Medical Opinion and Sociopoli ical
Con ol in he Case o Occupa ional
Diseases in he la e Nine een h Cen u y
DIETRICH
MILLES
(*)
RESUMEN
En es e abajo se iden i ican los iesgos pa a la ida y la salud de los abajado es
indus iales en el con ex o del segu o obliga o io de acciden es es ablecido en Alemania
a comienzos de siglo. En el con ex o del desa ollo indus ial y los cambios sociopolí icos
apa eció el p oblema de de ini iesgos
y
p oblemas c óiiicos, en pa icula las in oxicaciones.
La inclusión de las en e medades ocupacionales en el segu o de acciden es en a izó la
dimensión biog á ica del padecimien o, pe o di icul 6 el desa ollo de la unción p e en-
i a del Reglamen o de en e medades labo ales de 1'325.
Occupa ional diseases in Ge many oday a e hose diseases o which
compensa ion is g an ed in he same way as io acciden s, i hey a e caused
by pa icula in luences o which ce ain g oups o people, h ough hei
wo k, a e subjec ed o a g ea e deg ee han he es o he popula ion
(1).
Fecha de acep ación:
6
de mayo de 1992.
(*)
Sozialpoli isches A chi . Zen um ü Sozialpoli ik. Uni e si a B emen. Pa kallee
39. D 2800 B emen 1. Alemania.
(1) The ollowing pape is an accoun o esea ch wo k cu en ly being ca ied ou in
Subp ojec D1 .The cons uc ion o biog aphical isk in Occupa ional Disease
P oceedings 1889-1929. as pa o S b 186 «S a us passages and condi ions o isk in
he li e cou se a he Uni e si y o B emen. Foi- ansla ing and suppo
1
would like
o hank icki May and Sabine Tengele .
C T.
MILLES, Die ich (ed.) (1992).
Be iebsan e und p oduk ionsbaogene Gesundhei spoli ik in de Geschich e,
B eme ha en,
Wi scha s e lag; (1993).
Gesundhei s isiken, Zndus iegesellschaj und soziale Siche ungen
in de Geschich e,
~ eme ha en, Wi scha s e lag.
DYNAMIS
Ac a Hispanica ad Medicinae Scien ia umque His o iam Zllí~s andam.
Vol. 13, 1993, pp. 139-153.
ISSN: 021 1-9536
140
DIETRICH MILLES
They a e de ined by expe s in line wi h he la es de elopmen s in indus-
ial
medicine and speci ied in lis s in he Occupa ional Disease O dinance
(2).
I is incon es able ha wo ke s a ec ed by such diseases and cioc o s ha e
known abou hem and he su e ing and dis ess associa ed wi h hem
since he la e 17 h cen u y
(3).
Howe e , acco ding o Ge man social
insu ance
(4)
as i was es ablished in he ea ly 1880s, hese occupa ional
diseases did no exis . Fo he pu poses o his insu ance he e exis ed
ei he diseases which mani es ed hemsel es as o ganic de ec s and we e
ea ed and assessed as such, o acciden s, which we e de ined as sudden
e en s b ough abou by un o eseen ci cums ances. This dis inc ion was
i s made in he 1870s and inco po a ed medical knowledge in o legal
p oceedings, making ju idical and medical de ini ions in e dependen
(5).
By he end o he cen u y, howe e , isk, legal p oceedings ;and medical
knowledge no longe ma ched
(6).
Doc o s had o o m an opinion on
connec ions be ween causes and e ec s in he legal sense, he cons uc ion
(2)
C .
MILLES, Die ich (1988). Occupa ional illnesses o be co npensa ed, o wo ke 's
diseases o be e adica ed?
Dynamis, 7-8,
275-305; (1993). Wha a e Occupa ional
Diseases? Risk and he concep o isk in he his o y o indus ial medicine.
In:
COOTER, R.; LUCKIN,
]B.
(eds.),
Acciden s in His o y. Inju ies, a ali ies and social
ela ions,
( o hcoming) .
(3)
C .
URBE, Ka l-Heinz (1978).
Die En wicklung de A bei smedizin in Deu schland on
1780 bis 1850 im Spiegel de zei genossischen medizinischen Li e a u , Diss,
Leipzig; BUESS,
Hein ich (1961). Die E o schung de Be u sk ankhei en bis zum Beginn cles indus iellen
Zei al e s.
