INVESTIGACION
EXPERIENCIAS
DIDACTICAS
STUDENTS' LEARNING DIFFICULTIES IN SCIENCE.
CAUSES AND POSSIBLE REMEDIES
KEMPA,
R.
F.
Uni e si y o Keele, S a o dshi e, UK.
SUMMARY
In his pape , a b oad analysis is p esen ed o he main ypes o lea ning di icul ies encoun e ed by s uden s in science
educa ion and causes unde lying hem.
Teache s and educa ionis s make equen use o he
e ms 'lea ning p oblems' and 'lea ning di icul ies',
bu no gene ally accep ed de ini ion exis s o hei p e-
cise meaning. Ye , i seems o me ha wi hou some
cla i ica ion o hese e ms i is ha dly possible o begin
o iden i y such di icul ies, le alone alk meaning ully
abou hei na u e and abou how hey can be o e come
o emedied.
I is possible, o cou se, o apply he e m 'lea ning
di icul y' o any si ua ion whe e a s uden ails o
unde s and a ela i ely easy concep o no ion ha we
wish him o he o acqui e as he esul o some ins uc-
ional in e en ion. Such desc ip ion o 'lea ning di i-
cul y' is o li le p ac ica1 alue, hough: i is oo gene al
and all-emb acing and, in addi ion, does no e en hin a
he possible causes o such di icul ies. Le me, he e-
ENSEÑANZA DE
LAS
CIENCIAS,
1991,9 (2), 119-128 119
o e, p opose a somewha na owe de ini ion:
"A leaming di icul y nay be said o exis in any si ua-
ion whe e a s uden ails o g asp a concep o idea as he
esul o one o mo e o he ollowing ac o s:
i. The na u e o he ideas/knowledge sys em al eady
possessed by he s uden , o he inadequacy o such
knowledge in ela ion o he concep o be acqui ed.
ii. The demand and complexi y o a lea ning ask in
e ms o in o ma ion p ocessing, compa ed wi h he
s uden 's in o ma ion-handling capaci y.
iii. Communica ion p oblems a ising om language use,
e.g., in ela ion o echnical e ms o o gene al e ms
wi h con ex -speci ic specialized meanings, o he com-
plexi y o sen ence s uc u e and syn ax used by he
eache (compa ed wi h he s uden 's own language
capaci y).
i .
A
misma ch be ween ins uc ional app oaches used
by he eache and he s uden 's p e e ed lea ning mode
(lea ning s yle)."
No claim is made o his de ini ion o be comp ehen-
si e, and he e nay well be o he poin s ha could and
should be added o i . Wha he de ini ion does a emp ,
howe e , is o d aw a en ion o a ange o
causes
o lea ning
di icul ies which can possibly be emedied h ough
app op ia e pedagogical in e en ions o cu icula s a-
egies.
I ough o be acknowledged a his s age ha a s uden 's
ailu e o lea n wha we wish him o he o lea n, canno
always be a ibu ed o 'lea ning di icul ies' in he sense
o he abo e de ini ion. O he easons nay also p e ail
and be esponsible o s uden s' ailu e o lea n, e.g.,
lack o in e es , an inadequacy o e o o a lack o
a en ion. P ac ising eache s a e well awa e o he
impo an e
o hese ac o s-indeed, hey equen ly in oke
hem in o de o 'explain' lack o pe o mance and
low achie emen on hei s uden s' pa . Despi e hei
ob ious impac on s uden s' lea ning, 1 iew hese ac-
o s as ela ing o wha Gagné (1965) has desc ibed as
"p econdi ions o lea ning", a he han o he leaming
p ocess i sel . Fo his eason, 1 ha e excluded hem
om my lis o causes o leaming di icul ies.
The di ision o s uden s' lea ning di icul ies and hei
unde lying causes in o he abo e ou a eas is, o some
ex en , a ma e o con enience and expediency. I
e lec s he ac ha hese ca ego ies co espond o ai ly
well-es ablished a eas o esea ch. This is no o say ha
he a eas should be iewed as ela i ely independen o
one ano he . On he con a y, he e a e de ini e links
be ween hem.
Bo h he i s and he second a ea indica ed abo e nay
be said o ela e o he lea ne s' knowledge and memo y
s uc u e, bu each does so in a di e en way. Whe eas
he i s is conce ned wi h he na u e o he knowledge
held by lea ne s in wha , in e ms o an in o ma ion-
p ocessing model, is gene ally e e ed o as hei 'long-
e m memo y' (LTM), he second a ea ocuses on s u-
den s' 'sho - e m memo y' (STM), some imes also e-
e ed o as 'wo king memo y'.
When conside ing inadequacies in wo king memo y as
a sou ce o lea ning di icul ies, he ocus is no on he
s uc u e o ideas held by s uden s in hei memo y, bu
on he capaci y o s uden s o hold and manipula e
di e en pieces o in o ma ion simul aneously. Con-
side able expe imen al e idence exis s now e sugges
ha people di e wi h espec o he numbe o i ems o
in o ma ion on which hey can ope a e in asks equi ing
he ans o ma ion o in o ma ion (lea ning asks in a-
iably equi e his). The e o e, any 'misma ch' be ween
he complexi y o a lea ning ask (when seen in e ms o
he numbe o in o ma ion i ems o be handled) and a
s uden 's in o ma ion-handling capaci y mus be seen as
a po en ial sou ce o lea ning di icul ies.
