1
Compa isons o N
2
O and CH
4
luxes
as a ec ed by land use sys ems and clima e
in small ca chmen s in Ko ea
Disse a ion
o a ain he academic deg ee o Doc o o Na u al Science
(D . e . na )
o he “Bay eu he G aduie enschule ü Ma hema ik und Na u wissenscha en” (BayNAT)
o he Uni e si y o Bay eu h
p esen ed by
Sina Be ge
bo n Janua y 31, 1987
in Eisenach (Ge many)
Fi s Re iewe : P o . D . Ge ha d Gebaue
Bay eu h, Sep embe 2012
2
1
Summa y
In he cou se o global and clima e change humankind has o ace ex eme wea he e en s
wi h inc eased in ensi y and equency and i has o deal wi h eeding an inc easing numbe
o people which is accompanied by sho age o esou ces such as wa e . Since hal o
humankind di ec ly depends on eshwa e and o he ecosys em se ices p o ided by
moun ainous a eas, i is essen ial o s udy such complex e ains and how na u al as well as
ag icul u al sys ems eac o clima ic and o he an h opogenic changes.
Emissions o g eenhouse gases like Ni ous oxide (N
2
O) and Me hane (CH
4
) a e o global
conce n, oo, because hey a e in ol ed in global wa ming and he ewi h: clima e change.
Majo sou ces o N
2
O a e ag icul u ally managed soils, and e y impo an sou ces o CH
4
a e ice paddies. Thus, i is o g ea impo ance o s udy in ensi ely managed ag icul u al
sys ems and he e ec s o he managemen p ac ices on g eenhouse gas emissions.
The majo ocus o his hesis is o quan i y d y c op ields’ and o es s’ N
2
O emissions as
well as ice paddies’ N
2
O and CH
4
emissions and o iden i y clima ic as well as managemen
ela ed ac o s and unde lying p ocesses which a e d i ing he N
2
O luxes in a complex
e ain.
A p olonged ea ly summe d ough in 2010 led o signi ican N
2
O consump ion in soil o h ee
di e en o es si es. The ollowing abo e-a e age monsoon ain all pe iod indeed u ned he
N
2
O consump ion in o emission bu could no u n he N
2
O balance o a o es on sandy-loam
subs a e om nega i e in o a posi i e one, which means ha o he i s ime a nega i e
N
2
O balance was obse ed o a o es soil du ing he g owing season. The N
2
O emissions o
hose o es si es we e clea ly d i en by soil mois u e and empe a u e and he e appea ed o
be an e ec o he subs a e on N
2
O emissions as well, as i is inc easingly o en obse ed
ha sandy-loam soils show signi ican N
2
O consump ion.
Plas ic mulching – a wo ldwide used me hod in ag icul u e o inc ease c op p oduc ion by
enhancing soil empe a u e, c ea ing mo e s able soil mois u e condi ions and es ic ing
a able weed g ow h – u ned ou o ha e a mi iga ing e ec on N
2
O emissions. DNDC
(Deni i ica ion and Decomposi ion) modeling esul s ma ched bes wi h he measu emen
esul s when he maximum daily soil empe a u e and hal o he daily p ecipi a ion was
assumed o occu as domina ing clima e condi ions unde nea h he impe ious polye hylene
(PE) ilm, sugges ing ha N
2
O p oduc ion unde nea h he plas ic co e was d i en by soil
mois u e and empe a u e. N
2
O emissions om a non- e ilized soy bean ield, which has
Ni ogen ixa ion as an addi ional Ni ogen sou ce, we e simila o he N
2
O emissions om a
adish ield a e applica ion o an in e media e amoun o N e ilize o 200 kg ha
-1
.
2
Compa ing N
2
O and CH
4
emissions om ice paddies unde di e en wa e managemen
p ac ices showed ha in e mi en i iga ion (II) (no con inuous looding, no wa e logging)
had he leas global wa ming po en ial (GWP) which was only 30% o he global wa ming
po en ial (GWP) o a adi ionally i iga ed (TI) paddy (con inuous looding and wa e logging).
Ano he p ac ice o 2.5 mon hs o con inuous looding, ollowed by midseason d ainage and
e looding which c ea ed mois bu non-wa e logged condi ions (FDFM) lead o 66% o he
adi ionally i iga ed paddies combined CH
4
and N
2
O emissions. These esul s sugges ha
a end owa ds less looding has a g ea po en ial o mi iga e g eenhouse gas emissions
om a sandy o sandy-loam subs a e, espec i ely. S udying he h ee paddies’ subsoil
condi ions e ealed ha N
2
O p oduc ion and consump ion p ocesses had mainly aken place
be ween 25 and 50 cm soil dep h judging by N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues along
he soil p o iles o all he in es iga ed paddies as well as gene abundances o deni i ying and
ni i ying bac e ia o he FDFM paddy.
Apa om hese impo an indings on N
2
O lux dynamics o h ee di e en land use
sys ems, i is no iceable ha he N
2
O emissions o he s udy egion a e in gene al e y low
which is e y pleasing and implies ha he a ea deals wi h global change challenges and
associa ed in ensi e ag icul u e in a way ha compa a i ely only small amoun s o N
2
O
degas. Bu his aises he ques ion a e he “why?” conside ing ha la ge amoun s o
e ilize a e applied on he ields. This hesis does no ha e a inal answe o ha ques ion
bu i discusses whe he he sandy subs a e may play a majo ole o he N dynamics o he
whole a ea. The e is e idence ha NO
3-
- as he subs a e o deni i ica ion - leaches easily
due o he soil condi ions. To inally igu e ou why he N
2
O emissions a e ha low a mo e
de ailed in es iga ion on he a e o NO
3-
would be desi able.
3
Zusammen assung
Im Zuge on Globalem Wandel und Klimawandel muss die Menschhei sich mi imme
häu ige und he ige we denden ex emen We e e eignissen auseinande se zen, sowie sie
auch e suchen muss, eine imme zahl eiche we dende Wel be ölke ung zu e näh en bei
zunehmende Ve knappung on Ressou cen. Da die Häl e de Menschhei angewiesen is
Ökosys emdiens leis ungen aus den be gigen Gebie e de E de, is es essen iell, solche
komplexen Landscha en zu s udie en und zu e s ehen, wie na ü liche sowie auch
landwi scha liche Ökosys eme sich au Klimaände ungen und e ände e an h opogene
Ein lüsse eins ellen.
Emissionen on T eibhausgasen wie Lachgas (N
2
O) und Me han (CH
4
) sind in ol ie in die
Klimae wä mung und den dami einhe gehenden Klimawandel, was sie zu wich igen
globalen Angelegenhei en mach . Wich igs e Quellen on N
2
O sind landwi scha liche
Böden, CH
4
en s amm zu g oßen An eilen aus Reis elde n. Dahe is es on g öß e
Wich igkei , solche landwi scha lichen Sys eme, im Hinblick de Managemen -P ak iken und
de en Ein luss au T eibhausgasemissionen, zu s udie en.
Das Haup augenme k diese A bei is es, N
2
O Emissionen on landwi scha lichen und
Waldböden zu quan i izie en, sowie auch N
2
O und CH
4
Emissionen on Reis elde n und
he auszu inden, welche Fak o en die Flüsse diese T eibhausgase maßgeblich s eue n.
Die e länge e F ühsomme ockenpe iode des Jah es 2010 üh e zu signi ikan e N
2
O-
Konsump ion in Böden d eie Walds ando e. Die da au olgenden übe du chschni lich
he igen Monsun egen älle e u sach en dann zwa N
2
O-Emissionen, und leich posi i e
N
2
O-Bilanzen in zwei de Wälde , jedoch wa en sie nich aus eichend um die N
2
O-Bilanz des
Waldes au sandig-lehmigem Boden in eine posi i e umzukeh en. Dies bedeu e , dass ü
einen Waldboden wäh end de Vege a ionspe iode zum e s en Mal eine nega i e N
2
O-Bilanz
beobach e wu de. Die N
2
O-Emissionen de Walds ando e wu den ges eue on
Boden euch e und Boden empe a u und – wie zunehmend in de Li e a u zu inden –
schien es einen Ein luss de Boden ex u au die N
2
O-Flüsse zu geben.
Es s ell e sich auße dem he aus, dass de Einsa z on Folie in de Landwi scha – eine
wel wei imme häu ige eingese z e Me hode zu S eige ung de E n en du ch höhe e
Boden empe a u en und s abile e Boden euch e – eine linde nde Wi kung au die N
2
O-
Emissionen de Felde ha . Modellie ungen mi dem DNDC- (Deni i ika ion und
Dekomposi ion)-Model s imm en am bes en mi den im Feld gemessenen N
2
O-Flüssen
übe ein, wenn Tageshöchs empe a u en und die Häl e des Tagesniede schlages als
dominie ende Klima ak o en un e de Folie angenommen wu den, was implizie , dass die
N
2
O-P oduk ion un e de Folie auch s a k on Boden empe a u und Boden euch e

4
abhängig wa . N
2
O-Emissionen eines ungedüng en Sojabohnen eldes, wa en ähnlich den
N
2
O-Emissionen eines Re ich eldes, welches eine mi le e Menge S icks o -Dünge on 200
kg N ha
-1
bekommen ha e.
Ein Ve gleich on N
2
O- und CH
4
-Emissionen on Reis elde n mi un e
Bewässe ungss a egien e gab, dass eine zei weise Flu ung mi meh e en T ockenphasen
das ge ings e Klimaschädigungspo en ial ha , welches nu 30% dessen be äg , was ein
adi ionell bewässe es Reis eld ( ün Mona e kon inuie liche Flu ung). Eine In e mediä e
Bewässe ungss a egie (2.5 Mona e Flu ung, Aus ocknung, Bewässe ung ohne S auen on
Wasse ) b ach e im Ve gleich zum adi ionell ge lu e en Reis eld ein
Klimaschädigungspo en ial on 60%. Diese E gebnisse implizie en, dass ein T end hin zu
wenige S auwasse au Reis elde n e ek i T eibhausgasemissionen senken kann,
zumindes au sandigen ode lehmig-sandigen Böden. Eine ak ibische Un e suchung de
Reis eldböden e gab, dass N
2
O-P oduk ion und Konsump ion haup sächlich in 25 bis 50 cm
Tie e s a ge unden haben; die N
2
O-Konzen a ionen und δ
15
N-N
2
O-We e diese Tie en on
allen un e such en Reis elde n sowie auch Gen-Häu igkei en on Deni i izie e n und
Ni i izie e n des Reis eldes mi de In e mediä en Bewässe ungss a egie deu en da au hin.
Abgesehen on diesen wich igen E kenn nissen übe N
2
O-Fluss-Dynamiken on d ei
e schiedenen Landnu zungssys emen, äll au , dass die N
2
O-Flüsse des S udiengebie es
gene ell nied ig sind. Dies is e eulich und zeig , dass das Gebie mi jenen
He aus o de ungen, die de Globale Wandel mi sich b ing und die mi Landwi scha
assoziie sind, so einges ell is , dass zumindes keine g oßen Mengen an N
2
O p oduzie
we den, was alle dings e wunde lich e schein , üh man sich o Augen welche g oßen
Mengen an Dünge au den Felde n ausgeb ach we den. Die o liegende A bei disku ie
an, ob mögliche weise de sandige Boden de Region eine schnelle Auswaschung de
hochmobilen NO
3-
-Ionen - dem Ausgangssubs a ü Deni i ika ion - bewi ken könn e, ha
le z lich abe keine abschließende An wo au diese F age. Um he auszu inden, wieso die
N
2
O-Flüsse so ge ing sind, wä e es wünschenswe , NO
3-
-Flüsse und das Schicksal de NO
3-
-Ionen genaue zu un e suchen.
5
6
Acknowledgemen s
This hesis would no ha e been possible wi hou he help and suppo o nume ous people. I need o
hank e e yone who suppo ed me and con ibu ed o his hesis and my well-being in wha e e way
du ing he w i ing o his hesis.
Fi s o all I ha e o exp ess my deepes hank ulness o Ge ha d Gebaue and John Tenhunen who
go me in ol ed in TERRECO, which ga e my li e a new and unexpec ed bu amazing di ec ion,
opened he doo o an inc edible jou ney o wo ld and sel explo a ion and b oadened my ho izon wi h
espec o so many, no only wo k- ela ed hings.