In:
BAADER, E. W. (ed.),
Handbuch da gesam en A bei smedizin,
Be lin, Bd.
2/1, pp. 15-36; WEINDLING, Paul (ed.) (1985).
The social his o y o occupa ional
medicine,
London, C oom Held, 267 pp.
(4) Fo an in e na ional co npa ision see HENNOCK, E. P. (1987).
B i ish Social Re om
and Gaman P eceden s. The Case o social Insu ance 1880-1914,
Ox o: d, Cla endon
P ess; RITTER, Ge ha d A. (1982).
Sozial e siche ung in Deu schland und England.
En s ehung und O undzüge im Ve gleich,
München, Oldenbou g; MOMMSEN, Wol gang;
MOCK, Wol gang (eds.) (1982).
The
eme gen e
o he wel a e s a e in B i ain and
Gmany 1850-1 950,
London.
(5)
C .
BARTA, H. (1983).
Kausali a im Sozial ech . En s ehung und Eunk ion de sogenann en
i'heo ie de wesen lichen Bedingung, 2
ols., München, Duncke
&
Hunibol .
(6)
C .
MILLES, Die ich (1990). Indus ial Hygiene:
A
S a e Obliga ion? Indus ial
Pa hology as a P oblem in Ge man Social Policy.
ln:
LEE, Robe W.; ROSENHAFT,
E e (eds.),
S a e and Social change in Gmany,
London, Be g, pp. 161.-199; MILLES,
Die ich (1990). 'Küns liche' und 'na ü liche' Risiken in de Geschich e de
A bei smedizin.
In:
Ha nbu ge S i ung ü Sozialgeschich e des 20. Jah hunde s
(ed.),
A bei sschu z und Umwel geschich e,
Koln, Volksbla Ve l., pp. 101-118, 192-194.
The Case o Occupa ional Diseases
141
o which co esponded less and less wi h hei ield- o knowledge and
inc easingly con lic ed wi h hei medical sclu ies
(7).
The cons uc ion o isk, which i owed o he pa icula ole o acciden
insu ance in Ge many, is he cen al issue o his pape . Acciden insu ance
ep esen ed he hea o he Ge man social cons i u ion, as i egula ed he
new and se ious heal h p oblems and haza ds which mode n indus ial
socie y imposed upon i sel (8). Acciden inslu ance, which was discussed in
he Reichs ag be o e he es ablishmen o gene al s a u o y heal h insu ance
in 1883, bu was only se led in 1884, elie e~d employe s' o liabili y, which
had been he cause o massi e social con lic . Hence o h, i a sudden,
empo ally de e minable e en in he cou se o insu ed employmen led o
an asce ainable impai men o heal h, hen he pe son conce ned o hei
su i ing dependen s could claim an acciden pension p opo iona e o he
de e mined deg ee o incapaci a ion. This con i med ha indus ial en e p ises
concealed ce ain una oidable heal h isks; i also assumed ha hese could
be egula ed in e ms o he de ini ion o an acciden .
This egula ion was in ended o he ype o heal h isks which we e
cha ac e is ic o hea y indus y, s eam boile s and ansmission bel s as well
as mani es social inequali ies
(9).
I was se up in he ea ly 1880s in he
mids o a pa icula his o ical si ua ion which
1
shall only men ion wi h
e e ence o
-
he g ow h o he i on-p oducing and p ocessing indus y accompanied
by an changing concep ion wi hin he ie:ld o enginee ing o isk and
p oduc ion planning;
-
o he de elopmen o na u al sciences and. he co esponding legi ima ion
o poli ical in e en ion.
(7)
C',
BEHRENS,
J.;
MILLES, D.; MULLER, R. (1990). Zu Medikalisie ung sozialpoli ische
Kon lik e. Gu ach e medizin zwischen Sozials aa iund Indi iduum.
In:
DRESSEL,
W.
e . al.
(eds.),
Lebenslau ; A bei smadz und Sozia&oli ik,
Nii nbe g,
Mi3
B A, pp. 151-173.
(8)
C .
EWALD, F ancois (1986).
I>@ a p o idence,
Pa is, B. G asse ; BECK, Ul ich
(1986).
Risikogesellscha . Au dem Weg in eine ande e Mode ne,
F ank u /M., Suh kamp.
(9)
C .
BARTRIP, Pe e (1987).
