's dis inc ion. (Webe , 1947:88-90.) Pa icipan obse a ion in mo emen o ganiza ions also enahles ac ion o he ohse ed as i akes place and he eby a oids eliance on accoun s by pa icipan s gi en a e he e en in espnsc o in e iewing. The acccssibili y o mo emen o ganiza ions ca ies wi h i a isk o he esea ch-wo ke . Namely, ha he comes o iden i y wi h he o gani- za ion and i s aims, and hus loses his abili y o p esen a ma e comple e analysis. In pa icula , I sngges , he e is a dange ha he esea ch-wo ke ends o a ibu e oo much causal in luencc o hc ac ioizs o he noue- men o ganiza ion and insu icien in luence o he ac ions o/ he au ho- i y. Hi in e ences aho cau e and e ec ih s beconze 'mo emen -cen- ed' because o his in olue nen in he mo emen o ganiza ion. Fo example, Len in desc ibes he a emp s by local esiden s o p e- en he cons uc ion o a new building in an old qua e o Pa is, and he 'ins i u ional npp oaches' hey made, (c.g., a w i en ques ion o he P e e o Pa is, sen ia municipal councillo s, an in e iew wi h he dépu- é mai e.) She h n con inues: On be S udy o/ U ban Social Mouen en s 'The e o was na long in coming: a new building pe mi was issued, his ime accompanied by an ag eemen om he Minis y o Cul u al A ai s.' (1973:97) The ac ha be wo d e o is used indica es he way in which (nega i e) causal in luence is a ibu ed o he mo emen o ganiza ion. The ac ha hc pe mi was issued a e he 'ins i u ional app oaches' may, a he , ha e been a coincidcnce. Fo examplc, he p essu e by he de e- lope s, which Len in alludes o, may ha e been con inuing o sonle &e. This leads us o a second and heo e ical eason which could accoun {o he emphasis placcd on he ac ions o he mo e nen o ganiza ion a he expense o he ac ions o he au ho i y. Na nely, he heo e ical as- sump ions made abou 'au ho i ies' wi hin he s uc u al Ma xis app oach. As will be indica ed in mo e de ail in he nex sec ion, i is aken as axioma ic wi hin his app oach ha au ho i ies wiii no @an changes which h ea en he s abili y o he mode o p oduc ion. Bu , as we saw ea lie , pu cly u ban social mo emen s a e no conside ed o be capable o p o oking changes o his scale and he empi ical s udies bea his ou . I appea s o me ha a di e en heo e ical assump ion is also heing made, namely, lia 'au ho i ies' wiU no g an concessions o any scale wi hou be in e en ion o social mo emen s. This assump ion, i indeed i is being made, is highly deha ablc, and, in any case, does na oilow om he axiom jus men ioned. Thus, I sugges , accep ance o he assump- ion ha 'au ho i ies' will g an nu concessions a all unless o ced o by social mo emen s is a second possible explann ion o he mouemen -cen ed in e ences abo cause and e ec . In o de o iden i y he causes o u han e ec s mo e accu a ely i would seem necessa y: - o be awa e o he isl s o o c -in ol emen in mo emen o ganiza- ions, and - o examine he assump ions being made abou he ole o au ho i ies as causes o ehenge. This cqui es empi ical s udy o he au ho i ies. I is o his subjec ha we now u n. (2) Local au ho iiies and u ban e ec s ,.. The ela i e oles o he S a e and u ban social mo emen s in p o- ducing u ban e ec s s e speued ou by Cas ells as oiiows: <<I i is ue ha he S a e exp esses, in he las ins ance and 349 On he S udy o U ban Social Mo ,eien h ough he nccessa y media ions, he o e all in e es s o he domi- nan classes, u ban planning canno be an ins umen o£ social change, bu o domina ion, in eg a ion and egula ion o con adic ions. aA p ocess o social change s a ing om his new ield o u ban con adic ions occu s when, on he basis o hese hemes, popula mobiliza ion akes place, social in e es s a e ansla ed in o poli ical will and o he o ms o o ganiza ion o collec i e consump ion, in con adic ion wi h he dominan social logic, a e pu in o place. Thus i is u ban social noue nen s and no planni g ins i u ions uhicb a e he ue so ces o change and inno a ion in he ci y.