The hi d a ea sugges ed abo e co e s a ange o issues
ha nay be summa ized unde he label 'language and
communica ion'('). This is a widely esea ched a ea,
pa icula ly in ela ion o he explo a ion o s uden s'
unde s anding o echnical and non- echnical wo ds in
science. P ominen among hese s udies in he English-
speaking con ex a e hose by Ga dne (1972) in Aus a-
lia and by Cassels and Johns one (1977) in B i ain. In he
Spanish con ex , he wo k o Llopis and colleagues a
Valencia is no ewo hy.
The pa icula aspec s o 'language and communica ion'
which cause o nay con ibu e o lea ning di icul ies in
science, a e oo nume ous o be lis ed he e. Le me
me ely indica e ha hey ex end beyond s uden s'
unde s anding o he meaning o wo ds. Fac o s such as
he complexi y o eache s' speech and/o ex ual ma e-
ials o use by s uden s a e p obably no less impo an
in his con ex , especially when one ecognizes ha
'complexi y
'
is a mul i- ace ed concep . O he language-
ela ed aspec s o conside able in e es in science edu-
ca ion include he use o me apho s and he e ms and
analogies used in he desc ip ion o abs ac no ions and
concep s.
The ou h and inal a ea emb aced by he abo e de ini-
ion o lea ning di icul ies conce ns he ela ionship
be ween
eaching s yle
(as exempli ied by he ins uc-
ional app oach adop ed by a eache o ecommended
o he implemen a ion o a cu iculum) and
lea ning s yle
(which nay be hough o as ep esen ing a s uden 's
'na u al' o p e e ed mode o a ending o a lea ning
ask). F equen e e ence has been made in he li e a u e
o he desi abili y o ma ching eaching s yles o s u-
den s' leaming. Resea ch e idence in suppo o his
no ion is, howe e , a he scan .
Compa ed wi h he i s h ee a eas p oposed abo e, he
ou h is a he less well de ined concep ually and mus ,
hence, be mo e specula i e in e ms o i s p ac ica1
explo a ion. No ions such as eaching s yle and lea ning
s yle a e exceedingly complex. Excep o some ela-
i ely coa se a emp s, we s ill lack a good ope a ional
iden i ica ion and cha ac e iza ion o eaching s yles.
(Eggles on and co-wo ke s, in 1976, a i ed a h ee
b oad ' ypes' o science eache , each cha ac e ized by
i s own eaching s yle.)
The ask o concep ualizing and iden i ying genuine
lea ning s yles is no less di icul . Ho s ein and Kempa
(1985), ollowing a sugges ion by Ada (1969), made a
limi ed a emp in his di ec ion in ela ion o science
lea ning. This was based on he p emise ha s uden s'
lea ning s yles a e e lec ed in hei p e e ences o , s
dislike o , pa icula ins uc ional p ocedu es. Recen ly,
Kempa and Ma in (1989) ha e explo ed his a ea
empi ically. (See also Kempa and Ma ín Díaz 1990
a, b.)
The ou a eas sugges ed he e di e conside ably in
e ms o he amoun o a en ion ha has been gi en o
hem by science educa ion esea che s. The i s a ea, in
pa icula , has been he subjec o conside ably mo e
esea ch han any o he o he a eas. Hence, ou insigh
-as science educa o s and eache s-in o he ela ionship
be ween s uden s' lea ning (and p oblem-sol ing) di i-
cul ies and hei long- e m memo y is now ai ly weBl
de eloped.
In ela ion o he o he a eas, ou knowledge base is
somewha weake . (This is especially ue o he ou h
a ea men ioned, which conce ns he ma ching o each-
ing app oaches and lea ning s yles.) This means ha he
ex en o which esea ch indings in hese a eas a e
ansla able in o guidelines and sugges ions o cu icu-
la ac ions is limi ed. E en i such guidelines
a e
de eloped, hey may ha e o be iewed wi h some
cau ion, as a as hei alidi y and gene alizabili y a c
conce ned. Howe e , his does no make hese a eas
less impo an han he i s one. Wha i does mean is
ha in u u e inc eased a en ion needs o be gi en by
science eache s and esea che s o hese a eas also.
EXPLORING THE IMPLICATIONS OF RE-
SEARCH INTO LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
-THE ROLE OF MODELS OF LEARNINGl
TEACHING
The majo idea unde lying he whole a ea o lea ning
di icul ies, a leas in ela ion o he causal ca ego ies
discussed in he p eceding sec ion, is ha o 'misma ch'.
By his 1 mean ha lea ning di icul ies do no exis
iiz
acuo,
bu appea only in si ua ions whe e eaching
in en isns and in e en ions a e no adequa ely ma ched
o he lea ne 's in ellec ual capabili ies o cogni i e
unc ioning. The ac ual na u e o he misma ch can, o
cou se, a y conside ably (as has al eady been explained
in he p e ious sec ion), bu gene ally misma ch is a -
ibu able o some 'de iciency
'
in he lea ne 's knowledge
s uc u e o hislhe e bal epe oi e, e c.