I hank Ge ha d Gebaue o g ea ly supe ising and eaching me, gi ing me ad ice whene e I
needed i and us ing in me and my skills e en hough my s ubbo nness some imes migh ha e been
qui e challenging o deal wi h.
I hank Hojeong Kang, Inyoung Jang and Juyoung Seo o suppo ing me in Ko ea. Wi hou hem
aking ca e o me and many logis ics, my ieldwo k wouldn’ ha e lown so smoo hly.
And I wan o hank Ral Kiese, who has he amazing abili y o b ing plen y o in o ma ion wi hin he
sho es ime possible in o my head and he ewi h ga e me lo s o necessa y inpu which imp o ed my
wo k and hesis a lo .
A e y special hank goes o my dea iend Eunyoung Jung o he g ea help in he ield si es, bu I
hank he e en mo e o always being he e o me du ing good and (VERY!) bad imes in Ko ea and
accompanying me on my almos daily isi s o he den is in Yanggu du ing mo e han one HORRIBLE
and pain-domina ed mon h in May and June 2010, e en hough his ime-consuming ac i i y almos
go he s uggling wi h he own wo k.
I also hank Julia Köpp a lo o es less main aining and epai ing he P eCon-GC-IRMS and o he
essen ial help wi h analyzing my samples, o so many discussions abou he in e p e a ion o my da a
and eaching me e e y hing I needed o know abou iso ope a io mass spec ome y. And I hank he
e en mo e o being such a good iend who always lis ened o me whene e I was abou o eak ou
because o oo much wo k…
I wan o say hank you o all he o he TERRECO membe s who helped me in he ield and du ing he
w i ing o my hesis by p o iding me wi h in o ma ion and I also need o hank hem o making my
Ko ea expe ience so special.
I hank he echnicians Isolde Bauman, Ch is ine Ti och and I is Schmiedinge o coun less hou s
spen on main aining he IRMS, analyzing my samples and o aking ca e o me. I am hank ul o
Ma ga e e Wa inge and John Tenhunen o o ganizing ieldwo k ac i i ies and aking ca e o shi ing
ons o necessa y equipmen be ween Ge many and Ko ea.
I ha e o hank my la ma e and bes iend Julian Ga i ia a lo o his pa ience and suppo especially
du ing he las weeks! Wi hou him always calming me down, lis ening o ALL o my p oblems, making
me elax and discussing wi h me abou space ships, s a ga es, Goa’uld and o he alien in asions… I
would ha e gone c azy.
My deepes hank goes o my amily o always ha ing my back and g ea suppo , bu especially o
my mo he , who is my idol, eache and iend. She always ga e me he eeling ha I could do
e e y hing, ha I could make all my d eams come ue, ha I could ealize all o my c azy ideas; he
only hing I would ha e o do would be o do my bes , jus as she always does e e y day.
7
Con en s
Summa y 1
Zusammen assung 3
Acknowledgemen s 6
Lis o Abb e ia ions 9
Chap e 1 On his hesis 13
Backg ound
15
Objec i es
24
Synopsis
26
Reco d o con ibu ions o his hesis
31
Re e ences
33
Chap e 2 Fo es soil N
2
O emissions as a ec ed by ea ly summe d ough , hea y monsoon
ains and o he en i onmen al ac o s
Be ge S, Jung E, Köpp J, Kang H, Gebaue G, 2012. Monsoon ains, d ough pe iods and soil ex u e as
d i e s o soil N
2
O luxes – soil d ough u ns Eas Asian empe a e deciduous o es soils in o empo a y
and unexpec edly pe sis en N
2
O sinks. Soil Biology & Biochemis y (published)
43
Chap e 3 N
2
O emissions om d y c op ields as a ec ed by PE mulching, amoun o e ilize ,
c op ype and clima e
Pa A: Be ge S, Kim Y, Ke e ing J, Gebaue G, 2012. Plas ic mulching in ag icul u e - iend o oe o
N
2
O emissions? Ag icul u e Ecosys ems & En i onmen (Submi ed, 24 Augus 2012, Resubmi ed a e
e isions, 12 Janua y 2013)
73
Pa B: Kim Y, Be ge S, Ke e ing J, Tenhunen J, Kiese R, 2012. The simula ion o N
2
O emissions and
ni a e leaching om di e en a es o N e ilize in he adish ield wi h he Landscape-DNDC model.
(Manusc ip in p epa a ion)
98
Chap e 4 N
2
O and CH
4
emissions om ice paddies as a ec ed by wa e managemen
Be ge S, Jang I, Seo J, Kang H, Gebaue G, 2012. A eco d o N
2
O and CH
4
emissions and unde lying
soil p ocesses o Ko ean ice paddies as a ec ed by di e en wa e managemen p ac ices.
Biogeochemis y (Submi ed, 19 Sep embe 2012)
131
14

15
Backg ound
The mos impo an g eenhouse gases
G eenhouse gases abso b in a ed ligh in he a mosphe e, he eby ap hea and cause a
wa ming o he ea h’s su ace. In e ms o hei global wa ming po en ial he h ee impo an
g eenhouse gases a e Ca bon dioxide (CO
2
), Me hane (CH
4
) and Ni ous oxide (N
2
O) (WMO
2006). In a 100-yea ho izon, uni masses o N
2
O and CH
4
a e conside ed o ha e 298 and
25 imes he global wa ming po en ial, espec i ely, as a uni o CO
2
because o hei longe
li espan (IPCC 2007). Fu he mo e, N
2
O con ibu es o s a osphe ic ozone deple ion
(Cice one 1987) and ecen ly has e en been iden i ied as “ he Dominan Ozone-Deple ing
Subs ance Emi ed in he 21s Cen u y” (Ra ishanka a e al. 2009). O he impo an gases
a e wa e apo and haloca bon compounds bu hei emissions a e no associa ed wi h
ag icul u e and land use issues (Snyde e al. 2009). E en hough he majo g eenhouse gas
o he wo ld’s economy is CO
2
, he mos impo an g eenhouse gas in ag icul u e is N
2
O
(Snyde e al. 2009) as well as i s emissions a e o ongoing in e es in o es esea ch and
he e o e i becomes he majo ocus o his hesis.
N
2
O
N
2
O is eleased in ela i ely small amoun s du ing he mic obial soil p ocesses deni i ica ion,
ni i ica ion and ni i ie deni i ica ion (Bange 2000, Snyde e al. 2009, W age e al. 2001,
Kool e al. 2011) depending on Oxygen (O
2
) concen a ions in he soil, soil empe a u e and
mois u e, soil ex u e, amoun o ni a e (NO
3-
) a ailable o deni i ica ion and amoun o
ammonium (NH
4+
) a ailable o ni i ica ion (Fi es one 1982, G anli and Bøckman 1994).
Deni i ica ion names he educ ion om NO
3-
in o dini ogen (N
2
) gas as desc ibed in he
ollowing pa hway: NO
3-
 NO
2-
 NO  N
2
O  N
2
in an anoxic en i onmen (Fi es one
1982, Fi es one and Da idson 1989, Robe son and G o man 2007). The ans o ma ion o
NO
3-
can be comple e bu i can happen ha a small po ion o N is emi ed as N
2
O gas.
Ni i ica ion is he name o he con e sion o NH
4+
in o NO
2-
which is hen ans o med in o
NO
3-
(No on 2008). N
2
O as well as NO a e by-p oduc s o he ans o ma ion om NO
2-
unde oxygen-limi ed condi ions (IFA/FAO 2001), bu N
2
O emissions esul ing om
ni i ica ion ha e also been epo ed unde ully ae obic condi ions (B emne and Blackme
1978).
Ni i ie deni i ica ion occu s when mois u e condi ions a e subop imal o deni i ica ion, as a
unc ion o he soil mois u e con en , and likely o o he en i onmen al condi ions as well. The
16
p ocess is assumed o be a majo con ibu o o N
2
O emission om soils wi h sandy ex u e
and ecen ly calls o mo e and mo e a en ion (Kool e al. 2011).
Emissions o N
2
O mos ly occu spo adic h oughou he whole yea and N
2
O emission peaks
can be obse ed a e p e iously well-ae a ed soils became mois ened o sa u a ed om
p ecipi a ion o i iga ion o du ing hawing o ozen soils (Snyde e al. 2009, Ba on e al.
2008a, Goldbe g e al. 2009).
Fo es soils’ N
2
O emissions a e known o be in luenced by soil mois u e and empe a u e,
soil ype and ex u e, ae a ion, ee species composi ion, pH, C:N a io, a mosphe ic ni ogen
deposi ion (Schindelbache e al. 2004. Skiba e al. 2009, Bu e bach-Bahl e al. 2002,
Menyailo and Huwe 1999, Yamulki e al. 1997, Kesik e al. 2006, Mo k ed e al. 2007,
Weslien e al. 2009, Klemed son e al. 2005, Pilegaa d e al. 2006). Soil mois u e and
empe a u e o en explain mos o he empo al a ia ion o he N
2
O luxes in daily o weekly
imescales (Ome ci e al. 1999, Schindelbache e al. 2004, Kesik e al. 2006, De B uijn e al.
2009) bu when i comes o compa ing annual N
2
O emissions ac o s like ni ogen deposi ion
and o es and soil ype become much mo e impo an (Pilegaa d e al. 2006).
N
2
O emissions om c oplands a e known o be in luenced by he amoun o e ilize applied
(Cole e al. 1997, an G oeningen e al. 2010) and i is said ha app oxima ely 1% o he
ni ogen e ilize applied is emi ed as N
2
O (IPCC 2006). In addi ion o hose managemen
ela ed ac o s, which also include ype o c op wi h majo di e ences be ween legumes and
o he annual c ops, en i onmen al ac o s such as clima e, soil ex u e, soil d ainage and
abundance o NO
3-
-N and pH ha e been iden i ied as he mos impo an d i e s o N
2
O
luxes (Eichne 1990, IFA/FAO 2001).
Recen ly, N
2
O consump ion is becoming a ocal poin o in e es . Since he global N
2
O
balance is s ill no closed, knowing o soils which ac as N
2
O sinks could con ibu e o closing
ha balance (Billings 2008). The mechanisms behind his sink unc ion and en i onmen al
ac o s leading o he sink unc ion a e s ill poo ly unde s ood. Chapuis-La dy e al. (2007)
summa ized ha i has mos ly been epo ed unde condi ions o low mine al ni ogen
a ailabili y and high soil mois u e. Howe e , signi ican consump ion o N
2
O in o es soils
has also been obse ed by Kellman and Ka anaugh (2008), Goldbe g and Gebaue (2009a,
b), Inclán e al. (2012) unde d ough condi ions.
17
CH
4
CH
4
is p oduced by me hanogenic bac e ia du ing decomposi ion o o ganic ma e ial in a
p ocess which is called me hanogenesis. Those bac e ia use CO
2
as e minal elec on
accep o and con e i in o CH
4
(Thaue 1998). These bac e ia equi e en i onmen s wi h no
oxygen (a si ua ion p esen in looded soils) and abundan o ganic ma e , bo h o which a e
cha ac e is ics o we lands (Zehnde , 1978). The CH
4
emi ed in o he a mosphe e is only a
small ac ion o he much la ge amoun s o he gas ha a e consumed in he soils due o
CH
4
oxida ion (Ba le and Ha iss 1993, Ro h uss e al. 1996, Gilbe and F enzel 1998).
Because CH
4
is such an impo an g eenhouse gas and by being esponsible o 10-25% o
he global CH
4
emissions ice paddies a e one o he majo sou ces o CH
4
(Cice one and
O emland 1988, Ba le and Ha iss 1993, Neue e al. 1997, Bousque e al. 2006), much
wo k has been and is s ill being done on CH
4
emissions om ice paddies. I u ned ou ha
CH
4
emissions can a y a lo wi h di e en wa e managemen s a egies, mine alogy, ice
cul i a , e iliza ion and local clima e (Cai e al. 2001, Denie an de Con 2000, Neue e al.
1996, Liesack e al. 2000).
Why s udying in Ko ea?