~ (1973: IS, 19) These wo quo a ions iden i y u ban planning, on he one band, and u han social mo emen s, on he o he , wi h he unc ions o£ con ol and inno a ion, espec i ely. They de i e om a speci ically Ma xis iew o he S a e, and i is his iew which equi es examina ion. The wo quo- a ions con ain a sligh ambigui y, namely, as o whe he he 'social change' which au ho i ies seek o con ol e e s only o majo changes, o whe he i also e e s o mino changes. We shall assume he la e in e - p e a ion is co ec , and he e o e ha e en smali changes can only he b ough abou by social mo emen s. This ce ainly seems o be he assump- ion o he empi ical s udies o u ban social mo emen s. In his sec ion ou aim is o a gue ha go e nmen al ins i u ions canno he dismissed as souxces o mino changes, and o his ex en mus be ea ed as sou ces o u han e ec s in he same way as social mo e- men s. In o he wo ds ha he ole o au ho i ies in ini ia ing changes is an empi ical ques ion equi ing analysis o policy- o ma ion wi hin go e n- men al ins i u ions. In he p e ious sec ion we a gued ha he inaccessibili y o au ho i ies o he esea ch-wo ke was one p ac ica1 eason o hei neglec as sou - ces o u ban e ec s. I is only hy s ndying p ocesses o policy- o n~a ion wi hin au ho i ies (i.e. es ablishing hei deg ee o au onomy) hai one can co ec ly es ima e he ela i e impo ance o social mo emen s, on he one hand, and ac o s in e na1 o he S a e, on he o he . One s ndy which does a emp o conside policy-making is hai by Dea lo e (1973) which conce ns he London bo ough o Kensing on and Chelsea. He sbows ha p essu e g oups a e e alua ed hy he local au ho- i y in e ms o h ee ac o s: hei imagen ('help ul' o 'unhelp ui'), he demands hey ad ance (con o ming o con lic ing wi h exis ing policy and esou ce alloca ion) and hei s yle o ac ion (communica ion ia local coun- cillo s, pe i ions, usc o local p ess, demons a ions, e c.) (Dea lo e, 1973: On !he S!udy o U ban Social Mooemen s chap. 8) He sugges s ha he mos success ul p essu e g oups a e hose which a e pe cei ed as 'help ul', hose whose demands con o m o council policy, and hose who adop 'accep able' modes o ac ion. Un o una ely his conclusions a e based on in e iews wi h councillo s on policy-making in gene al a he han on a de niled analysis o he o ma ion o speci ic policies which would enable his a gumen abou he ela i e success o a e en p cssu e g oups o he es ed. Thus he docs no succeed in de- mons a ing he au ho i y's au onomy in dealing wi h p essu e g oups. Howe e he councillo 's pe cep ions he eppo s a e consis en wi h he exis ence o such au onomy. (I may also be no ed ha mass suppo was no a c i e ion by which p essu e g oups we e e alua ed.) A second s udy conce ning an u ban social mo emen whose success is explici ly ela cd by he au ho o p essu es in e nal o he local au ho- d y is ha by Fe is (1972) ca ied ou in he London bo ough o Is- ling on. The s udy shows, in e alia, how he Ba nsbu y Associa ion, an o ganiza ion o ncwly-a i ed middle-class owne -occupie s conce ned o e he h ea o he ameni y alue o he a ea posed by council cdc clopmcn pians, p opos~s and is success ul in ge ing app o ed a ' a ic managemen scheme' by which a ic is mu ed a ound he a ea. (The majo i y o he popula ion, long-es ablished enan s, opposed he a ic schemc which hey saw as i ele an o hei needs, and h ough ano he o ganiza ion, he Ba nsbu y Ac ion G oup, sough o imp o e hei own housing con- di ions, i necessa y h ough council ede elopmen .) The a ic scheme was no accep ed wi hou conside able e o by he Associa ion. This in- cluded ge ing Associa ion membe s clec cd as local councillo s and pu ing p essu e on he local au ho i y in his way. Howe e hc impo an poin o p esen pu poses is ha he Ba nsbu y Associa ion's a ic p oposals i ed in wi h cen al goue n nen policy which was ' o change local au ho- i y a i udes owa ds la ge ede elopmen p ojec s' since he la c we e e y cos ly in e ns o public unds, and o