F om a heo e ical pe spec i e, any a emp o emedy o
educe a lea ning di icul y mus add ess i sel o he
nega ion o he unde lying misma ch o de iciency, by
means o app op ia e in e en ions. In
p incipie,
such
in e en ions can ake wo o ms, iz.,
-
he p o ision o supplemen a y ins uc ion designed o
ill knowledge gaps andlo widen he meanings ha ,
s uden s associa e wi h pa icula no ions and concep s;
-
he modi ica ion o ins uc ional app oaches ei he o
a oid o by-pass he pa icula causes o a lea ning
di icul y, o o p o ide he lea ne wi h expe iences ha
enable him/he o esol e he di icul y.
I is p obably no un easonable o assume ha a eache
o cu iculum de elope , in adop ing a pa icula mode
o in e en ion, does so in he expec a ion ha i is
'app op ia e' o a pe cei ed lea ning di icul y, i.e., ha
i will emo e o esol e he la e . The only excep ion
he e would occu i an amelio a ion s a egy we e chos-
en en i ely on a ial-and-e o basis. Igno ing his
excep ion, we may claim ha in e en ions chosen by
eache s o o e come pa icula lea ning di icul ies
e lec hei assump ions no only abou he causes o he
di icul ies, bu also abou he me hods sui able o
esol ing hem. Such assump ions a e essen ially he
esul o 'model cons uc s' o leaming and eaching,
i espec i e o whe he hese a e held on an indi idual
basis o whe he hey enjoy consensus s a us.
I ollows om he o egoing ha he concep ion o
lea ning and eaching held by a eache o a eu iculum
de elope is likely o be a majo de e minan o he
s a egy chosen by him/he o he nega ion o educ ion
o lea ning di icul ies. Fo his eason, some conside a-
ion has o be gi en o he ole o models o eachingl
lea ning in de eloping s a egies o emedying lea ning
di icul ies.
Fo a lea ning heo y o be po en ially use ul as a basis
o he choice o pedagogical in e en ions o o e com-
ing leaming di icul ies, i has o ul il wo essen ial
equi emen s:
i. I mus inco po a e cha ac e is ics ha ela e o add ess
hemsel es o he causes o lea ning di icul ies, and
ii. i mus in oke o pos ula e some mechanism whe e-
by knowledge change, e c., is b ough abou .
In ela ion o he i s o hese poin s, he obse a ion has
o be made ha no single lea ning heo y ha is cu en ly
a ailable, is capable o accoun ing adequa ely o he
whole spec um o causes o lea ning di icul ies. The e o e,
se e a1 lea ning heo ies ha e o be called upon i we a e
o deal wi h di e en ypes o lea ning di icul y. This
is no a se ious d awback, p o ided ha he di e en
heo ies complemen , a he han con adic , one an-
o he .
The second equi emen speci ied abo e should be la gely
sel -explana o y. I is based on he ecogni ion ha non-
mechanis ic lea ning heo ies a e usually 'desc ip i e'
in na u e and so ha e li le alue as ounda ions o
making decisions abou he choice o pedagogical in e -
en ions and s a egies (c . Kempa 1983).
Mos o he heo e ical posi ions ha unde lie, o a e
implici in, esea ches in o s uden s' lea ning di icul-
ies andlo a emp s o emedy hem may be associa ed
wi h wo majo pe spec i es. These a e he
cons uc i is
pe spec i e o lea ning and he
in o ma ion-p ocessing
BNSEÑANZA
DE
LAS CIENCIAS, 1991,9
(2)
INVESTIGACION Y EXPERIENCIAS DIDACTICAS
pe spec i e, espec i ely. Following Osbo ne (1985),
he dis inc ion be ween hese pe spec i es is bes exp e-
ssed in e ms o hei espec i e conce ns:
"A cen al ea u e o he cons uc i is adi ion con-
ce ns knowledge: he concep s, meanings, unde s-
andings...and in ellec ual skills s o ed by an indi idual
in memo y"... [whe eas] " he in o ma ion-p ocessing
adi ion is mo e conce ned wi h he p oblem-sol ing
capaci y o he human mind and wi h he hinking p o-
cesses ha occu when p oblems a e ackled."
This dis inc ion is use ul in ha i poin s o he cons uc i is
pe spec i e as he model app op ia e o he conside a ion
o lea ning di icul ies which a ise om inadequacies in
he lea ne 's knowledge s uc u e, i.e., his/he long- e m
memo y. In con as , he in o ma ion-p ocessing pe spec i e
has ob ious ele ance o lea ning p oblems which s em
om di icul ies in in o ma ion-handling and
ans o ma ion, which ela e o he lea ne 's wo king
memo y.
The language a ea (which o ms
,
he hi d o he ou
a eas iden i ied in ou de ini ion) can also be linked o
he cons uc i is model, p o ided ha language is e-
ga ded as a means o lea ning, a he han jus as a
communica ion sys em. The o me iewpoin has ound
inc easing accep ance in ecen yea s. To quo e Solo-
mon (1987):
"The cons uc ion o meaning h ough language... does
mo e han ex end and e ine he ocabula y–i builds up
he e y pic u e o eali y jus as powe ully as does he
sum o senso y pe cep ions and expe iences."