Wo kmenS Comj,ensa ion in Twen ie h Cen u y B i ain:
Law, Hzs o~y and Social Policy,
B ook ield, Ve non , A ebu y; in gene al FREVERT,
U e (1984).
K ankha' als poli isches P oblem, 1770-1880. Soziale Un e schich en in
P euJen
zwischen medizinische Polizei und s aa liche Sozia ' e siche ung,
Go ingen, Vandenhoeck
&
Rup ech .
This pa icula his o ical si ua ion wds legally gene alised wi hin he
social insu ance sys em.
Towa ds he end o he cen u y, he media ion be weeni ins i u ional
assump ions o no mali y and indi idual concep s o li e and en i lemen o
s a e bene i was p eca ious: he his o ical si ua ion was cha ac e ized,
among o he hings, by
-
a p o ound change in wo k p ocesses and wo k o ganisa ion as ypi ied
by Taylo isa ion and he inc eased use o chemicals;
-
he so-called anega i e in eg a ion~ o he wo ke s mo emen s, especially
ia he social insu ance sys em;
-
and he end o he Bisma ck e a and he a emp s a social in eg a ion
in o de o make he Ge man na ional economy compe i i e.
This was e lec ed in discussions among a ec ed wo ke s, Social Democ a s,
social e o me s, employe s and hei associa ions, ep esen a i es o he
ade associa ions, ac o y doc o s, hygienis s and o icials o e indus ial,
occupa ional o wo ke s' diseases. One conside able p oblem was he g ow h
o complex and la en haza ds and, hence, ch onic diseases, which was
abo e al1 discussed in ela ion o in oxica ion
(10).
This g ow h con lic ed
wi h indi idual expec a ions and wi h insu e s' assump ions.
Now and again he ques ion o a undamen al e o m o social secu i y
was aised, howe e i lacked poli ical suppo because a he ime he social
secu i y sys em con ibu ed a g ea deal owa ds sociopoli ical s abili y and
i was no possible o ind accep able sociopoli ical ins i u ions and ac o s
o implemen a - eaching e o m
(11).
The p oblem was he e o e how o econsé uc ce aini diseases o
econcile he medical and legal de ini ion o occupa ional diseases wi hin
he amewo k o social secu i y as i al eady exis ed. Discussions ocussed
(10)
C .
ROTHE, Ch is iaii
(1987).
E k nnkungen on Chemiea beile n z nd die En uicklung
de
Be u sk ankhei en e o dnung
on 1925,
F ank u , [Diss. med.]; HIEN, Wol gaiig
(1988).
Che niea bei , Anilink ebs uiid Disposi ionsmy hos am Beispiel de
BASF
Ludwigsha en.
1999. Zei s hnj ii Sozialgeschich e,
3,
31-59.
(1 1)
C/ .
BALDWIN, Pe e M.
(1990).
The Poli ics o/ Social Solidan(y. Class Bases o Eu opean
Wel a e S a e,
Ca nb idge, Camb idge C'ni . P ess; HENTSCHEL, Volke
(1983).
Geschich e de deu schen Sozialpoli ik (1 880-1 980). Soziak Sicl emng zcnd kollek i es A bei s ech ,
F ank u /M., Suh kamp.
The Case
o
Occupa ional Diseases
143
on he ex ension o acciden insu ance o include disease p ocesses, and
his was inally ealised in he Occupa ional Disease O dinance o 1925 (12).
Due o i s paci ying e ec (13), he social insu ance sys em was s ill no
s anda dized o eo ganized du ing discussions o e he Impe ial Insu ance
O dinance in 1911. Lea ing aside he p oi ec i e measu es ollowing he
implemen a ion o he Indus ial Code, he ii e en ia ion wi hin he social
insu ance sys em can be illus a ed by he ollowing examples. The p oblem
cen ed a ound long- known and new o is o chemical in oxica ion.
Long- ecognised o ms o in oxica ion we e o ins ance hose caused
by phospho us, lead and me cu y. The exac connec ions a e made clea
by he ollowing example o phospho ous poisoning (14).
The disco e y ha phospho us can be speci ically igni ed when mixed
wi h non- lammable subs ances goes back o he ea ly 19 h cen u y. A i s
whi e phospho us was used exclusi ely o manu ac u e ma ches in home
indus y and in ac o ies.