encou age 'ways o£ upg ading esis ing en i onmen s ... [by applying] Buchanan's ideas on a ic, and imp o ing olde housing whe e possible.' (Fe is, 1972:66.) I seems un- likely ha be Associa ion would ha e been success ul wi hou he a ou- able 'policy en i onmen ' o cen al go e nmen . Thus he 'u ban e ec ' ob ained was he esul o he mo emen o ganiza ion and ac o s in e nal o he au ho i y.) Fe is's s udy is unusual in ha i does examine ac o s o he han 3. Admi edly he ue ec n posed no h ca o he u han sys em: i was a ou ed by p ope y de elope s sincc i aised p ope y alues, bu opposed by he local au hod y o inancial easons. social mo emen s in p oducing u ban e ec s. Dea lo e, as uTe ha e seen, sugges s ha councillo 's pe cep ions o p essu e g oups a c cle an o council policy. Che ki has a gued ha 'whe e e he isks o mobiliza ion, o u he squa ing, o poli ical de elopmen , a e limi ed ... squa ing is ole a ed' (1973:85). P esumably his co ela ion can be aced back o he local au ho i y's pe cep ion o he (limi ed) challenge o i sel , in sueh cascs. The impo ance o p essu e o he han ha by social no e nen s is hin ed a in wo o he s udies. Pingeo and Robe , in hei s udy o a mo emen agains a p oposa1 o expand an ai po , w i e ha he majo pa o he s uggle in he second (nnd decisi e) phase 'no longe ook place in public (in he s ee and in he p ess) bu in he co ido s o P e. ec o a es and Minis ies' (1973:137), whe e ' he p essu e h ough o bea is a di ec e lec ion o he place o each o he p o agonis s in he social s uc n e' (1973:141). Simila ly, Len in, a gues ha he decision o issue o huilding pe mi 'in i es us o suppose he sup emacy o one minis y o e ano hc , e lec ing he s eng h o he p essu e g oup cons i u ed by he p ope y de elope s o e he bea e s o£ u ban ideology, e~ esen cd by he Minis y o Cul u al A ai s'. (1971:97.) Thus in all hese cases i is accep ed ha u ban social mo emen s a e no he exclusi e sou ccs o (small) chnngcs, and hs hei demands a e pe cei ed by he au ho i ies and balanced agains hei own policy p e- e ences and agains he p essu es o o he u ban ac o s. l is only when uu ho i ies he nsel es a e nade he s bjec o s udy, ad zi edly a di icul equi emen o mee , ha i will be possible o a ibu c 'u ban e ec s' o he ac iuns o u ban social mo emen s, au ho i y policy, and o he u ban ac o s (e.~. p ope y de elope s, o he le els o au ho i y, e c.4) (3) Ins i u ional ac ion and u han e ec s A eading o he s uc u alis s udies o u ban social mo emen s in F ance makes clea he emphasis on he ole o 'popula mobiliza ion' and 'non-ins i u ional' means in achie ing u ban e ec s. Ry con as , 'ins i u- ional' ac ion in de-emphasized. Thus, o example, Len in w i es ha he issuing o a building pe mi despi e he app oaches o local esiden s 'shows he limi s o ins i u ional ac ion' (1973:97). Bu , as men ioned he o e, 4. The dis inc ion be wecn u ban social mo emen s, a ho i y policy and n he u ban ac o s is unsa is a~ o ~, since, o cxa nplc, au ho i y pi~licy i s l wiii be pa dy a esponse o p essu e om p e i us social no nen s (eg o puhlic housing) and o he u ban ac o s. On he S udy o U ban Social Mo emen s Len in he sel e e s o he p essu e o he p ope y de elope s, which would appea o be an al ema i e explana ion o he esiden s' ' ailu e'. In o he wo ds, he cha ac e iza ion o he ' ailu e' indica es a ce ain a i- ude o 'ins i u ional ac ion'. I is wo h no ing he e ha he e m 'ins i u ional ac ion' is somewha a nbiguous, since he concep 'ins i u ion' is i sel open o a ious in e - p e a ions. I will be assumed he e ha 'ins i u ional ac ion' is ac ion which akes place wi hin cxis ing poli ical ins i u ions (e.g. o ing, pe i ions n local councillo s, depu a ions, legal demons a ions, o he o ma ion u legal poli ical pa ies) o wi hin he i aiue~~ o k o he law. 