Summa izing he discussion in his sec ion so a , we
may claim ha he cons uc i is heo y o lea ning and
he in o ma ion-p ocessing model, be ween hem, o m
a easonable heo e ical basis o he in e p e a ion o he
i s h ee a eas o lea ning di icul ies iden i ied in he
p eceding sec ion. Mo eo e , i is possible o de i e
om hese heo e ical models a se ies o pedagogical
p inciples o a oiding and/o emedying lea ning di i-
cul ies.
As has al eady been s a ed, in ela ion o he ou h a ea
o lea ning di icul ies (i.e., ha conce ned wi h he
misma ch be ween lea ning s yles and ins uc ional s yles)
ou heo e ical unde s anding is less well de eloped. So
is, in consequence, ou abili y o a icula e pedagogical
s a egies whe eby his ype o misma ch can be a oided
o educed. The eason o his si ua ion lies la gely in
he complexi y o he lea ning/ eaching p ocess. Al-
hough nume ous esea ches ha e explo ed speci ic as-
pec s o lea ning/ eaching in e ac ions, in o ma ion de-
i ed om hem is s ill oo agmen ed o allow us o
make holis ic p onouncemen s abou he ins uc ional
p ocess.
Ne e heless, some heo e ical posi ions can be a i ed
a which, al hough a om comp ehensi e, may be used
as a s a o a close ma ching o eaching and lea ning
s yles. Kempa and Ma in's (1989, 1990a, 1990b) s udy
o he ela ionship be ween s uden s' mo i a ional pa -
e ns (which mani es hemsel es in p e e ences o
di e en lea ning modes) and ins uc ional s a egies in
science educa ion, o ms an example o his.
SOME EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS
In he discussion so a , he emphasis has been on he
cla i ica ion o he concep o 'lea ning di icul ies in
science' and on he es ablishmen o some heo e ical
amewo k wi hin which such lea ning di icul ies can
be unde s ood, in e p e ed and possibly emedied. My
in en ion now is o illus a e some o he aspec s men ioned
abo e by e e ence o some ac ual examples and esea -
ch indings. Ha ing so s ongly ocused on he ole o
long- e m memo y and wo king memo y as key ac o s
in causing lea ning di icul ies, I p opose o pay pa icula
a en ion o hese wo aspec s, o he exclusion o he
o he s.
I may be help ul a his junc u e o e lec b ie ly on he
espec i e unc ions o he wo memo ies in lea ning
and/o p oblem-sol ing. Figu e 1 helps o illus a e hese
in a schema ic o m. We may hink o he long- e m
memo y as a as knowledge s o e om which in o ma ion
is d awn and o which in o ma ion is added om ime o
ime. The wo king memo y in his ep esen a ion may
be likened o he cen al p ocessing uni o a compu e
sys em: i is he e whe e he in o ma ion de i ed om he
long- e m memo y and om ou side is b ough oge he
in men al ope a ions and ans o ma ions. The esul s o
hese p ocesses mus ine i ably e lec (i) he na u e o
he in o ma ion held in he lea ne 's long- e m memo y
and (ii) he capaci y o his/he wo king memo y –which
ob iously links o he poin s p e iously made.
Figu e 1
Schema ic ep esen a ion o in o ma ion-p ocessing model.
INFORMATION
INPUT
FROM OUTSIDE
--->
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
STORE
SHORT-TERM
(WORKING)
MEMORY
RESPONSE TO
LEARNING TASK
OR PROBLEMS
1. Long- e m memo y s uc u e and science lea ning
The li e a u e abounds wi h epo s on he iews and
ideas on scien i ic phenomena, held by pupils and s u-
den s be o e and a e ins uc ion. The las ew yea s in
pa icula ha e seen a p oli e a ion o s udies in his
a ea. As a esul , we ha e now a ailable a good deal o
in o ma ion abou many o he ideas and misconcep ions
held by pupils and s uden s abou scien i ic phenomena
and e en s [see, e.g., D i e and E ickson (1983) and
Gilbe and Wa s (1983)].
122

ENSE&ANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1991, 9 (2)
Le me gi e he e jus one example o indings abou
s uden s' unde s anding o scien i ic phenomena, in
a de
o explo e he ela ionship be ween long- e m memo y
s uc u e and science lea ning. The example is aken
om he Child en's Lea ning in Science p ojec (CLIS
1987),
ecen ly conduc ed in England. The p ojec se
ou o iden i y in a sys ema ic way he ideas held by
seconda y school s uden s abou a ange o scien i ic
hemes and o explo e ways o emedying any
misconcep ions.
One o he hemes in es iga ed conce ned he ela ion-
ship be ween he beha iou o gases and hei pa icle
na u e. S uden s' unde s anding o his was examined
by ques ions such as his:
"A e many expe imen s, scien is s now hink ha
-
al1 hings a e made o small pa icles
-
hese pa icles mo e in al1 di ec ions
-
empe a u e a ec s he speed hey mo e
-
hey exe o ces on each o he .
Use any o hese ideas o explain he ollowing:
A
oo ball is pumped ha d du ing he day when i is wa i.
In he e ening when he empe a u e alls, he oo ball
does no eel so ha d."