A huge pe cen age o humankind li es in moun ainous a eas, which accoun o 20% o he
Ea h’s e es ial su ace, and depends on eshwa e and o he ecosys em se ices
p o ided by hese egions (Millenium Ecosys em Assessmen 2005). S udying complex
e ain, i s su ace p ope ies, g adien s in clima e, ans e o ma e ials, soil p ope ies,
pa e ning o land use acco ding o human p e e ences and he esul ing impac s on he
en i onmen is c ucial o managemen o Ea h’s ecosys ems and esou ces.
The Republic o Ko ea is a p edominan ly hilly and moun ainous, as well as densely
popula ed and de eloped coun y wi h a e y high Human De elopmen Index (HDI) sco e
and e y high li ing s anda ds (Human de elopmen epo 2011). La ge a eas a e unde
in ensi e ag icul u al use. In compa ison o Ge many, Ko ea houses 61% o Ge many’s
popula ion on only 28% o Ge many’s o al a ea which leads o a high popula ion densi y o
491 inhabi an s pe km
2
(Ge many has 229 inhabi an s pe km
2
) (S a is ische Äm e des
Bundes und de Lände : Be ölke ung am Mona sende, Ko ean S a is ical In o ma ion
Se ice). Thus, Ko ea is an in e es ing place o s udy as i can be ega ded as a coun y
which has o ace and o deal wi h Global Change e ec s p io o o he coun ies wi h a
smalle popula ion densi y, lowe li ing s anda ds, a la ge a ea o lee om clima e change
d i en na u al ca as ophes and ex eme wea he e en s and which a e less exposed o such
wea he e en s. F om s udying Ko ea we could lea n lessons o he whole wo ld.
18
The TERRECO (Complex TERRain and ECOlogical He e ogenei y) p ojec - a join
educa ion and esea ch ac i i y be ween Ge many and Sou h Ko ea - aims o combine bo h,
an achie emen o a be e unde s anding o he unc ioning o di e en land use and
ecosys ems in a complex e ain as well as an assessmen o he ecosys em pe o mances
in e ms o wha we - he people - de i e om hem o how hey cause o maybe mi iga e
en i onmen al p oblems.
S udy si e
All he ieldwo k o his hesis has been conduc ed in he Haean basin (see igu e 1), which
is loca ed in Yanggu-coun y, Kangwon-p o ince in he no h-eas e n pa o Sou h Ko ea
be ween longi ude 128° 5' o 128° 11' E and la i ud e 38° 13' o 38° 20' N. The punchbowl
shaped a ea wi h an a e age al i ude o abou 400m a he alley-si es is su ounded by
moun ains eaching up o 1320 m. The a e age annual ai empe a u e is ca. 7.5°C a he
moun ain idges and 10.5°C a he alley si es and he a e age p ecipi a ion amoun s o
1577 mm (11-yea a e age) wi h abou 70% alling du ing he summe monsoon (Lee,
Tenhunen, Geye , Seo, Li and Kang, unpublished). The moun ain idges as well as he a eas
wi h s eep slope a e co e ed wi h o es ege a ion domina ed by Que cus den a a, Q.
mongolica, Q. se a a, Be ula da u ica, and Tilia amu ensis as majo ee species and
unde s o y a e Q. mongolica, Weigela lo ida, S ephanad a incisa, Ulmus lacinia a,
Symplocos chinensis, Euonymus ala us, Ace pseudosieboldianum, and Co ylus
he e ophylla. The alley si es a e e y in ensi ely ag icul u ally used. 25% o his c opland
a ea is co e ed wi h ice paddies, d yland a ms include adish (20% o c opland a ea),
po a o (15%), cabbage (15%), soy bean (5%) and Codonopsis pilosula and ginseng
( oge he 5%) as well as ela i ely new plan ings o ui ees and miscellaneous o he c ops.
The ypical soils o he ag icul u ally used a ea as well as he o es soils a e e ic cambisols
(IUSS Wo king g oup WRB 2006). Due o e y high soil e osion in he c opland a ea du ing
he monsoon season and in o de o compensa e o he esul ing high soil loss, he local
a me s add sandy soil on op o hei ields e e y ew yea s. This long- e m ag icul u al
managemen echnique modi ies he soils o an h osols (IUSS Wo king g oup WRB 2006).
Wi h i s landuse pa e n (50% o es co e , ice accoun ing o 25% o he c opland a ea and
o he majo c ops accoun ing o he esidual ha es ed a ea) he Haean basin is somewha
ep esen a i e o he wo ld’s pa e n o landuse wi h 30% o es a ea and abou 15% o he
global c opland a ea used as ice ields (FAO 2005, Thenkabail 2010), which makes i a
supe s udy si e when i comes o s udying ac o s d i ing N
2
O emissions on a landscape
scale, deli e ing meaning ul esul s o he b oade , global pic u e.
Figu e 1
: Sa elli e pic u es o Sou h Ko ea and he Haean Basin, o og aph o he Haean Basin.
(Pic u es we e downloaded om
h p://www.wo ldo maps.ne /uploads/pics/sa elli en
Sep embe , 2012; downloaded om google
h p://www.baycee .uni-
bay eu h.de/ e eco/de/ op/g u/h ml.php?id_obj=67142 on 15 July, 2012)
Fo es soil N
2
O emissions as a ec ed by en i onmen al ac o s
Fo es soils’ N
2
O emissions inc ease wi h soil mois u e, soil empe a u e and nu ien
a ailabili y (Da idson and
Kinge lee 1997
1999, B umme e
al. 1999, Smi h e al. 2003,
al. 2004,
Pilegaa d e al. 2006, Kesik e al. 2006
s imula ed by high amoun s o ni ogen deposi ion, in e media ed by inc eased
ino ganic N in he soil solu ion and a dec ease in he soil C:N a io (Bu e bach
1998, Klemed sson e al. 2005, Pilegaa d e al. 2006, Ho á h e al. 2006). In gene al one
can say ha deciduous o es s ha e lowe N
Bahl e al. 2002, Menyailo and Huwe 1999). pH causes maximum N
o lowe , indica ing ha acid condi ions a o N
al. 2006, Mo k ed e al. 2007, Weslien
impo an ole in e ms o d i ing N
ecen e idence ha poo sandy soils ha e a lowe capabili y o p oduce N
loamy soils ha
e (Wloda czyk e al.
Gebaue (2009a, b), Inclán e al. (
luxes on sandy loam soil, con i m ha idea.
19
: Sa elli e pic u es o Sou h Ko ea and he Haean Basin, o og aph o he Haean Basin.
h p://www.wo ldo maps.ne /uploads/pics/sa elli en
-
ka e
Sep embe , 2012; downloaded om google
-
maps on 17 Sep embe , 2012; downloaded om
bay eu h.de/ e eco/de/ op/g u/h ml.php?id_obj=67142 on 15 July, 2012)
O emissions as a ec ed by en i onmen al ac o s
O emissions inc ease wi h soil mois u e, soil empe a u e and nu ien
Kinge lee 1997
, O meci e al. 1999, Papen and Bu e bach
al. 1999, Smi h e al. 2003,
Bu e bach-
Bahl e al. 2004
Pilegaa d e al. 2006, Kesik e al. 2006
, De B uijn e al. 2009), as well as hey a e
s imula ed by high amoun s o ni ogen deposi ion, in e media ed by inc eased
ino ganic N in he soil solu ion and a dec ease in he soil C:N a io (Bu e bach
1998, Klemed sson e al. 2005, Pilegaa d e al. 2006, Ho á h e al. 2006). In gene al one
can say ha deciduous o es s ha e lowe N
2
O emissions
han coni e ous ones (Bu e bach
Bahl e al. 2002, Menyailo and Huwe 1999). pH causes maximum N
2
O luxes a alues o 5.9
o lowe , indica ing ha acid condi ions a o N
2
O p oduc ion (Yamulki e al. 1997, Kesik e
al. 2006, Mo k ed e al. 2007, Weslien
e al. 2009). Soil ex u e has been assumed o play an
impo an ole in e ms o d i ing N
2
O luxes, oo (Skiba e al. 2009), and he e is inc easing
ecen e idence ha poo sandy soils ha e a lowe capabili y o p oduce N
e (Wloda czyk e al.
2011). S udies by Ba on e al. (
2008a
Gebaue (2009a, b), Inclán e al. (
2012
), who all epo ed on e y low and e en nega i e N
luxes on sandy loam soil, con i m ha idea.
: Sa elli e pic u es o Sou h Ko ea and he Haean Basin, o og aph o he Haean Basin.
ka e
-sued-ko ea.jpg on 17
maps on 17 Sep embe , 2012; downloaded om
bay eu h.de/ e eco/de/ op/g u/h ml.php?id_obj=67142 on 15 July, 2012)
O emissions inc ease wi h soil mois u e, soil empe a u e and nu ien
, O meci e al. 1999, Papen and Bu e bach
-Bahl
Bahl e al. 2004
, Schindlbache e
, De B uijn e al. 2009), as well as hey a e
s imula ed by high amoun s o ni ogen deposi ion, in e media ed by inc eased
a ailabili y o
ino ganic N in he soil solu ion and a dec ease in he soil C:N a io (Bu e bach
-Bahl e al.
1998, Klemed sson e al. 2005, Pilegaa d e al. 2006, Ho á h e al. 2006). In gene al one
han coni e ous ones (Bu e bach
-
O luxes a alues o 5.9
O p oduc ion (Yamulki e al. 1997, Kesik e
e al. 2009). Soil ex u e has been assumed o play an
O luxes, oo (Skiba e al. 2009), and he e is inc easing
ecen e idence ha poo sandy soils ha e a lowe capabili y o p oduce N
2
O han sil y o
2008a
), Goldbe g and
), who all epo ed on e y low and e en nega i e N
2
O

20
Because he e a e p edic ed changes in p ecipi a ion and empe a u e egimes which go
along wi h an inc easing occu ence o hea y ain e en s o ex eme d ough pe iods in he
cou se o clima e change (IPCC 2007), N
2
O emissions a e expec ed o be enhanced in he
u u e (Po e e al. 1996; Skiba e al. 1998). Thus, s udies o e ec s o such ex eme wea he
e en s on N
2
O emissions a e absolu ely necessa y. Du ing a long- e m clima e manipula ion
expe imen in Ge many i was ound ha a p olonged summe d ough no only dec eased
N
2
O emissions bu e en lead o signi ican N
2
O consump ion (Goldbe g and Gebaue 2009a,
b). Howe e , he mechanism o ha N
2
O sink unc ion in d y soils could no be ound, ye .
Chapuis-La dy e al. (2007) summa ized ha he a e o N
2
O consump ion in soils ( educ ion
o N
2
plus abso p ion by wa e ) would depend on soil p ope ies, such as he a ailabili y o
mine al N (subs a e o ni i ica ion and deni i ica ion), soil oxygen and wa e con en , soil
empe a u e, pH and edox condi ions, and he a ailabili y o o ganic C and N, which a e
exac ly he same pa ame e s iden i ied o d i e N
2
O emissions. I is a cu en esea ch
challenge o clea up he p ocesses and en i onmen al ac o s esponsible o he N
2
O
up ake in soils.
D y c op ields’ soils’ N
2
O emissions as a ec ed by managemen and en i onmen al
ac o s
The N
2
O emi ed om a able soils is known o inc ease linea ly wi h amoun o e ilize
applied (Eichne 1990, Kaise e al. 1998). Howe e , he e is no ye a consensus eached on
he ype o N e ilize which con ibu es he mos o N
2
O emissions (Eichne 1990, G anli and
Bøckman 1994, Snyde e al. 2009). Tenu a and Beauchamp (2003) sugges ed ha u ea-
based N e ilize would cause g ea e N
2
O emissions han o he N e ilize s unde ae obic
condi ions and ha unde condi ions o highe soil mois u e NH
4+
-based e ilize s would
p oduce g ea e amoun s o N
2
O. In con as o ha Ha ison and Webb (2001) sugges ed
ha N
2
O emissions om u ea unde wa m and we condi ions may exceed hose o NH
4+
-
based sou ces and ha N
2
O emissions om NO
3-
-based e ilize s would be g ea e han
hose om NH
4+
-based e ilize s. Bouwman (2002a), Tenu a and Beauchamp (2003),
Vel ho e al. (2003), Ven e ea and S anenas (2008) ag eed ha he e a e lowe emissions
o NO
3-
-based e ilize when compa ed o NH
4+
-based e ilize s and o ganic o syn he ic-
o ganic ones.