'Non-ins i u- ional' ac ion hus includes iilegal ac ion ( iolen demons a ions, 'di ec ac iun') and he o ma ion o illegal yoli~ical pa ies. Mohiliza ion ca no i sel he said o he ins i u ional o o he wise; his depends on he o ns which i akes. The ques ion we need o ask is whe he 'popula mobiliza ion' is in ac he only success ul mode o poli ical ac ion. The s udy by Oli es ( 972) is pa icula ly help ul in answe ing his ques ion. Oli es discusses 16 u ban social mo emen s in he 'Ci - d'Alia e' in Pa is. In nine cases (Nos. 1, 3-10 he objec i es sough a e a leas pa ly n ained.s In he emaining sc cn cases (Nos. 2, 11-16) ailu es esul . In 011 bu n o o he nine cascs, he clemen s o ganiza ion, mohiliza- ion, social base and 's ong' s ~kes we e p esen . In o he wo ds hese se en cases co espond o he idea o poli ical ac ion h ough mobiliza ion. I will be ins uc i e o examine he wo exccp ions o his ule. They a e cases 7 and 8. In case 8 an immig an u el a e associa ion used pe i ions o secu e adequa e ehousing o immig an s h ea ened wi h e ic ion. This appa en success does no i in wi h he idea o change h ough mobiliza ion. I co esponds o he poliii al ei ec desc ibed as 'social in eg a ion (pa e - nalism)' by Cas ells (Oli es, 1972:16). In case 7 he same wel a e asso- cia ion again succeeded in ob aining 'adequa e ehousing' o immig an s h ea ened wi h e ic ion; a 'local poli ical o ganiza ion' was also in ol ed. (The co esponding poli ical e ec he e is desc ibed as u oli ic al disin eg a- ion (ins i u ional poli ical in eg a ion)'). Oli es's commen s on cases 7 and 8 a e in e es ing: 'In [ hesel cases - e en i hc success in ob aininS [adequa el T. These igu es a e hased on he ables in he a icle (pp. 18-27). On p. 13 Oli- es e e s o he nsc en ac ions which had an u ban c ec u. He appea s o ha e escluded cases 7 and 8 om he nine cases so desc ibed in he ables. On he S udy o/ U ba z Social Mom menl I migh be objec cd ha eliance on pe sonal ne wo ks and cumula ed posi ions is a esponse dic a ed by he b anch's lack o money. On he one hand, one couid answe ha since his is he condi ion o many olun a y associa ions so such eliance will be ex ensi e elsewhe e. Bu , in my iew, eliance on his ypc o esou ce is no due o li ni ed unds, bu is likely o be a ea u e o all o ganiza ions since he occupa ion o posi ions in se e a1 s uc u es and he possession o pe sonal ne wo ks is qui e ge. ne al ( hough a iable in deg ee). Fo his eason, 1 would no ag ee wi h Bonnie hai he use o pe sonal ela ions in poli ical ac ion is in any way an 'old' pa e n. In o de o iUus a e he impo ance o he esou ces a ailable o olun a y associa ions and u ban social mo emen s h ough he cumnla ed posi ions and pe sonal ne wo ks o hei membe s we will e e b ie ly again o Fe is's s udy o Ba nsbu y. (Fe is, 1972.) Fi s ly, hc Ba nsbu y Associa ion included p o essional planne s and a chi ec s who used hei p o essional skills and knowledge in d awing up he a ic scheme. (Fo example, ' hey o mula ed hei objec i es in such a way as o make hem accep able o he Miiis y o Housing and Local Go e nmen '. (Fe is, 1972: 351, and ook ad an age o hei knowledge o he a ou able clima e o a ic schemes.) The (Labou ) local councillo s suspec ed ha hey we e using 'in o ma ion gaincd in hei p o essional capaci ies wi hin local au ho i ies and had also exploi ed p o essional con ac s in he Mi- nis y o Housing and elsewhe e' (1972:64). Secondly, Ba nshu y Associa- ion membe s we e elec ed o he local council in 1968 as 'independen s'. They used hei posi ions as counciiio s, assis ed by he a ou able a i ude o hc new Conse a i e majo i y, o ad ance he ends o he Associa ion. One inal example o o ganiza ional esou ces desc ibes by Fe is e e s o he i al Ba nsbu y Ac ion G oup whose Sec e a y was xa publishing execu i e who was able o con ibu e om his business o ice acili ies such as yping and iling. He was also ahle o use his knowlcdge o he media o ge p ess s a emen s publishedn (1972:56). Thus we see how knowlcdge and semiccs de i ed om cumula ed posi ions and pe sonal ne wo ks