To illus a e he ange o no ions held by s uden s abou
his phenomenon, le me gi e a ew o he ac ual answe s
ecei ed.
Answe
a:
,
"When i is wa m, he ai pa icles in he oo ball a e
mo ing a ound as and a e sp ead ou . Howe e , when
he oo ball becomes coole , he ai pa icles slow down
and come nea e o each o he , Le., he ai con ac s.
The e o e he e is less p essu e on he ball
..."
Answe
b:
"When he wea he is wa m, he pa icles inside he ball
ha e expanded so ha he ball will hold no mo e ai
...
In
he e ening when he wea he is no so ho , he pa icles
sh ink so hey no longe ill he space in he ball
..."
Answe
c:
"When i is wa m, he pa icles in he ai (inside he bal'l)
a e mo ing al1 o e and so make i ha d ... Bu in he
e ening, when he empe a u e d ops, he pa icles s op
mo ing abou
..."
These s uden 's answe s, which a e ypical o a wide
ange o answe s ecei ed, e eal ce ain no ewo hy
cha ac e is ics. Answe
a
is clea ly accep able in he
scien i ic sense. I b ings ou he link be ween empe a u e
and he speed a which he pa icles in he ai mo e,
which is he essen ial ea u e o a co ec in e p e a ion
o he phenomenon.
Answe s
b
and
c,
in con as o answe
a,
exp ess dis inc
misconcep ions. The i s o hese, appea ing in b, is h;i
he pa icles hemsel es unde go a change in size as he
empe a u e o he ai changes (' he pa icles expand',
' he pa icles sh ink'). The second, shown in
c,
s ipu-
la es ha he pa icles a e no necessa ily in con inuous
mo ion ( hey 's op' on cooling).
Misconcep ions like he o egoing (and he e a e many
o he s in e idence in o he a eas o science) a e eadily
a ibu able o 'inadequacies' in s uden s' long- e m
memo y s uc u e, as al eady hin ed a ea lie , In he
case o he i s misconcep ion, be s uden e iden ly
made an inco ec connec ion be ween he mac oscopic
p ope ies o a bulk o ma e and he mic oscopic
pa icles o which ma e is composed. (Ano he exam-
ple o his, equen ly encoun e ed in science eaching, is
s uden s' assump ion ha he a oms o a me al such as
coppe o gold, ha e he same colou as he me al i sel .)
The second misconcep ion likewise can be in e p e ed
in
e ms o inapp op ia e links be ween knowledge i ems in
he lea ne 's memo y s uc u e. The wo knowledge
i ems in ol ed he e a e ha
a. he educ ion in empe a u e causes a slowdown o
he pa icles, and
b. a slowdown in he speed o an objec esul s ul ima e-
ly in he loss o any mo emen .
The la e is, o cou se, a common e e yday expe ience
associa ed wi h, o example, he b aking ac ion o a ca .
The kinds o link be ween knowledge elemen s in a
s uden 's memo y s uc u e ha we a e s ipula ing he e,
mus , in he i s ins ance, be ega ded as hypo he ical
cons uc s. The ques ions a ise whe he such memo y
s uc u es may ac ually be un olded and, i so, whe he
hey gi e any clues abou s uden s' lea ning di icul ies,
Some o oii own wo k a he Uni e si y o Keele has
sough o answe hese ques ions. Using a echniqiie
called wo d-associa ion es ing, we ha e explo ed s u-
den s' knowledge s uc u es in ela ion o selec ed a eas
o chemis y and p esen ed hese in he o m o 'cogni-
i e maps'. Compa ing he cogni i e maps o s uden s o
di e en abili y in he a eas co e ed by he maps has
enabled us o shed some ligh on he in luence o s u-
den s' knowledge s uc u e on hei lea ning and p o-
blem-sol ing beha iou .
In hei simples o m, cogni i e maps show g aphically
he links and associa ions among di e en ela ed con-
cep s and no ions, as hey exis in a s uden 's mind. I is
no necessa y o he na u e o he links o be nade
explici , as long as one can easonably in e p e he
cogni i e maps. Le me illus a e his by wo e~amples
which ela e o he concep a eas 'acid' and 'elec oly-
sis', espec i ely. In each case, we con as he cogni i e
maps o s uden s who, in p oblem-sol ing asks ela ing
o he wo concep a eas, had been success ul and unsuc-
cess ul, espec i ely. The cogni i e maps ep esen a-
ions a e gi en in igu es
2
and
3.
Conside ing igu e
2
i s , i is seen ha he main di e -
ence be ween he wo cogni i e maps lies in he absence
ENSENANZA
DE
LAS CIENCIAS,
1991,9
(2)

Figu a
2
"A e age" cogni i e maps o he concep ACID, o
(a)
good
and
(b) poo p oblem-sol e s.
om ha o he 'poo ' p oblem-ssl e s o a se o
concep s/no ions which may be said o be 'abs ac ' in
na u e. In al1 o he de ails, he maps appea iden ical.
Wha we may conclude om hese maps, is ha s uden s
who, in ela ion o ma e s conce ning 'acids', u n ou o
be poo p oblem-sol e s, lack pa icula knowledge elemen s
ha a e usually ega ded as impo an : in his case, he
'absen ' concep s a e he p o on, o hyd ogen ion (Kempa
and Nicholls 1983).