An
awa eness o he heal h haza ds in ol ed g ew
up almos immedia ely. As ea ly as 1843, P o . Die z o Nu embe g poin ed
ou he inju ies phospho us caused o heal li and in 1845 P o . Lo inse o
Vienna b ough ou a publica ion on bone diseases b ough on by he
e ec o phospho ous apou s which he nained phosphonec osis. In 1847,
chemis s in Bib a and he clinician Geis idesc ibed e he diseases o he
wo ke s in phospho ous ma ch ac o ies, especially he condi ion o he jaw
bones caused by phospho ous apou sn (Ei-langen). In he same yea he
i s p o ec i e egula ions we e issued (15).
In he la e 1870s public a en ion was oused by he condi ions and
diseases exis ing in he ma ch ac o ies a Lauenbu g, whe e he e we e no
less han ou la ge ac o ies p ocessing whi ~e phospho us. On in es iga ion
he ac o y inspec o disco e ed ha wo ke s o en con ac ed phosphonec osis
(12)
C T.
HOHMANN, Joachim S. (1984).
Be u sk ankhli a in de Un all e siche ung. Vo geschich e
und En s ehung de E s en
Bmc sk ankhei en e o dnung
om
12.
Mai
1925,
Koln, Pahl
Rugens ein.
(13)
C .
RODEL,
U.
e al.
(1978).
Sozialpoli ik als soziale Kon olle,
F ank u /M., Suh kamp;
SACHSSE, Ch.; TENNSTEDT, F. (eds.) (1986).
Soziale Siche ha' und soziale Disziplinie ung.
Bei age zu eine his o ischen Theon'e de Sozialpoli ik,
F ank u /M., Suh kamp.
(14)
C .
TELEKY, Ludwig (1955).
Gewe bliche e p9ungen,
Be lin; HAMILTON, Alice
(1925).
Indus ial Poisons in he Uni ed S a es,
New Yo k.
(15)
C .
DEHN, Paul (1882).
A bei e schu zmaJ egei'n
gegen Un all und K ankhei sgejah en,
Be lin; BRAUN;Adol (1890).
Die A bei e schu zgese ze
de
eu opaischen S aa en,
Tübingen.

144
DIETRICH
MILLES
and had bad ee h and in lamed jaw bones. His epo exp essed in o icial
e ms wha people in he a ea commonly and clea ly el o be a heal h
haza d. On 27.6.1879 he Reichs ag eques ed he Chancello « o gi e
o de s o he p elimina y s eps o be aken o p ohibi he manu ac u e o
ma ches wi h whi e phospho usn. The Impe ial O ice o he In e io deal
wi h he ma e u he and, as was usual in such cases, asked he ede al
go e nmen s o hei commen s. The as majo i y o go e nmen s held
he opinion ha a p ohibi ion awas no necessa y and, in conside a ion o
he na ional economy, ques ionable~. Ins ead, egula ions should be issued
on he p oduc ion o ma ches. Fo his pu pose he S a e Secipe a y o he
In e io appoin ed a commission (16).
Public discussion con inued, howe e , and poli ical specula ions on
ela ions be ween he Impe ial Chancello and indus ialis s p omp ed
o icial enqui ies. In eply o one enqui y, he Minis y o Comme ce
epo ed in 1881 ha he ques ion «had been deba ed
...
oi- yea s». The
subjec o deba e had been he in lammabili y o Ge m'an ma ches especially
in ela ion o Swedish ma ches and how g ea he h ea o phosphonec osis
was o wo ke s. Apa om an accoun o o icial p ocedu es he ele an
p inciples o he ma e we e educed o passages in he indus ial doc o 's
annual epo . The e was no knowledge o public disquie and lqe au ho i ies
had only applied o a p ohibi ion because o he inc ease in i es and no
because o phosphonec osis.
In 1893 an o dinance was issued which s ipula ed ha he endange ed
wo ke s should be kep unde con inuous medical obse a ion and examined
once e e y h ee mon hs. This ied in wi h he selec i e p ac ice o indus-
ial hygiene which is implied by he ca chph ase ~ oca iona.1 choice and
physical ap i uden.
The en husiasm o social policy which g ew in he mid-1890s a e he
down all o Bisma ck coincided wi h inc eased p essu e b ough on by
a ious denuncia ions o he so-called ade il's ki chens» (Gi küchen) in
he Reichs ag and a union mee ings, and o e ed an oppo uni y o he
ma e o become poli icised (1
'7).