Like o he e ilize ype’s in luence on N
2
O emissions, he e is no consensus ye on he
illage sys em’s in luence on he amoun s o N
2
O degassing om a able soils. Lal (2003),
G ego ich e al. (2004), Ven e ea e al. (2005), Blanco-Conqui and Lal (2008) epo ed ha
21
no o less illage lead o inc eased N
2
O emissions when compa ed o con en ional o in ense
illage, whe eas Robe son e al. (2000), Hal o son e al. (2008a, b) obse ed he opposi e.
Much wo k has been done on igu ing ou i N
2
ixing legumes, which ha e an addi ional N
sou ce, causes highe N
2
O emissions om soils han o he c ops. In gene al one can say
ha du ing N
2
ixa ion less N is a ailable o ni i ica ion and subsequen deni i ica ion and
he esul ing N
2
O emissions du ing he ime when he legumes a e g owing (Pa kin and
Kaspe 2006) so ha he e a e no necessa ily g ea e N
2
O emissions om N e ilized non-
legume c ops unde simila clima ic and managemen egimes (Helgason e al. 2005,
Roche e and Janzen 2005, Pa kin and Kaspa 2006, S eh es and Bouwman 2006, Ba on
e al. 2008b).
In addi ion o hose managemen ela ed N
2
O lux egula ing ac o s, clima ic ac o s also
a ec N
2
O emissions om d y c op ields. Soil mois u e and empe a u e a e known o
inc ease N
2
O p oduc ion (Dobbie e al. 1999, Ruse e al. 2006); howe e , i happened ha
no co ela ion be ween N
2
O emission a es and soil mois u e o empe a u e is ound (Flessa
e al. 1995). E en i i has equen ly been obse ed ha ain e en s igge ed N
2
O emissions
om ag icul u al ields (Da idson e al. 1993, Scholes e al. 1997, Ba on e al. 2008a), pH
allows he mos N
2
O p oduc ion a sligh ly acidic alues and less sandy soil ex u e does so,
oo (IFA/FAO 2001).
Recen ly he e is inc easing use o an impe ious polye hylene (PE) ilm (see igu e 2)
wo ldwide - bu in Eas Asian coun ies such as Ko ea, China and Japan in pa icula - in
o de o inc ease c op p oduc ion in he cou se o a g owing wo ld popula ion and
accompanying ood sca ci y (Kwon e al. 2006, Ky ikou and B iassoulis 2007). Due o a
highe soil empe a u e and mois u e unde nea h he PE mulch, condi ions as in a
g eenhouse a e c ea ed which p omo e c op g ow h, bu ha also aises he impo an
ques ion whe he his me hod has nega i e side e ec s on he en i onmen such as an
inc eased N
2
O p oduc ion.
22
Figu e 2: Impe ious polye hylene (PE) ilm applied on an ag icul u al ield. I co e s he idges and lea es only
li le holes open whe e he c ops can eme ge.
N
2
O and CH
4
emissions om ice paddies as a ec ed by managemen p ac ices
Whe eas ice paddies a e one o he mos impo an sou ces o a mosphe ic CH
4
(IPCC
1992, IPCC 2007), hei con ibu ion o global N
2
O emissions was conside ed o be a he
insigni ican (G anli and Bøckman 1994). Due o he s ong anae obic condi ions o ice
paddy soils unde he adi ional ice i iga ion me hod o con inuous looding - which was he
domina ing p ac ice un il he ea ly 1980s (Geng e al. 2001) - N
2
O as an in e media y p oduc
o deni i ica ion would be u he educed o N
2
(G anli and Bøckman 1994). Howe e ,
inc easing wa e sca ci y made and s ill makes a me s change hei adi ional i iga ion
p ac ice o wa e -sa ing i iga ion p ac ices, including midseason d ainages and non-wa e
logged pe iods (Geng e al. 2001). I is well documen ed ha such d ainage, and he
p esence o non-wa e logging pe iods, enhance N
2
O emissions in con as o con inuous
looding (Cai e al. 1997, Zeng e al. 2000, Jiang e al. 2003, Li e al. 2004, Xu e al. 2004, Li
e al. 2005) because o changes in se e al N
2
O p oduc ion egula ing ac o s, such as soil
oxygen s a us, soil edox po en ial, mois u e, empe a u e (Smi h and Pa ick 1983, Cai e al.
23
2001, Zou e al. 2005b, Johnson-Beebou e al. 2009, Liu e al. 2010, Peng e al. 2011). The
good news abou he new i iga ion p ac ices is ha hey signi ican ly educe CH
4
emissions;
howe e , a clea ade-o ela ionship be ween CH
4
and N
2
O emissions was ound (Yagi e
al. 1996, Hou e al. 2000), which is why i is scien is s’ challenge o ind an i iga ion me hod
which would minimize he combined g eenhouse e ec by he wo gases while ensu ing
maximum amoun s o ice yields.
Ob iously, some ac o s o he han wa e egime also a ec ice paddies’ N
2
O and CH
4
emissions, such as e ilize ype, soil mois u e and soil empe a u e (Bouwman e al. 2002b,
G anli and Bøckman 1994). So does he applica ion o u ea-based e ilize cause he
g ea es CH
4
emissions bu less N
2
O emissions (Wang e al. 1992, Cai e al. 1997, Bu ogle e
al. 1998), in con as o he e ec s o ammonium sul a e o ammonium bica bona e e ilize ,
which leads o highe N
2
O emissions bu lowe CH
4
emissions (Cai e al. 1997, Zheng e al.
2000) a iden ical wa e managemen sys ems. The lowes CH
4
and N
2
O emissions we e
obse ed a e applica ion o NO
3-
-based e ilize (Jugsujinda e al. 1995). This has o do
wi h he edox po en ial which, a e NO
3-
-N applica ion, was highe han -100mV (whe e CH
4
emissions occu ), bu lowe han +200mV (whe e N
2
O emissions occu ) so ha nei he CH
4
no N
2
O emissions we e p omo ed (Hou e al. 2000, Snyde e al. 2009).
Fu he mo e, a signi ican posi i e ela ionship be ween N
2
O emissions and he WFPS (wa e
illed po e space) anging om 62.2 o 83.5%, while inc easing he WFPS o e 83.5%
appa en ly educes N
2
O emissions, was obse ed by Khalil and Baggs (2005), Sey e al.
(2008), Peng e al. (2011). A soil empe a u es be ween 25 and 40°C he e is inc easing
N
2
O p oduc ion (G anli and Bøckman 1994).
Figu e 3
: Amoun s o cumula i ely emi ed N
Jus like la ge a eas o he wo ld, in he cou se o global and clima e change he s udy a ea
has o ace ex eme wea he e en s such as mo e se e e ea ly summe d ough
ollowed by hea ie monsoon ains. This hesis showed ha o such wea he e en s we e
accompanied by e y low and o some ex en e en nega i e N
du ing he g owing season.
Plas ic mulching –
a widely used p ac ice in
po en ial o mi iga e N
2
O emissions, which should be subjec o mo e s udies.
In e mi en i iga ion was iden i ied as he bes wa e managemen p ac ice o he s udy
egion’s in es iga ed ice paddies as i
he lowes N
2
O as well as CH
li e a u e bu migh be explained by he sandy soils and a high NO
These indings a e impo an
clima e change e ec s in a good way a leas wi h ega d o i s g eenhouse gas emissions.
30
: Amoun s o cumula i ely emi ed N
2
O p esen ed in mmol m
-2
measu ed a he di e en si es du ing he
g owing seasons o 2010 and 2011.
Jus like la ge a eas o he wo ld, in he cou se o global and clima e change he s udy a ea
has o ace ex eme wea he e en s such as mo e se e e ea ly summe d ough
ollowed by hea ie monsoon ains. This hesis showed ha o such wea he e en s we e
accompanied by e y low and o some ex en e en nega i e N
2
O balances o o es soils
a widely used p ac ice in
ag icul u e wo ldwide –
u ned ou o ha e a
O emissions, which should be subjec o mo e s udies.
In e mi en i iga ion was iden i ied as he bes wa e managemen p ac ice o he s udy
egion’s in es iga ed ice paddies as i
equi ed he smalles amoun s o wa e and caused
O as well as CH
4
emissions, which o he N
2
O emissions is con a y o he
li e a u e bu migh be explained by he sandy soils and a high NO
3-
leaching po en ial.
These indings a e impo an
and also sugges ha he s udy egion deals wi h global and
clima e change e ec s in a good way a leas wi h ega d o i s g eenhouse gas emissions.
measu ed a he di e en si es du ing he
Jus like la ge a eas o he wo ld, in he cou se o global and clima e change he s udy a ea
has o ace ex eme wea he e en s such as mo e se e e ea ly summe d ough
pe iods
ollowed by hea ie monsoon ains. This hesis showed ha o such wea he e en s we e
O balances o o es soils
u ned ou o ha e a
O emissions, which should be subjec o mo e s udies.
In e mi en i iga ion was iden i ied as he bes wa e managemen p ac ice o he s udy
equi ed he smalles amoun s o wa e and caused
O emissions is con a y o he
leaching po en ial.
and also sugges ha he s udy egion deals wi h global and
clima e change e ec s in a good way a leas wi h ega d o i s g eenhouse gas emissions.

31
Reco d o con ibu ions o his hesis
Chap e 1
Chap e 1 and he summa y o his hesis we e w i en by me. This disse a ion includes ou
manusc ip s o which h ee we e w i en by me and one was w i en by Youngsun Kim. One
o he manusc ip s w i en by me is al eady published, he second one is esubmi ed a e
e isions and he hi d one is submi ed. The manusc ip by Youngsun Kim is in p epa a ion
o submission. The con ibu ion o me and all co-au ho s is lis ed below.
Chap e 2
Be ge S, Jung E, Köpp J, Kang H, Gebaue G, 2013. Monsoon ains, d ough pe iods and
soil ex u e as d i e s o soil N
2
O luxes – soil d ough u ns Eas Asian empe a e deciduous
o es soils in o empo a y and unexpec edly pe sis en N
2
O sinks. Soil Biology &
Biochemis y 57, 237-281.
Be ge S: 60% (concep s, ield and labo a o y wo k, in e p e a ion, discussion and
p esen a ion o esul s, manusc ip p epa a ion)
Jung E: 20% (concep s, ield and labo a o y wo k, discussion o esul s)
Köpp J: 5% (labo a o y wo k, in e p e a ion and discussion o esul s)
Kang H: 5% ( ield and labo a o y wo k, logis ics in Ko ea)
Gebaue G: 10% (concep s, discussion o esul s, con ibu ion o manusc ip p epa a ion)
Chap e 3A
Be ge S, Kim Y, Ke e ing J, Gebaue G, 2012. Plas ic mulching in ag icul u e - iend o oe
o N
2
O emissions? Ag icul u e Ecosys ems & En i onmen (Resubmi ed a e e isions, 12
Janua y 2013)
Be ge S: 70% (concep s, ield and labo a o y wo k, in e p e a ion, discussion and
p esen a ion o esul s, manusc ip p epa a ion)
Kim Y: 15% ( ield and labo a o y wo k, logis ics in Ko ea)
Ke e ing J: 5% ( ield wo k)
Gebaue G: 10% (concep s, discussion o esul s, con ibu ion o manusc ip p epa a ion)
32
Chap e 3B
Kim Y, Be ge S, Ke e ing J, Tenhunen J, Kiese R, 2012. The simula ion o N
2
O emissions
and ni a e leaching om di e en a es o N e ilize in he adish ield wi h he Landscape-
DNDC model. (Manusc ip in p epa a ion)
Kim Y: 55% (concep s, discussion o esul s, manusc ip p epa a ion)
Be ge S: 10% ( ield and labo a o y wo k, discussion)
Ke e ing J: 5% ( iled and labo a o y wo k)
Tenhunen J: 5% (discussion o esul s)
Kiese R: 25% (concep s, discusisons o eusl s, con ibu ion o manusc ip p epa a ion)
Chap e 4
Be ge S, Jang I, Seo J, Kang H, Gebaue G, 2012. A eco d o N
2
O and CH
4
emissions and
unde lying soil p ocesses o Ko ean ice paddies as a ec ed by di e en wa e managemen
p ac ices. Biogeochemis y (Submi ed, 19 Sep embe 2012)
Be ge S: 75% (concep s, ield and labo a o y wo k, in e p e a ion, discussion and
p esen a ion o esul s, manusc ip p epa a ion)
Jang I: 5% ( ield and labo a o y wo k, logis ics in Ko ea)
Seo J: 5% ( ield and labo a o y wo k, logis ics in Ko ea)
Kang H: 5% ield wo k, logis ics in Ko ea)
Gebaue G: 10% (concep s, discussion o esul s, con ibu ion o manusc ip p epa a ion)
33
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693–697.