Figu e
3
which is based on expe imen al wo k by Slim-
ming (1984), is signi ican ly mo e complex in ha i
deals wi h a b oade subjec a ea (elec olysis). Compa ing
he wo ep esen a ions, i is no ed ha he knowledge
elemen s ound in he wo maps a e app oxima ely he
same. Nowe e , he ep esen a ions di e subs an ially
in he na u e and ex en o he links be ween concep s
and knowledge elemen s. Figu e 3(a) shows links and
associa ions which, o he expe ienced science/chemis y
eache , appea logical and jus i iable. Figu e 3(b), in
con as , con ains ewe connec ions ( he cogni i e map
is mo e agmen ed) and qui e a ew o hese a e illogical,
om a scien i ic poin o iew.
We should, o cou se, no be su p ised o ind ha he
cogni i e s uc u es, as hey exis in s uden s' long- e m
memo ies, ha e conside able in luence on he way in
which s uden s can g asp o make sense o new in o ma ion
and ideas. Thus, a di ec connec ion eme ges be ween
cogni i e s uc u e (long- e m memo y s uc u e) and
lea ning di icul ies.
Ou own indings and hose o o he esea che s lead o
he conelusion ha long- e m memo y ela ed lea ning
di icul iea a e usually a ibu able o one o mo e o he
ollowing ac o s:
-
The absenee o knowledge elemen s om a s uden 's
memo y s uc u e.
Figu a
3
Cogni i e maps o he concep Ele olysis. The op nap applies s
a
good p oblem-sol e , whils he bo om map is ha o
a
poo
p oblem- ol e .
-
The exis ence, in he s uden 's memo y s uc u e, o
w ong o inapp op ia e links and ela ionships be ween
knowledge elemen s.
-
The absence o essen ial links be ween knowledge
elemen s in he s uden " memo y s uc u e.
-
The p esence o alse o i ele an knowledge ele-
men s in he s uden 's memo y s uc u e.
Each o hese 'de iciencies' is illus a ed by he cogni-
i e maps p esen ed he e. These maps deal wi h ela i e-
ly small a eas o subjec ma e . Fo mo e complex
ields, mo e ex ensi e maps could p obably be cons ue-
ed, bu hei inc easing complexi y would make hem
mo e di icul o p esen g aphically and o in e p e .
1 ha e no so a e e ed o lea ning p oblems ha a ise
om pupils and s uden s holding scien i ic no ions ha
a e in con lic wi h hose accep ed by scien is s. These
a e o en e e ed o in he li e a u e as
al e na i e ia ne-
wo ks, child en's science
o
commonsense science,
e c.
Essen ially, hese a e co e ed by he p esen discussion
also: al e na i e amewo ks may be iewed as he esul
o s uden s holding knowledge s uc u es, ha a e di e en
om hose o he scien is .
The ypes o de iciency in (long- e m) memo y s uc u e
p o ide a leas a pa ial explana ion o he lea ning
di icul ies ha we equen ly de ec ou s uden s o
ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS,
1991,9
(2)
ha e. The ecogni ion and diagnosis o hese de i-
ciencies also p o ides a na u al s a ing poin o he
design o eaching s a egies by means o which s uden s'
lea ning di icul ies can be educed o o e come.
One such eaching s a egy is ha de eloped and used by
he 'Child en's Lea ning in Science p ojec ' (CLIS)
men ioned ea lie (Needham and Hill 1987). I is based
on he cons uc i is model o lea ning and inco po a es
ea u es p e iously sugges ed by au ho s such as Nuss-
baum and No ick (1982) and No ak and Gowin (1985).
Table
1
ou lines he main cha ac e is ics o his eachiig
app oach.
As
can be seen, g ea emphasis is placed on
i. he p o ision o oppo uni y o pupils o beco ne
awa e o he ideas which hey hold p io o being augh
(Elici a ion o Ideas);
ii. he modi ica ion, ex ension o eplacemen o such
ideas, i ound inadequa e, by new ones (Res uc u ing
o Ideas).
The eaching sequence implici in able 1 has been aiily
success ully applied by he CLIS eam in se e a1 a eas o
science eaching.
Table
1
Teaching sequence p oposed and used
by
he
CLIS
p ojec (c .
Needham and Hill
1987).
2.
Wo king memo y capaci y and lea ning
di icul ies
PIUSO
L
ORIEMA~ON
R
EllC AnON
3F
IDP.
11L
RESTRUC7 jRMO
OF
IDUS
1
Clanñalhn
id
nclung
2
F-u e
u>
mn l ú
iiwilo<ii
3
Couin nwn o1
ne
idu
4.
Enlulilon
IV
APPLlCATiON
OF
IDEAS
V
REVIEW
In he in oduc o y sec ion o his pape , a en ion was
d awn o he cen al ole played in lea ning p ocesses by
he sho - e m o wo king memo y (c . igu e 1). We
may in e p e 'wo king memo y' as ha pa o a pe son's
in ellec ual unc ioning in which in o ma ion om ex-
e na1 e en s and om one's long- e m memo y is b ough
oge he and p ocessed.
I is well es ablished h oughpsychological esea ch ha
he capaci y o ou wo king memo y is a he limi ed.