(16) File in:
ZSTA
Po sdam
RK
374,
B1.
167.
(17)
C .
SSCHNEIDER, Hein ich (1911).
Ge ah en
de
A ba
in de chenzischen Indus ie,
Hanno e ;
WURM,
Emanuel (1905). Die gewe blichen Ve gi ungen.
Die Neue Zei ,
23,
pp.
24
.
The Case o Occupa ional Diseases
145
A ma ch ac o y wo ke named G ünig ' om P ungs ad , o example,
handed in a pe i ion o he Reichs ag anh demanded ~ ha a ious diseases
occu ing in he ma chmaking indus y, such as phosphonec osis, be included
in he p o isions o acciden insu ancen. The pe i ion commi ee also
acknowledged his demand o be equallyjus i ieci o o he o ms o in oxica ion,
as hey eally we e a o m o indus ial acciden . A ecommenda ion o his
e ec passed on o he Impe ial Chancello had no ini ial success, howe e (18).
A las on 10.5.1903 he use o yellow phospho us was p ohibi ed, wi h
e ec om 1907. Indus ial hygienis s had d awn a en ion o he heal h
haza ds; bu a he same ime i became clea how li le oom o he
conside a ions o indus ial hygiene he e w,as in he ield o social policy.
In he mid-1920s Ludwig Teleky, who con ibu ed g ea ly o he en ichmen
and poli icisa ion o he ield o indus ial hygiene, discussed wo di icul
aspec s o in e na ional e o s o p e en wo k- ela ed phosphonec osis:
i s ly he made i clea ha e en he p ohibi ion which had inally been
dec eed was no aimed a he p oduc ion bu only a he use o he
haza dous subs ance in ce ain ci cums ances. Secondly he poin ed ou
ha he minimalisa ion o haza ds was a mo e o en pu sued o he
p o ec ion o he consume ( oday we would add en i onmen al p o ec ion)
han o he p o ec ion o he wo ke . Telelzy accoun ed o his wi h he
ac ha al1 measu es aimed a p oduc ion would logically lead o a p ohibi ion
o he p oduc ion o he use o he subs ance. Howe e , acco ding o
Teleky, such demands could only be made i , on he one hand, he e was
a echnological and economic subs i u e o he subs ance, and i on he
o he hand he disad an ages o using he subs i u e we e smalle han he
ex en o inju y a oided by i s use (19).
Bo h conside a ions we e ealis ic and ~p ac icaln, bu a he same ime
hey signi ied he annulmen o heal h p lo ec ion in indus y, o why
should indus ialis s look o possible subs i u es and who was o calcula e
when a subs i u e was po en ially mo e eco iomical?
(18) Ci . HOHMANN (1984),
op. ci .
(n. 12),
pp.
42
.
(19) TELEKY, Ludwig (1926). Beg i , Diagnose, ech liche S ellung de Be u sk ankhei en.
Ve hü ung gewe bliche
Gesundhei sscha iigungen.
Zn:
GOTTSTEIN,
A.;
SCHLOSSMANN, A.; TELEKY, L. (eds.),
E andbuch de sozialen Hygiene und
Gesundhei s ü so ge,
Be lin,
J.
Sp inge , ol.
2,
pp.
41
.
146
DIETRICH
MILLES
The b anch o Ge man social secu i y in which wo ke s' heal h
p o ec ion (20) a e de i ed om he Indus ial Code (especially pa ag aphs
107 and 120) had li le sociopoli ical schpe e e since he p inciple was
adop ed in he 1870s no o ex end s a e con ol bu o ely on he sel -
egula ion o he ade associa ions, which we e o ganised along he same
lines as guilds. Fo his eason e en hose doc o s commi ed o ul illing
hei s a e unc ions, as was he case wi h Ludwig Teleky, i s egional
indus ial doc o in P ussia, placed hei hopes in ge ing he p oblem
ecognised and deal wi h by way o insu ance.
An
endea ou was made o add ess he esponsibili y o employe s o
a leas apply inancial p essu e ia ade associa es (i.e. employe s o
pa icula ades o ganised wi hin ade associa ions) by es ablishing he
de ini ion o wo k- ela ed diseases as acciden s. Bu as long as phosphonec osis
was de ined as a disease, he e we e nei he he knowledge wi hin he ield
o
indus ial hygiene no he inancial p essu e o coe ce employe s in o
using a subs i u e.