Smi h WN, Desja dins RL, G an B, Li C, Lemke R, Roche e P, Co e MD, Pennock D, 2002 Tes ing
he DNDC model using N
2
O emissions a wo expe imen al si es in Canada. Canadian Jou nal o Soil
Science 82, 365-374.
Smi h KA, Ball T, Conen F, Dobbie KE, Masshede J, Rey A, 2003. Exchange o g eenhouse gases
be ween soil and a mosphe e: in e ac ions o soil physical ac o s and biological p ocesses. Eu opean
Jou nal o Soil Sciences 54, 779-791.
Snyde CS, B uulsema TW, Jensen TL, Fixen PE, 2009. Re iew o g eenhouse gas emissions om
c op p oduc ion sys ems and e ilize managemen e ec s. Ag icul u e Ecosys ems & En i onmen
133, 247-266.
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S eh es E, Bouwman L, 2006. N
2
O and NO emission om ag icul u al ields and soils unde na u al
ege a ion: summa izing a ailable measu emen da a and modeling o global annual emissions.
Nu ien Cycling in Ag oecosys ems 74, 207–228.
Tenu a M, Beauchamp EG, 2003. Ni ous oxide p oduc ion om g anula ni ogen e ilize s applied o
a sil loam soil. Canadian Jou nal o Soil Science 83, 521–532.
Thaue RK, 1998. Biochemis y o me hanogenesis: a ibu e o Ma jo y S ephenson. Mic obiology-UK
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2
O and CH
4
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46
de e mined N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N alues along soil p o iles in he d y and monsoon
season o a sandy loam si e. We obse ed N
2
O consump ion a all o ou s udy si es du ing
ea ly summe d ough , which u ned in o N
2
O emission du ing he monsoon season. The N
2
O
balance o he sandy loam si e emained sligh ly nega i e du ing he en i e ege a ion pe iod.
Soil mois u e explained mos o he measu ed N
2
O luxes. Fo a sandy-loam o es soil we
calcula ed a swi ch be ween N
2
O emission and consump ion a an in e media e soil mois u e
(pF le el o 3.02) which co esponds o a wa e illed po e space (WFPS) o 36.34%, bu a
hal an o de o magni ude mois e soil (pF le el: 2.57; WFPS 50.31%) a a loamy si e. N
2
O
concen a ion and δ
15
N
N2O
alues along he soil p o iles sugges ha hose p ocesses d i ing
he N
2
O luxes a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace mos likely occu ed in he opsoil. Ou
esul s con ibu e o ou knowledge on he global N
2
O budge , because monsoon a ec ed
o es s co e la ge a eas wo ldwide and hei soils’ N
2
O emissions ha e so a been
unin es iga ed.
Keywo ds: N
2
O emission, N
2
O consump ion, soil p o ile, δ
15
N, hea y ain all, sand, loam,
Ko ea

47
1. In oduc ion
N
2
O is a powe ul g eenhouse gas which con ibu es o he global wa ming e ec (WMO
2006) and is also in ol ed in he des uc ion o he s a osphe ic ozone laye (Cice one
1987). Impo an sou ces o N
2
O a e mainly ag icul u ally managed soils bu also include
(semi-)na u al o es soils (Po e e al. 1996; Da idson and Kinge lee 1997; Pilegaa d e al.
2006). Mic obial deni i ica ion, ni i ica ion and ni i ie deni i ica ion a e he N
2
O p oducing
p ocesses (Kool e al. 2011). Howe e , a signi ican N
2
O sink unc ion has ecen ly been
obse ed in managed no he n o es s in Canada (Kellman and Ka anaugh 2008), and in
Eu opean o es s (Goldbe g and Gebaue 2009a, b; Inclán e al. 2012). Those indings a e
now o impo ance o u he imp o emen o p edic ions on Ea h’s clima e speci ically
unde condi ions o global clima e change (Billings 2008), as soils as N
2
O sinks had no been
aken in o accoun o global N
2
O balances be o e.
S ill li le is known abou he unde lying p ocesses o his N
2
O sink unc ion, which can
empo a ily be obse ed in di e en soils. Soil mois u e and empe a u e ha e been iden i ied
as he mos impo an d i e s o N
2
O luxes be ween o es soils and a mosphe e
(Bu e bach-Bahl e al. 2004; Pilegaa d e al. 2006; Kesik e al. 2006). I is also known ha
and an inc easing amoun o ain all as well as inc easing soil empe a u e a e p edic ed o
enhance N
2
O emissions (Po e e al. 1996; Skiba e al. 1998; IPCC 2001). IPCC (2007)
p edic ed changes in p ecipi a ion and empe a u e egimes, which aised he ques ion how
such changes ac ually a ec N
2
O emissions om o es soils. Goldbe g and Gebaue
(2009b) showed ha an expe imen ally induced d ough o 46 days could empo a ily u n he
soil o a coni e ous o es in Ge many om a sou ce in o a ansien N
2
O sink. Eas Asian
clima e is e en mo e ex eme han he simula ed one: yea ly ecu ing hea y monsoon
ain all pe iods a e eigh mon hs o ai o ex eme d ough (Qian e al. 2002; Yihui and
Chan 2005). This p o ides an ex eme case o d ying and ewe ing cycles o soils and
he e o e we conside ed i as an adequa e amewo k o ield- es he abo e men ioned
expe imen al esul s. And we in ended o go one s ep u he by in es iga ing he e ec s o
he hose long d ough and hea y ain all pe iods on o es soils dis inguished by di e en soil
ex u es, which appea s o g ea impo ance especially when conside ing mos ecen
indings by Wloda czyk e al. (2011), who explici ly epo ed on loamy soils ha ing a g ea e
capaci y o N
2
O p oduc ion and consump ion han sandy soils.
He e we epo on a moni o ing s udy, o ou knowledge in es iga ing o he i s ime, how
he N
2
O luxes o Eas Asian o es s espond o he ex eme luc ua ions in soil mois u e
which we expec ed o be caused by hea y monsoon ains. O e and abo e he N
2
O luxes,
48
we de e mined se e al addi ional pa ame e s such as soil mois u e, soil empe a u e, soil
and ege a ion p ope ies, N deposi ion and C/N a io o see i he e we e any ela ionships
wi h he occu ing N
2
O luxes. Because he soil ex u e can enhance o mi iga e d ough
e ec s, due o di e ences in wa e holding capaci y, ae a ion and O
2
a ailabili y e c., he
measu emen s we e ca ied ou on h ee o es si es di e ing in hei op soil ex u e
cha ac e is ics: each one p edominan ly consis ed o sand, sandy-loam o loam, espec i ely.
We hypo hesized ha he sandy si e as he loca ion wi h he mos ae a ed and mos quickly
d ying soil would show he leas N
2
O luxes whe eas he loamy soil wi h a g ea e wa e
e aining capaci y was expec ed o show highe emissions and less declining N
2
O emissions
du ing he d ough pe iod. Fu he mo e, we a emp ed o iden i y he swi ching poin om
N
2
O emission o consump ion and ice e sa o each one o hese soils.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1 Expe imen al si es
The measu emen s we e aken in h ee o es s in he Haean Basin which is loca ed no heas
o he ci y o Chuncheon in Yanggu Coun y, Sou h Ko ea, be ween longi ude 128° 5' o 128°
11' E and la i ude 38° 13' o 38° 20' N, wi h a an ge in al i ude om ca. 400 o 1100 m a.s.l.
The a e age annual ai empe a u e is ca. 10.5°C a alley si es and ca. 7.5°C a he
no he n idge line. A e age p ecipi a ion is es ima ed a 1200 mm wi h 70% alling du ing he
summe monsoon (Lee e al 2010, unpublished).
The mos impo an cha ac e is ics o he h ee si es a e summa ized in Table 1. The sola
adia ion (p o ided by he TERRECO-si e (h p://www.baycee .uni-bay eu h.de/ e eco/),
downloaded on 10 Janua y 2011) a he si es is shown in igu e 1. Acco ding o he FAO soil
classi ica ion (IUSS Wo king G oup WRB 2006) he soils o ou esea ch si es can be
classi ied as Cambisols, e en hough hey a e di e en in soil ex u e o he i s 20 cm
opsoil laye .
Figu e 1. Daily sum o sola adia ion du ing he en i e yea a he h ee s udy si es. The g ey box
indica es he ime pe iod when he N
2.2 Measu emen o soil mois u e and soil empe a u e and de e mina ion o pF le els
On he sandy-
loam si e wo ECH2O logge s and one ECH2O logge a bo h sandy and
loamy si e (EM50 Da a logge , Decagon De ices, WA, USA) we e ins alled a 10 cm dep
logging olume ic soil wa e con en [%] and soil empe a u e [°C] e e y 30 minu es om 10
May un il 31 Oc obe 2010. A e wa ds he mean daily wa e con en and mean empe a u e
o he soils a 10 cm dep h we e calcula ed.
In addi ion, on all o he h ee si es h ee op soil samples we e collec ed using a soil co e .
The samples’ sand-, sil -
and clay con en s as well as hei bulk densi ies we e de e mined in
he labo a o y o he Soil Physics Depa men a he Uni e si y
me hod was
we sie ing o sand and lase pa icle analyze "Mas e size S MAM5004"
(Mal e n Ins umen s, He enbe g, Ge many) o sil and clay. The samples we e p epa ed
by humus des uc ion (H
2
O
2
) and dispe sion ((NaPO
densi y da a he compu e p og am ROSETTA es ima ed he soil hyd aulic pa ame e s
α and n which hen de ined he pF
unc ion (Schaap e al. 2001) o each si e. Th
soil wa e con en alue was ead ou o ha cu e.
pF le els we e de e mined because he opsoil cha ac e is ics o he s udy si es di e ed a lo
and in o de o make soil mois u e si e compa isons possible,
s a ing soil mois u e was needed. pF le els se e ha pu pose because hey include soil
cha ac e is ics such as soil ex u e and bulk densi y.
49
Figu e 1. Daily sum o sola adia ion du ing he en i e yea a he h ee s udy si es. The g ey box
indica es he ime pe iod when he N
2
O lux measu emen s we e ca ied
2.2 Measu emen o soil mois u e and soil empe a u e and de e mina ion o pF le els
loam si e wo ECH2O logge s and one ECH2O logge a bo h sandy and
loamy si e (EM50 Da a logge , Decagon De ices, WA, USA) we e ins alled a 10 cm dep
logging olume ic soil wa e con en [%] and soil empe a u e [°C] e e y 30 minu es om 10
May un il 31 Oc obe 2010. A e wa ds he mean daily wa e con en and mean empe a u e
o he soils a 10 cm dep h we e calcula ed.
In addi ion, on all o he h ee si es h ee op soil samples we e collec ed using a soil co e .
and clay con en s as well as hei bulk densi ies we e de e mined in
he labo a o y o he Soil Physics Depa men a he Uni e si y
o Bay eu h. The
we sie ing o sand and lase pa icle analyze "Mas e size S MAM5004"
(Mal e n Ins umen s, He enbe g, Ge many) o sil and clay. The samples we e p epa ed
) and dispe sion ((NaPO
3
)
6
).
Based on he ex u e and bulk
densi y da a he compu e p og am ROSETTA es ima ed he soil hyd aulic pa ame e s
and n which hen de ined he pF
- wa e con en -
cu e desc ibed by he Van
unc ion (Schaap e al. 2001) o each si e. Th
e pF le el o each co esponding mean daily
soil wa e con en alue was ead ou o ha cu e.
pF le els we e de e mined because he opsoil cha ac e is ics o he s udy si es di e ed a lo
and in o de o make soil mois u e si e compa isons possible,
a mo e independen ac o
s a ing soil mois u e was needed. pF le els se e ha pu pose because hey include soil
cha ac e is ics such as soil ex u e and bulk densi y.