Fo example, acco ding o Mille 's s udies in he 1950s
(Mille 1956), mos people can hold only abou 7IT2
in o ma ion uni s in hei sho - e m (wo king) memo y.
B oadben (1975) e en sugges s ha Mille 's igu e is
oo high; bu mo e impo an in he p esen con ex han
a deba e o whe he he a e age igu e is 7 o less a e he
ollowing indings om educa ional esea ch:
PL
RHISL
&o-
m c ai
aod
u<
<h
Y~DL
To
embk
pupO
iad
d
10
bcmn
m e
o p b
W
To
c aie
an an eac o
llemlhc
inpou
-
lk
wunilllc
aoe
-
<o.
2 Za
c
eplu m h
i
mo e
wnuñc
nn
Recugik
alie nalm
la
lad
c l i lg enmine
ap
To nlidli)i o cn lq
i4c
ModiIy.
mend
o
cph
miing
idea
Tal ~ilidi y o1 nmiy
mmw cd
id-
Reinlo cmcn o1 mm<n íd
!den
10
hmilu
1d
aud
I ul IO~
Wne > O chanp O1
idc
and hmilimn iiion nlb lumia'
pmce lo
llai
ibc pupa o
e lm
"pon ibc mcnl
10
W
ihcu
id-
h-
chang&
-
The wo king memo y capaci y is di e en om pe son
o pe son.
W XHODS
P c ilmi>c* -1
pmbkm
10
sol c.
wha
Jcmominibm.
ñim
Almi*
i@
nmppn
culllnm
Ruilal
m wii i
a
SMU
pup dluiuswn, Collo ed
b>.
cponlng
bu
Small
pup
du~u sion and
epon ng
bac
Tuche dc non i a ion. p pil
e pcnmenu.
wckshau
DL-ioa udnnb luche?
inpu
Pn iid
w ,
p ola
w .
expcnmenlaiion. eache
~~~ONI~IIO&
Panoiul amllnb p aaial
anhi)i.
p oblem uilwag. pmw
w k
kMNl
wniinb @Oup
d-10%
pmnal dime.
oieuiing
w k
po en eic
-
Fo a pa icula pe son, he wo king memo y capaci y
appea s ai ly cons an .
-
The numbe o in o ma ion uni s wi h which a pe son
can wo k simul aneously, ends o a11 wi hin he ange
X=4 oX=7.
These indings a e la gely due o he Canadian psycho-
logis Pascual-Leone (1972).
The immedia e consequence o he o egoing poin s
mus be ha , i a lea ning ask makes excessi e demands
on a s uden 's wo king memo y, lea ning di icul ies
will ensue. We may pos ula e he ollowing:
I he numbe o in o ma ion uni s equi ed o a lea ning
(o p oblem-sol ing) ask is in excess o he lea ne 's
wo king memo y capaci y, he ask canno be sol ed.
Johns one and co-wo ke s, in a se ies o ecen in es i-
ga ions, ha e p o ided conside able e idence in suppo
o his pos ula e. In one o hei in es iga ions (Johns-
one and El-Banna 1986), hey a emp ed o es ablish a
ela ion be ween
i. he wo king memo y capaci y o s uden s,
ii. he heo e ical complexi y o a ange o chemical
p oblems, measu ed in e ms o he in o ma ion uni s
equi ed o hei solu ion, and
iii. he p opo ion o s uden s who we e success ul in
sol ing hese p oblems.
The esul o he s udy which was ca ied ou on 471
uppe seconda y and uni e si y s uden s, a e summa -
ized in igu e 4. I is seen ha he success a e in he
p oblem-sol ing si ua ions s ongly dec eases as soon as
he numbe o he in o ma ion uni s in ol ed in he
p oblems exceeds he wo king memo y capaci y o he
s uden s.
ENSENANZA
DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1991,9 (2)
INVESTIGACI~N
Y
EXPERIENCIAS
DIDÁCTIC
Figu e
4
Ue (ili
oh ained h Inhn one
;ind
El-R;i i i;i
(
1986)
I
I
I
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
Numbe o hough s eps needed oi
soi ing
p oblem
*STMcap.=7; +.STMcap.=6; .STMcap.=5
Wha is ue o p oblem-sol ing asks nus , o cou se,
be equally ue o lea ning asks. Hence, i is e iden
ha lea ning di icul ies a e a ibu able no only o
de iciencies in s uden s' long- e m memo y s uc u e,
bu also o limi a ions in hei sho - e m o wo king
memo y capaci y.
Whi e (1988) gi es a simple, bu ins uc i e example o
his wi h e e ence o he s a emen "Concen a ed sul-
phu ic aeid is a powe ul dehyd a ing agen ". He sug-
ges s ha a ela i ely inexpe ienced s uden would p o-
bably pe cei e his s a emen as comp ising a la ge
numbe o in o ma ion elemen s, e.g.,
(Concen a ed) (sulphu ic) (acid) (is a) (powe ul)
(de) (hyd a ing) (agen ).
An expe ienced eache , by compa ison, may pe cei e
he same s a emen in a a less agmen ed way, e.g.,
(Concen a ed sulphu ic acid) (is a) (powe ul)
(dehyd a ing agen ).