a e impo an esou ces o u ban social mo emen s. So a we ha e been discl~ssing wha Ross caus he 'associa ion p o- blem', namely, he p oblems encoun e ed and eso~l ces usell by u ~ani- za ions in hei e o s o ench goals. To conclude, we shail e e b ie ly o wha he caus he 'uolun a ism p obkm', i.e., how membe s n e ec ui ed and kep . (Thc e m ' olun a ism' would pe haps be be e epleced hy he e m ' olun ee ' since i is he nnpaid ns u e o pa licipa ion in olun- a y associa ions and noi any idea ha pa icipa ion in olun a y associa- On he S udg a U ban Social hlocemen ions and no any idea ha pa icipa ion is uncaused, ha is impo an . See Palisi (1968), Ross (1972:27-8), Pick ance (1974).) One o he mos ui ul ways o ackling he ' olun a ism p oblem' would appea o be ia he social exchange app oach, in so a as po en ial membe s o a social mo emen balance he ewa ds o pa icipd ion agains he cos s incu ed. So a , o my knowledge, only one w i e has a emp ed o apply he social exchange model in his ield. This is lie s udy by Weissman (1970) o a communi y council in an Ame ican ci y which seems o ha e been ela i ely success ul in oh aining be e 'u ban' aci- li ies o he a ea, a leas in i s ea lie phase. Weissman (1970:20-21) dis inguishes ou ypcs oi ewa ds a ailable o indi iduals who pa icipa e in he council: - emo ional ewa ds: iendship, p aise, sel -es eem, - se ice ewn ds: engcnde ed by se ices hc council p oduces, e.g., a new school, - ideological ewa ds; hose ha sa is y ideological commi men s such as 'being a goud Ame ican', - nego iable ewa ds: hose which ha e a nego iablc alue in s uc u es o he han he council, e.g., ge ing onesel in he public eye. (A simila analysis is applied o he council's success in ec ui ing di e en e hnic g oups in hc communi y. This ills ou he nu iun o in eg a ion wi h he communi y, discussed ea lie . The council u as in ac in eg a cd ho i on aliy and e ically, wi h o ganiza ions and he communi y a la ge.) The ca ego y 'nego iable ewa ds' ela es o ou ea 1i . emphasis on cumula ed posi ions. Whe eas p e iously we showed ha pe sonal ne wo ks and cumula ed posi ions could be used o 'impo ' esou ces in o an associa ion, by he 'ex ension' o social ela ionships, he idea o 'nego- iable ewa ds' indica cs how pa icipa ion in an associa ion can esul in esou ccs which can be 'expo ed' o he pe son's posi ions and ela ions in o he s uc u es. 'Nego iable ewa ds' may be di icul o assess sincc people a e eluc an o admi o hem (Weissmann, 1970:98). In he UNA h anch hey ce ainly exis : o examplc, he poli ical candida e o insu ance h oke who make known hese iden i ies in he cou se o a alk. Weissman (1970: chap. 8) a gues hai he absence o wo king-class pa icipan s i11 he council as due o he need o social skills, ee ime, money, and willingness o engage in slow o mal p ocedu es which imposed highe cos s on hcm. Con e sely he council's spo s commi ee, wbe e e bal skills and o mal p ocedu es n e e na necessa , was la gcly n o king- class in composi ion. The absence o I alians om he council is e plained On he S udy o U ba i Social Mouemen in c ms o i s connexion ai h a P o es an se lemen and cle gy: only h ough he spo s commi ee did he I alians pa icipa e, and his was because oi he (nego iable) ewa ds he basehail league u nished hem in hei posi ions as chu chgoc s a he a ious Ca holic chu ches whose eams made up he league. This s udy indica es hc po cn ial o a social exchange app olich o he ' olun a ism p oblem'. Howe e i depends on he esea chwo ke being able o es ablish empi ically which ypes o ewa d, and wha cos s a e asso- da ed wi h pa icipa ion. I he exchange model is o be p ese ed om au ology, i is no su icicn simply o in e he exis ence o cos s and ewa ds o cxplain pa icipa ion. In his sec ion we ha e a gued ha o ganiza ion plays a g ea e ole in social mo emen s han simply pe mi ing he linking o con adic ions. 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