Figu e 1. Daily sum o sola adia ion du ing he en i e yea a he h ee s udy si es. The g ey box
O lux measu emen s we e ca ied
ou .
2.2 Measu emen o soil mois u e and soil empe a u e and de e mina ion o pF le els
loam si e wo ECH2O logge s and one ECH2O logge a bo h sandy and
loamy si e (EM50 Da a logge , Decagon De ices, WA, USA) we e ins alled a 10 cm dep
h
logging olume ic soil wa e con en [%] and soil empe a u e [°C] e e y 30 minu es om 10
May un il 31 Oc obe 2010. A e wa ds he mean daily wa e con en and mean empe a u e
In addi ion, on all o he h ee si es h ee op soil samples we e collec ed using a soil co e .
and clay con en s as well as hei bulk densi ies we e de e mined in
o Bay eu h. The
analysis
we sie ing o sand and lase pa icle analyze "Mas e size S MAM5004"
(Mal e n Ins umen s, He enbe g, Ge many) o sil and clay. The samples we e p epa ed
Based on he ex u e and bulk
densi y da a he compu e p og am ROSETTA es ima ed he soil hyd aulic pa ame e s θ
, θ
s
,
cu e desc ibed by he Van
-Genuch en
e pF le el o each co esponding mean daily
pF le els we e de e mined because he opsoil cha ac e is ics o he s udy si es di e ed a lo
a mo e independen ac o
s a ing soil mois u e was needed. pF le els se e ha pu pose because hey include soil
50
Table 1:
Si e cha ac e is ics o he s udied o es s, in Haean basin, Sou h Ko ea.
Si e Loca ion Aspec
2010 Soil Dominan Subdominan Unde s o y A e age
monsoon p ecip. cha ac- species species Basal a ea ee
&mean ai emp. e is ics Basal a ea Basal a ea heigh
Sandy-
128°8'27.13"E 220° 1223 mm 60% sand 10.3 m
-2
ha
-1
10.15 m
-2
ha
-1
2.46 m
-2
ha
-1
9.9 m
loam 38°18'57.067"N 8.5°C 31% sil (Que cus mongolica)
(Que cus den a a, (Q. den a a,
650 m a.sl 9% clay Tilia mandshu ica, Q. mongolica
BD: 0.90 g cm
-3
& o he s) & o he s)
Sandy 128°6'0.86"E 70° 1616 mm 80% sand 16.13 m
-2
ha
-1
6.25 m
-2
ha
-1
1.02 m
-2
ha
-1
4.9 m
38°14'43.374"N 7.5 °C 15% sil (Q. mongolica) (F axinus hynchophylla, (Ace pseudosieboldianum,
950 m a.sl 5% clay Euonymus hamila onianus, Ace mono
BD: 1.11 g cm
-3
& o he s) & o he s)
Loamy 128°7'50.091"E 70° 1326 mm 45% sand 11.43 m
-2
ha
-1
4.38 m
-2
ha
-1
8.28 m
-2
ha
-1
9.6 m
38°17'18.636"N 10.5 °C 42% sil (Que cus se a a, Q. den a a, (Rhododend on yedoense,
450 m a.sl. 13% clay Q. mongolica, Ulmus lacina a Euonymus ala us,
BD: 1.07 g cm
-3
Que cus aliena, & o he s) Lespedeza cy o ya
Alnus japonica) & o he s)
As dominan species we iden i ied hose which accoun ed o a leas hal o he canopy a ea.
Tempe a u e and ain all da a we e downloaded om he TERRECO-si e (h p://www.baycee .uni-bay eu h.de/ e eco/) on 31s o Janua y, 2011. Sand, sil and
clay we e classi ied acco ding o EN ISO 14688.
51
2.3 N
2
O lux measu emen s
N
2
O luxes we e measu ed om 14 May o 24 Oc obe o 2010 wice a week a he sandy-
loam si e and in weekly in e als a he sandy and loamy si es using he closed chambe
echnique in conjunc ion wi h a pho oacous ic in a ed gas analyse (Mul igas Moni o 1312,
INNOVA, Balle up, Denma k) as desc ibed by Yamulki and Ja is (1999) and Goldbe g e al.
(2008b). The sandy-loam si e con ained 8 poly inylchlo ide (PVC) cylinde s, wi h a o al
heigh o 15 cm and a diame e o 19.5 cm, which we e ins alled 7 cm deep in o he soil. The
sandy and loamy si e con ained 5 o such PVC cylinde s. Those cylinde s se ed as
connec ion pieces whe e he chambe heads we e a ached o. 4 o PVC cylinde s o he
sandy-loam si e, and h ee cylinde s o he sandy si e con ained only ew small he bs. The
o he 4 PVC cylinde s o he sandy-loam si e, 2 cylinde s o he sandy si e and all i e
cylinde s a he loamy si e did no con ain he bs. The cylinde s we e ins alled in a way ha
he he b abundance inside he cylinde s was ep esen a i e o he o es soil. The N
2
O
concen a ions in he chambe s’ headspaces we e measu ed a e 0, 8, 16, 24 and 36
minu es a he sandy-loam si e and in 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 minu e in e als a he loamy and
sandy si e. The ep oducibili y o one single N
2
O concen a ion measu emen was ± 32 ppb.
F om a linea inc ease o dec ease o he N
2
O concen a ion in he chambe s’ headspaces
he N
2
O lux was calcula ed aking in o accoun he o al chambe olume which includes he
chambe headspace olume (chambe head 4000 ml + each indi idual PVC cylinde ’s
olume o abou 2000 ml), olume o he wo 25 m long Te lon pipes (600 ml) and o he CO
2
and H
2
O gas aps (38.2 ml).
Acco ding o he li e a u e i is conside ed unlikely ha daily o weekly measu emen s using
manual chambe s would su icien ly co e each a e ain emission peak, especially in
en i onmen s whe e N
2
O emissions a e s ongly in luenced by a small numbe o ain all
e en s, which a e pa icula ly unp edic able; an accu a e measu emen o all he N
2
O luxes
ongoing would only be p o ided by an au oma ed measu emen sys em (Ba on e al. 2008).
We conside he clima e ha Sou h Ko ea unde goes as sui able o N
2
O lux measu emen s
using manual chambe s as ain-e en s as well as d y a e - ain pe iods las ed 3-4 days, so
ha he e was su icien ime o measu e N
2
O luxes be o e, du ing and a e each occu ing
and by wea he o ecas well-p edic ed wea he -e en .
Cumula i e N
2
O emissions we e calcula ed as desc ibed by Tilsne e al. (2003), by
mul iplying he N
2
O emission a es o wo consecu i e measu emen days wi h he
co esponding ime pe iod. These ime weigh ed N
2
O lux means we e hen summed up o e
he measu emen pe iod.

52
2.4 Gas sampling in he soil p o iles
Soil gas was collec ed om he sandy-loam si e ollowing he p ocedu e desc ibed by
Goldbe g e al. (2008a) on 6 June in he ea ly d y season, on 1 Augus in he monsoon
season, and on 23 Oc obe 2010 du ing he au umn d ough season. Sub-su ace soil gas
ubes we e ins alled in 10, 30, 40 and 60 cm dep h. The e we e h ee eplica es o each
dep h. Th ee samples o ambien ai we e collec ed as well. Gas sampling glass bo les (wi h
an inle , an ou le , and a sep um and de ined olumes o abou 100 ml) we e i s lushed wi h
N
2
gas, e acua ed using a memb ane acuum pump (KNF Neube ge N026.3AN.18,
F eibu g, Ge many) and a e measu ing he acuum by using a p essu e gauge
(TensioCheck TC 03S, Tensio-Technik, Geisenheim, Ge many), connec ed o an opened
s opcock o a soil gas ube be o e i s inle was opened.
2.5 Measu emen o soil ai
15
N/
14
N a ios and N
2
O concen a ions
To measu e N
2
O concen a ions and
15
N/
14
N iso ope a ios o he N
2
O in soil gas and ai
samples a gas ch oma og aph-iso ope a io mass spec ome e coupling was used which
was linked o a p e-GC concen a ion de ice (P eCon-GC-IRMS) (IRMS: del a V plus;
The mo Fishe Scien i ic, B emen, Ge many; gas ch oma og aph: GC 5890 se ies II;
Hewle -Packa d, Wilming on, USA; P e-Con: Finnigan MAT, B emen, Ge many) as
desc ibed in de ail by B and (1995). The me hod enables o de e mine iso ope a ios wi h a
p ecision o ± 0.15‰. They a e p esen ed as δ
15
N- alues which a e de ined as:
δ
15
N = (R
sample
/R
s anda d
-1) • 1000 [‰], (1)
whe e R is he a io o hea y iso ope [a om pe cen , a %] o ligh iso ope [a %] o he
samples and he espec i e s anda d. The in e na ional s anda d is N
2
in he a mosphe e
(Ma io i 1983).
N
2
O concen a ions we e calcula ed om he olume o he gas samples and he peak a ea
in m/z on mass 44 wi h he help o a calib a ion cu e. Fo u he de ails on his me hod see
Goldbe g e al. (2008a).
53
2.6 Es ima e o N deposi ion
N deposi ion da a based on di ec measu emen s a e no a ailable o he h ee o es si es
o ou in es iga ion. Fo his eason we chose a co ela ion app oach (Emme e al. 1998) o
es ima e N deposi ion o he h ee si es om
15
N en ichmen ac o s. On each si e i e sun
and i e shade lea es om i e all Que cus mongolica ees which we e p esen in he o es
canopy we e collec ed. Also, om i e unde s o y Q. mongolica ees i e lea es which g ew
app oxima ely 1.5 m abo e g ound we e sampled. The collec ed samples we e he ba ized
immedia ely a e he ha es , and wo mon hs la e d ied a 75°C o wo days. Fu he mo e,
a each si e i e op soil samples we e collec ed wi h a soil co e . Roo s we e emo ed by
hand and subsequen ly he samples we e d ied a 75°C. A e wa ds bo h, lea and soil
samples we e g ound in a ball mill (Re sch Schwingmühle MM2, Haan, Ge many), weighed
in o in capsules and s o ed in a desicca o be o e u he analysis. The ela i e N iso ope
abundance as well as C and N concen a ions we e measu ed wi h an elemen al analyze
(Ca lo E ba 1108, Milano, I aly) connec ed o a del a S iso ope a io mass spec ome e ia a
ConFlo III in e ace (bo h Finnigan MAT, B emen, Ge many). Fo u he de ails see
Bida ondo e al. (2004). F om he soils’ C and N concen a ion C/N a ios we e calcula ed.
Iso ope a ios a e p esen ed as δ alues, which we e calcula ed and de ined acco ding o he
equa ion (1) gi en in 2.5.
Mean
15
N abundances o he lea es and soil samples om each si e we e iden i ied and a N
en ichmen ac o was calcula ed by sub ac ing he a e age δ
15
N alue o he lea es and he
a e age δ
15
N alue o he soil om each o he . To calcula e N deposi ion he N en ichmen
ac o s we e inse ed in o an equa ion empi ically ound o he ela ionship be ween N
en ichmen and N deposi ion in a se o Eu opean o es si es: y = 0.1484x – 9.9472 (Emme
e al. 1998).
Because he equa ion was only es ed o coni e ous o es s, he esul s we de i ed we e
used ca e ully.
2.7 S a is ical me hods
N
2
O lux cu es we e ob ained by calcula ing mean N
2
O lux alues ± 1SE o e e y day o
measu emen and linea in e pola ion be ween wo consecu i e measu emen days. The
mean lux is based on n=8 o he sandy-loam si e and n=5 o he sandy and loamy si es.
The soil p o iles’ N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N alues a e gi en as means o n=3 ± 1SE.
S a is ical analyses we e pe o med using he so wa e R 2.12.0 o Windows (R
De elopmen Co e Team, 2010). Via -Tes (no mally dis ibu ed da a) o Mann-Whi ney U-
54
es (no no mally dis ibu ed da a) i was es ed whe he he measu ed N
2
O luxes a e
signi ican ly di e en om 0 and whe he he δ
15
N and N
2
O concen a ion p o iles a e
signi ican ly di e en om ambien ai ’s
15
N abundance and N
2
O concen a ion. Si e
compa isons wi h ega d o N deposi ion and C and N concen a ions we e done ia ANOVA
o he non-pa ame ic K uskal-Wallis- es . A mul iple eg ession analysis was used o iden i y
signi ican co ela ions be ween N
2
O lux and o he si e pa ame e s. Subsequen ly, Pea son
co ela ions we e done as pos hoc es s.