Thus, wha o he inexpe ienced lea ne appea s as a
conglome a e o se en o eigh sepa a e in o na ion
uni s, is seen by he expe as a se o ou such uni s.
The p ocess o b inging oge he elemen s o in o ma-
ion in o g oups o pa cels is gene ally e e ed o as
'chunking'. I is h ough he p ocess o chunking ha we
educe o ou sel es he complexi y o he in o ma ion
ha eaches us. As Whi e (1988) ema ks:
"Size and he e o e numbe o chunks pe cei ed in
a
si ua ion is one o he big di e ences be ween he
knowledgeable pe son (expe , eache , adul ) and he
igno an (beginne , s uden , child). Almos pa adoxically,
an expe inhabi s a simple wo ld han a beginne
because he expe b eaks i in o a smalle numbe o
meaning ul uni s."
The las poin in Whi e's s a emen is insu icien ly
app ecia ed by us in ela ion o ou eaching and su
s uden s' lea ning. We end no o be awa e o he ac
ha ou s uden s a e incapable o di iding he in o ma ion
wi h which we con on hem in o he kinds o chunks
ha we ecognize in i . The esul is an o e load o hei
sho - e m (wo king) memo y and a consequen ial ail-
u e o leam he ull message.
This si ua ion does no simply apply o e bal in o ma-
ion, bu is equally possible in he case o g aphical o
diag amma ic in o ma ion. Whi e (1988) has ecen ly
illus a ed his ap ly in his book en i led
Lea ning
Science.
The key o helping s uden s o e come lea ning di i-
cul ies a ising om he limi a ions in hei wo king
memo y lies in helping hem o see in o ma ion in la ge
and, hence, ewe uni s (o 'chunks'). 1 wan o p opose
h ee main me hods o achie ing his:
a. Ca e ul and pu pose ul s uc u ing o in o ma ion
gi en o s uden s, including he lea ning and p oblem-
sol ing asks se , in o in o ma ion uni s ha a e clea ly
ecognizable by hem. (This may be e e ed o as a 'p e-
chunking' ope a ion.)
b. A oidance in he design o ex s, labo a o y ins uc-
ions, examina ion ques ions, e c., o supe luous, un-
necessa y in o ma ion. (Such in o ma ion con ibu es
o 'memo y-o e load' and, hence, dis ac s om he
essen ial con en o he communica ion.)
c. Delibe a e aining o s uden s in 'chunking' s a -
egies, h ough he sys ema ic analysis o in o ma ion
p esen ed o hem and ways in which i can be o ganized
and a anged. In his way, hey should lea n o pe o m
beyond he limi s o hei own sho - e m memo y
capaci y.
The e a e nume ous ways and oppo uni ies in al1 b an-
ches o science eaching whe e hese me hods can be
e ec i ely employed, o he bene i o su s uden s.
CONCLUSION
~
In his pape , a b oad analysis has been p esen ed o he
main ypes o lea ning di icul y encoun e ed by s u-
ENSEÑANZA
DE
LAS CIENCIAS,
1991,9
(2)
den s in science educa ion and he causes unde lying
hem. The gene al p emise was adop ed ha , by and
la ge, such lea ning di icul ies a e he esul o de icien-
cies o o misma ch. The de iciencies may occu in he
knowledge s uc u e held by s uden s in hei long- em
memo y, o in hei in o ma ion-handling capabill y
which is due o limi a ions in sho - e m memo y capaci y.
Misma ch may occu when eaching s a egies used by
eache s a e in con lic wi h s uden s' na u al lea ning
s yles o hei p e e ences o ce ain ins uc ional pso-
cedu es.
The de ailed discussion has cen ed on he na u e o
memo y- ela ed lea ning di icul ies. In his, e e ence
was made o he use o cogni i e mapping as a means o
un olding de iciencies and peculia i ies in s uden s'
knowledge s uc u e (long- e m memo y e ec s), as a
s a ing poin o emedying hem. Simila ly, a en ion
was d awn o limi a ion in s uden s' sho - e m memo y
capaci y as a cause o ailu e in lea ning and p oblem-
sol ing asks. Sugges ions we e also ou lined abou how
hese memo y- ela ed lea ning di icul ies can be e-
duced o a oided by app op ia e pedagogical ac ions.
I is impo an o science eache s and educa o s o
ecognize and espond o hese a ious causes o s u-
den s' lea ning di icul ies. Doing his will no only
educe hese di icul ies, bu also make ou eaching
mo e e ec i e. 1 hope ha he ideas p esen ed he e
p o ide an app op ia e s imulus in his di ec ion.
NOTE
(1) Since "language and communica ion" issues in science logically o m pa o he "long- e m memo y" a ea and, hence,
educa ion ul ima ely conce n he meaning acqui ed by s u- would come wi hin he pu iew o he in o ma ion-p ocessing
den s h ough he use o wo ds and sen ences, i can be a guzd model adop ed abo e. Howe e , he e is some me i in acco ding
ha such meanings a e dependen on s uden s' knowledge i a sepa a e posi ion, because o i s gene al impo ance.
s uc u e. On his basis, "language and communica ion" would
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LAS
CIENCIAS,
1991,9
(2)
127