This las poin can be illus a ed by one conc e e ins anc:e conce ning
an appeal decision made by he Sena e a he Impe ial Insu ance O ice on
.2.5.1887 (21).
A
wo ke a a ma ch ac o y sued he ade associa ion o he chemical
indus y o no mee ing he claim o compensa ion. The wo ke had
phosphonec osis and had had o unde go « he su gical emo al o he
igh hal o he lowe jaw~.
In acco dance
wi h
he medical epo , he Sena e iewed ph~osphonec osis
as he ac i ical poin o a ch onic diseasep. Acco ding o indus ial hygienis s
i was an ~es ablished ac n ha «no al1 wo ke s who a e exposed o
phospho ous apou s o an equal deg een con ac ed phosphonec osis;
u he , «i one qui s one's wo k in ime he sy np oms o ch onic phospho ous
poisoning which a e al eady p esen disappea and nec osis does no
occu n. Mos impo an was hei iew ha «i is no possible o de e mine
a pa icula momen when he inhala ion o phospho ous apou s cause
he ou b eak o nec osis; a he , nec osis is he esul o a long pe iod o
exposu e o he apou s». Thus he Sena e uled ha phosphonec osis, like
(20)
C .
PPENSKY,
Angelika
(1987).
Schu z de A bei m o C;e ah en
jü
Leben und Gesundhei ,
B eme ha en, Wi scha s e lag.
(21)
Am liche Nach ich en des Reichs e sichemngsam es
(AN) 1888,
p.
147.
The Case o Occupa ional Diseases
147
me cu ial o lead poisoning, was an «indus ial diseasen and, in con as o
condi ions such as « he des uc ion o he lung issue o a wo ke due o
he inhala ion o escaping chlo ic gases, o blood poisoning as a esul o
phospho us en e ing a wounds, could no be ega ded as an acciden . The
appeal o he wo ke , who had been unable o wo k o a long pe iod and
was now de o med, was decla ed ano legallj ounded~. The employe and
his ade associa es we e clea ed.
Ne e heless, in 1891, p omp ed by an inc ease in simila cases and by
public p essu e, pa icula ly unde he in luence o Social Democ a s, he
Impe ial Insu ance O ice unde Bodicke compiled a numbe o ema ks
made by he Sup eme Cou and asked: «Can so-called indus ial diseases
be classed as indus ial acciden s as de ined in he Acciden Insu ance Ac
o 6 h July 1884?». This b ings o ligh he in insic sociopoli ical elemen
o acciden insu ance: he ede ini ion o social p oblems
as
p i a e mis o unes
ela ed o waged employmen .
On 6.7.1888 he Thi d Ci il Sena e o he Impe ial Insu ance Cou
uled ha he e m «acciden » be de ined in
a
na ow sense as a « empo ally
de e minable occu encen. They a gued h he occupa ional disease in
ques ion, howe e ,
ecould no be a ibu ed o he g adual conse o he e ec s o a pa icula
occu ence, bu was an in oxica ion which had de eloped o e a numbe
o yea s as a esul o cons an ly handling whi e lead, i.e. i was a ch onic
disease caused by con inua1 exposu e ( o whi e lead). This is di ec ly
connec ed wi h he occupa ion o he Plain i and mus be ega ded as
an occupa ional disease, he na u e o which is unal e able e en i , as he
Plain i asse s, he De endan ailed o mee he egula ions and make
he necessa y p o isions o a e he dange . Diseases a ising g adually
ou o he e ec s o indus ial p oduc ion a e howe e no acciden s, bu
he common and o eseeable d awbacks o an inhe en ly unheal hy indus y
which mus be aken in o accoun by e e yone pa icipa ing in ha
indus y. The Acciden Insu ance Ac does no p o ide o insu ance
agains such diseases o in alidi y esul ing om hem. (22).
Wi h ha , occupa ional diseases e11 h ough al1 he meshes o he
social secu i y ne . No only did acciden insu ance p o ide no p o ec ion,
bu nei he did liabili y acco ding o Ci il Code, which sough o combine
(22) En scheidungen des Reichsge ich s in Ci ilsachen,
BEI.
21,
1889,
pp.
77
;
AN,
1891,
p.
254.