3. Resul s
3.1 Soil mois u e, soil empe a u e, C/N a io and N deposi ion h oughou he ege a ion
pe iod
Depending on hei soil ex u e and hei p ecipi a ion and empe a u e cha ac e is ics he
h ee si es showed di e ences in soil mois u e (Fig. 2, a-c; Table 2). Wi h a mean pF le el o
3.02 he sandy-loam si e u ned ou o be he d ies si e h oughou he measu emen pe iod,
du ing ea ly summe d ough eaching maximum pF le els o 3.62 on 11 June and 1 July
2010. The loamy si e had he mois es soil wi h a pF a e age o 2.52. On 10 and 29 June he
si e’s maximum pF le el o 2.87 was eached, which means wi h a pF di e ence o 0.74 i s
soil was h ee- ou hs o de s o magni ude mois e han he soils o he sandy-loam si e
du ing ha d ough pe iod. The sandy si e was o in e media e mois u e (pF le el 2.70).
Whe eas he sandy-loam and loamy si es showed huge mois u e luc ua ions h oughou he
measu emen pe iod, he sandy si es’ soil humidi y emained mo e o less cons an om 1
May un il 31 Oc obe . Du ing he monsoon pe iod (2 July un il 13 Sep embe ) he sandy-loam
and loamy si es’ soil mois u e inc eased s epwise which is e lec ed by dec easing pF le els.
The minimum pF le el de e mined a he sandy-loam si e was 2.44 and 2.11 a he loamy
si e. A e he 2 ½ mon hs o hea y monsoon ains he s udy si es’ soils d ied up again.
The soil empe a u e a all h ee si es inc eased g adually om he beginning o he
measu emen pe iod un il mid Augus and dec eased a e wa ds. The mean soil empe a u e
om May un il Oc obe was highes a he loamy si e (17.1°C; 450 m a.s.l.) and lowes a he
sandy si e (15.5°C; 950 m a.s.l.). The a e age soil empe a u e a he sandy-loam si e (650
m a.s.l.) was 16.6°C.
The si es sligh ly di e ed in C/N a io depending on he soil dep h (Table 2).
Es ima ed N deposi ion anges om 24 ± 13.8 kg N ha
± 15.3 kg N ha
-1
a he mos ag icul u e
(Table 2). The e is no s a is ically signi ican di e ence o N deposi ion be ween he h ee
si es (P=0.102), bu he di e
ence be ween he N deposi ion o he loamy si e and he o he
wo si e’s N deposi ion can be ega ded as a end.
Figu e 2.
Mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] and mean daily pF le el [log cm] (
1
] (d- ) and cumula i e N
2
O
emission [mmol m
loamy si e (g, h, i
) as a unc ion o ime om 1 May un il 31 Oc obe , 2010. The dashed e ical lines
indica e beginning (2 July) and end (13 Sep embe ) o he monsoon ains a he me
E o ba s in N
2
O lux-
and cumula i e N
(n=8 a sandy-loam si e, and n
=5 a sandy and loamy si e).
55
Es ima ed N deposi ion anges om 24 ± 13.8 kg N ha
-1
a he mos emo e sandy si e o 51
a he mos ag icul u e
-
a ec ed loamy si e in he middle o he Haean basin
(Table 2). The e is no s a is ically signi ican di e ence o N deposi ion be ween he h ee
ence be ween he N deposi ion o he loamy si e and he o he
wo si e’s N deposi ion can be ega ded as a end.
Mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] and mean daily pF le el [log cm] (
a-c
), N
emission [mmol m
-2
] (g-i) a sandy-loam (a, d, g
), sandy (
) as a unc ion o ime om 1 May un il 31 Oc obe , 2010. The dashed e ical lines
indica e beginning (2 July) and end (13 Sep embe ) o he monsoon ains a he me
and cumula i e N
2
O emission-
g aphs ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean
=5 a sandy and loamy si e).
a he mos emo e sandy si e o 51
a ec ed loamy si e in he middle o he Haean basin
(Table 2). The e is no s a is ically signi ican di e ence o N deposi ion be ween he h ee
ence be ween he N deposi ion o he loamy si e and he o he
), N
2
O lux [µmol m
-2
h
-
), sandy (
b, e, h) and
) as a unc ion o ime om 1 May un il 31 Oc obe , 2010. The dashed e ical lines
indica e beginning (2 July) and end (13 Sep embe ) o he monsoon ains a he me
asu emen si es.
g aphs ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean
62
signa u e o ambien N
2
O, which sugges s an N
2
O lux om he a mosphe e in o he soil. On
1s o Augus (du ing he monsoon season) he N
2
O concen a ion and
15
N abundance
pa e n along he soil p o ile is no ha clea . N
2
O concen a ions in he soil gas only sligh ly
highe han he N
2
O concen a ions o he ambien ai , as well as a
15
N-signa u e ha was no
signi ican ly di e en om ambien -N
2
Os’ δ
15
N alues allow he conclusion o be d awn ha
only e y iny N
2
O emissions ha e aken place on ha sampling da e, nei he has occu ed
any N
2
O consump ion along he soil p o ile.
N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N alues along he soil p o iles a e in ag eemen wi h he N
2
O
luxes measu ed a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace ia chambe measu emen s and gi e
u he insigh s in o he N
2
O p oduc ion conce ning p ocesses, e en hough he alues we
obse ed a e e y di e en om o he s udies.
Goldbe g and Gebaue (2009a, b) de ec ed N
2
O concen a ions up o 5000 ppb and δ
15
N
g adien s be ween +7 and -24 ‰ in deepe soil laye s (50 cm and deepe ). Ou s udy si es
a e exposed o ai o e en se e e d ough du ing eigh mon hs a yea , which means
inc eased soil ae a ion and hus un a o able condi ions o N
2
O p oduc ion by deni i ica ion
(Cas aldi 2000) o ni i ie deni i ica ion du ing mos o he yea . D ough is also known o
educe he amoun o N cycled in he ecosys em by educing he o e all ac i i y o N
me abolizing mic oo ganisms (Kie e al. 1987). Gi en ha he sandy-loam si es’ N
2
O
emissions du ing he monsoon pe iod we e e y low and ha he luxes a he
soil/a mosphe e in e ace esul om dynamic p oduc ion and consump ion p ocesses in he
soil, i appea s likely ha jus no much o such p ocesses a e going on in Ko ean deciduous
o es s’ soils and ha a ime span o 3-4 mon hs o ain all pe yea is oo sho o es ablish
condi ions a o able o N
2
O p oducing o consuming mic oo ganisms a he si e.
Up o now he e was he concep o no much o he N
2
O being p oduced wi hin he soil
column e e eaching he soil su ace (Seile and Con ad, 1981; A ah e al. 1991; Ne el e
al. 2000; Goldbe g and Gebaue , 2009a, b), bu he concep o no ha ing ongoing N
2
O
p oduc ion down o 60 cm soil dep h is a he uncommon. Yoh e al. (1997) sugges ed ha
mos o he N
2
O p oduced in he opsoil may easily escape o he a mosphe e wi hou
esiding in he soil o a long ime, and since we iden i ied he op-soil ex u e as a p obable
majo ac o d i ing ou si es’ N
2
O luxes be ween soil and a mosphe e, since we de ec ed
N
2
O luxes a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace while nei he ha ing s ongly inc eased o
dec eased N
2
O concen a ions no en iched o deple ed
15
N
N2O
abundances along he soil
p o ile, ou da a ag ee wi h his hypo hesis.

63
4.4 Concluding ema ks
Gi en Ko ea’s on ie -like loca ion be ween Paci ic Ocean and Asia, i is no su p ising ha
clima e change hi s he coun y ha de han o example Eu ope. The mean annual
empe a u e in Ko ea inc eased no only by 1°C as g lobally obse ed bu by 1.8°C du ing he
las 100 yea s, summe s a e now wo o h ee weeks longe , mois e and ex eme ain all
e en s a e occu ing mo e equen (Lee e al. 2012). Conside ing hose ac s – which a e
known o inc ease N
2
O emissions (Po e e al. 1996; Skiba e al. 1998; IPCC 2001,
Bu e bach-Bahl e al. 2004; Pilegaa d e al. 2006; Kesik e al. 2006) – and ha he 2010
monsoon season was unusually long and ain-laden (Zhao 2010, unpublished da a), ou da a
p o ide u he insigh in he N
2
O lux beha io o o es soils unde global clima e change.
Taking in o accoun all he p e iously discussed ideas and ac s abou d y o es soils ac ing
as N
2
O sinks o a leas no as huge N
2
O emi e s, one would expec a clima e change
owa ds mois e condi ions o inc ease N
2
O emissions. Bu in e es ingly ou s udy si es
happened o ha e N
2
O balances which a e ex emely low o e en nega i e which is an
unexpec ed inding. S ill 30% o he global N
2
O budge emains unce ain by ei he
o e es ima ing N
2
O sou ces o unde es ima ing N
2
O sinks (Billings 2008). Ou da a now
show ha one yea o ex eme monsoon p ecipi a ion in Ko ea’s apidly changing
en i onmen s did no esul in a s ong N
2
O emission o o es soils which may sugges ha
o es soils as N
2
O sinks play a bigge ole o he global N
2
O budge han conside ed up o
now. Clima e change is s ill p oceeding and he de elopmen o Ko ea’s clima e, which was
obse ed du ing he las 100 yea s, will eme ge in a mo e in ensi e way in he nex 100
yea s (Lee e al. 2012), so i would be o g ea in e es o pu mo e e o in s udying he N
2
O
lux beha io o Ko ean o es ’s soils and o also s udy o es s o o he Eas Asian coun ies
such as Japan o he Eas e n egions o China, which unde go he same clima e.
64
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k is pa o he esea ch g oup “TERRECO - Complex TERRain and ECOlogical
He e ogenei y” and inancially suppo ed by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG). We
hank Juyoung Seo and Injoung Jang o suppo ing us in he ield, o aking ca e o sample
logis ics in Ko ea and o p o iding us wi h equi ed equipmen . We hank Sebas ian A nhold
o p o iding da a on soil ex u e and S e e Lindne o his help in he ield. We a e hank ul
o Peng Zhao o his pa ien assis ance by emo ing millions o ine oo s ou o nume ous
soil samples by hand, and o Isolde Baumann and Ch is ine Ti och, who we e o g ea
assis ance o us by measu ing iso ope abundances. We u he mo e acknowledge he
a seeing, ca e ul and e y p o essional coo dina ion o he TERRECO ieldwo k by John
Tenhunen.
65
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Ne el, A., Bla e , A., Schmid, M., Lehmann, B., Ta akano , S.V., 2000. An expe imen al
de e mina ion o he scale leng h o N
2
O in he soil o a g assland. Jou nal o Geophysical Resea ch –
A mosphe es 105, 12095-12103.
O meci, B., Sanin, S.L., Pei ce, J.J., 1999. Labo a o y s udy o NO lux om ag icul u al soil: E ec s o
soil mois u e, pH, and empe a u e. Jou nal o Geophysical Resea ch – A mosphe es 104, 1621-1629.

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Papen, H., Bu e bach-Bahl, K., 1999. A 3-yea con inuous eco d o ni ogen ace gas luxes om
un ea ed and limed soil o a N-sa u a ed sp uce and beech o es ecosys em in Ge many - 1. N
2
O
emissions. Jou nal o Geophysical Resea ch – A mosphe es 104, 18487-18503.
Pilegaa d, K., Skiba, U., Ambus, P., Beie , C., B üggemann, N., Bu e bach-Bahl, K., Dick, J., Do sey,
J., e al., 2006. Fac o s con olling egional di e ences in o es soil emission o ni ogen oxides (NO
and N
2
O). Biogeosciences 3, 651–661.
Po e , C.S., Ma son, P.A., Vi ousek, P.M., Da idson, E.A., 1996. P ocess modeling o con ols on
ni ogen ace gas emissions om soils wo ldwide. Jou nal o Geophysical Resea ch-A mosphe es
101, 1361-1377.
Qian, W.H., Kang, H.-S., Lee, D.-K., 2002. Dis ibu ion o seasonal ain all in he Eas Asian monsoon
egion. Theo e ical and Applied Clima ology 73, 151–168.
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p ojec .o g/.
Rock, L., Elle , B.H., Maye , B., No man, A.L., 2007. Iso opic composi ion o oposphe ic and soil
N
2
O om successi e dep hs o ag icul u al plo s wi h con as ing c ops and ni ogen amendmen s.
Jou nal o Geophysical Resea ch 112, A icle numbe D18303.
Schaap, M.G., Leij, F.J., an Genuch en, M.T., 2001. ROSETTA: a compu e p og am o es ima ing
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Schindlbache , A., Zechmeis e -Bol ens e n, S., Bu e bach-Bahl, K., 2004. E ec s o soil mois u e
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, and N
2
O emissions om Eu opean o es soils. Jou nal o Geophysical
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Seile , W., Con ad, R., 1981. Fied-measu emen s o na u al and e ilize -induced N
2
O elease om
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Skiba, U.M., Sheppa d, L., MacDonald, J., Fowle , D., 1998. Some key en i onmen al a iables
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2
O and NO
x
emissions. Biogeochemis y 63, 229-247.
an G oenigen, J.W., Zwa , K.B., Ha is, D., an Kessel, C., 2005. Ve ical g adien s o δ
15
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O
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2
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Wloda czyk, T., S epniewski, W., B zezinska, M., Majewska, U., 2011. Va ious ex u ed soil as ni ous
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WMO, 2006. The S a e o G eenhouse Gases in he A mosphe e Using Global Obse a ions up o
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Yamulki, S., Ja is, S.C., 1999. Au oma ed chambe echnique o gaseous lux measu emen s:
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Yoh, M., Toda, H., Kanda, K., Tsu u a, H., 1997. Di usion analysis o N
2
O cycling in a e ilized soil.
Nu ien Cycling in Ag oecosys ems 49, 29-33.
70
71
Chap e 3
N
2
O emissions om d y c op ields as a ec ed by PE mulching, amoun o
e ilize , c op ype and clima e
78
Figu e 1: Schema ic d awing o he expe imen al design o he adish ield si e in 2010.

79
Figu e 2: Scheme o a ypical idge cul i a ion sys em wi h plas ic mulching in a empe a e Sou h
Ko ean a ea wi h summe monsoon (Ke e ing unpublished). Shown a e he dis ibu ion o N e ilize
in he sys em and wid h, heigh and dis ance o he idges.
2.3 Expe imen al design in 2011
Be o e he expe imen s a ed, he ield in which adish had g own he p e ious yea , was
ploughed by he a me wi hou applying any e ilize in 2011. The idge and u ow sys em
was implemen ed (35 cm wide and 15-20 cm high (Fig. 2)), he idges we e co e ed wi h
impe ious black PE mulch ha con ained one ow o holes e e y 25 cm along he idge wi h
a diame e o 6 cm. On May 29, soy beans we e sowed on op o he idges a a a e o wo -
h ee seeds o each hole. Some idges emained unco e ed. Weeding du ing he
expe imen was pe o med manually wi hou he applica ion o he bicides. This is no he
common p ac ice in his a ea as a me s usually seem o apply he bicides, bu in o de no o
add any mo e chemicals and po en ially N
2
O-emission-causing subs ances, i was decided o
manually weed. The weeding was done one ime, on June 15, 2011.
N
2
O luxes we e measu ed using nine PVC cylinde s: h ee su ounded soy bean plan s
which g ew on idges co e ed wi h PE mulch, h ee su ounded soy bean plan s which g ew
on idges which we e no co e ed wi h PE mulch and h ee ins alled in he u ows which
we e andomly dis ibu ed nex o PE-co e ed and non-PE-co e ed idges.
2.4 Measu emen s o N
2
O luxes
N
2
O luxes we e measu ed e e y h ee o se en days om May 13 h ough Oc obe 22, 2010
a he adish ield si e and om May 16 h ough Sep embe 14, 2011 a he soy bean ield
si e using he closed chambe me hod in conjunc ion wi h a pho oacous ic in a ed gas
analyse (Mul igas Moni o 1312, INNOVA, Balle up, Denma k) as desc ibed by Yamulki and
80
Ja is (1999) and Goldbe g e al. (2008). Each si e con ained he amoun o PVC cylinde s
desc ibed abo e wi h a diame e o 19.5 cm and a heigh o 15 cm, which we e ins alled 7 cm
deep in he soil. They se ed as connec ing poin s o a ach he chambe s in whose
headspaces he N
2
O concen a ions we e de e mined in 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 minu e
in e als. The ep oducibili y o one single N
2
O concen a ion measu emen was ± 32 ppb.
F om a linea inc ease o dec ease o he N
2
O concen a ion in he chambe s’ headspaces
he N
2
O lux was calcula ed aking in o accoun he o al chambe olume which includes he
chambe headspace olume, olume o he wo 25 m long Te lon ubes and o he CO
2
and
H
2
O gas aps.
Cumula i e N
2
O emissions we e calcula ed as desc ibed by Tilsne e al. (2003a), by
mul iplying he N
2
O emission a es o wo consecu i e measu emen days wi h he
co esponding ime pe iod. These ime weigh ed N
2
O lux means we e hen summed up o e
he measu emen pe iod.
2.5 Measu emen o soil mois u e and soil empe a u e
To measu e olume ic soil wa e con en [%] and soil empe a u e [°C] ECH2O logge s
(EM50 Da a logge , Decagon De ices, WA, USA) we e used. They logged soil mois u e and
empe a u e alues e e y 30 minu es om May 13 h ough Augus 31, 2010 a he N200
ea men o he adish ield and om May 16 h ough Sep embe 14, 2011 a he soy bean
ield.
A he N200 ea men o he adish ield one senso was ins alled 5 cm deep in he u ow
and a second senso was ins alled 5 cm deep in one o he holes o he PE mulch.
A he soy bean ield one senso was ins alled 5 cm deep in a u ow, one mo e senso was
ins alled 5 cm deep in one o he plan holes o a idge ha was co e ed wi h PE mulch and a
hi d senso was ins alled nex o a plan o a idge which was no co e ed wi h PE mulch.
2.6 S a is ical me hods
N
2
O lux cu es we e ob ained by calcula ing mean N
2
O lux alues ± 1SE o e e y day o
measu emen and linea in e pola ion be ween wo consecu i e measu emen days. The
mean lux was based on n=3 o u ows, PE mulches and plan holes a each amoun o
e ilize applied. S a is ics we e conduc ed wi h R 2.12.0. Via -Tes (no mally dis ibu ed
da a) o Mann-Whi ney U- es (no no mally dis ibu ed da a) i was es ed whe he he
measu ed N
2
O luxes a e signi ican ly di e en om ze o and whe he he soil mois u e and
empe a u e condi ions unde nea h he PE mulch we e di e en om hose in he u ow.
A e he -Tes had no shown a di e ence be ween he soil empe a u es o PE-mulched
81
idges and u ows, a pai ed -Tes was conduc ed. To de e mine whe he u ow-, PE mulch-
and plan hole N
2
O luxes o he adish ield’s N50, N200, N250 and N350 plo s and also he
N
2
O luxes o he soy bean ield’s PE-mulched and non-PE-mulched idges, as well as soil
mois u e o soil empe a u e o he soy bean ield’s u ows, PE- and non-PE-mulched idges
we e s a is ically di e en om each o he , -Tes s, ANOVAs o he non-pa ame ic K uskal-
Wallis- es s we e calcula ed. Pea son o Spea man analyses we e pe o med o iden i y
po en ial co ela ions be ween N
2
O luxes and olume ic soil wa e con en and soil
empe a u e and be ween he cumula i e N
2
O emissions and he amoun o N e ilize
applied.
3. Resul s
3.1 N
2
O luxes and cumula i e N
2
O emissions a he adish ield in 2010
Wi h inc easing amoun o e ilize applied he e appea ed o be a highe N
2
O emission a e
o he plan hole-spo s a all he plo s` idges. The N
2
O-emissions o he u ow showed a
mo e complica ed pa e n: o hose plo s which had ecei ed a lowe amoun o N e ilize
(N50 and N200), he N
2
O emissions o he u ows exceeded he emissions o he plan
holes. Fo he N250 and N350 plo s he opposi e N
2
O emission pa e n could be obse ed.
The N
2
O luxes o idges wi h PE mulch we e almos ze o o all o he ea men s du ing he
ime o he expe imen , excep o June 23, when hey eached hei maximum (N50: 3.15
µmol m
-2
h
-1
; N200: 1.85 µmol m
-2
h
-1
; N250: 1.21 µmol m
-2
h
-1
; N350: 2.84 µmol m
-2
h
-1
). On
ha day, he plan holes and u ows also showed he highes N
2
O luxes.
Be o e June 16 and a e July 24 only e y iny o ze o N
2
O luxes could be measu ed.
The e we e signi ican ly di e en N
2
O luxes (*P<0.05) be ween PE mulch and plan holes in
PE mulch as well as u ows o almos all o he plo s (see Table 1 in he appendix o all
s a is ical di e ences). No di e ences we e ound among idges, u ows and PE mulches o
he di e en ly e ilized plo s.
The measu emen pe iod’s cumula i e N
2
O emissions o he u ows and plan holes in PE
mulch ange be ween 2 o 6 mmol m
-2
(equals 880.3 o 2640.8 g N
2
O ha
-1
o 5.5 o 16.4 g
N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
), whe eas he highes cumula i e N
2
O emissions degassed om he u ows o
he N50 plo s (6 mmol m
-2
, equals 2640.8 g N
2
O ha
-1
o 16.4 g N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
). Among all o he
di e en amoun s o e ilize applied he N
2
O luxes o he PE mulches in eg a ed o e ime
amoun ed o compa ably low alues o 0.2 o -0.8 mmol m
-2
(equals 88.0 o -352.1 g N
2
O ha
-1
o 0.5 o -2.2 g N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
).
82
Figu e 3: N
2
O lux [µmol m
-2
h
-1
] and cumula i e N
2
O emission [mmol m
-2
] o he adish ield si e om
May 13 un il Oc obe 22, 2010. The i s do ed line indica es he day when he N e ilize was applied
(June 1) and he second do ed line indica es he day when he adish was ha es ed, he PE mulch
was emo ed and he idge and u ow sys em was dissol ed. E o ba s in N
2
O lux- and cumula i e
N
2
O emission- g aphs ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean (n=3).
3.2 Soil mois u e and empe a u e o he PE
The e appea ed o be highe empe a u e
u ows; howe e , he mean soil empe a u e du ing he ime o he expe imen was 24.80°C
(±2.14) in PE-
mulched idges and 24.30°C (±1.58) and u ows (Fig. 4) which makes a e y
signi ican di e ence o 0
.5°C (**P = 0.005). In con as , he mean olume ic soil wa e
con en in idges and u ows di e ed wi h a mean alue o 19.80% ( anging om 10% o
32%) in he u ows and 15.62% ( anging om 5% o 15%) in he idges unde nea h he PE
mulch, which mak
es a highly signi ican di e ence (***P < 0.001) o 4.18%.
Figu e 4: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om June 14
un il Augus 31 o he N200 plo a he adish ield si e in 2010.
3.3 N
2
O luxes and cumul
a i e N
The N
2
O luxes a he soy bean ield si e’s PE
om sligh ly nega i e o 5.2 µmol m
compa a i ely low: lux peaks occu ed on May 22, June 6, July 6, Augus 23 and Augus 30;
howe e , s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween he PE
idges could no be
ound. Fo he u ows he e is a simila pa e n; howe e , hei a e age
N
2
O exchange a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace mos o he imes was highe han ha o he
idges (Tab. 2).
Fo he cumula i e N
2
O emissions he g aph (Fig. 5) shows a di e ence be
o N
2
O degassed om PE-
co e ed and non
signi ican . Also, he amoun o N
cumula i e N
2
O emissions o he PE
83
3.2 Soil mois u e and empe a u e o he PE
-
mulched idges and u ows a he N200 plo
The e appea ed o be highe empe a u e
luc ua ions in he PE-
mulched idges han in he
u ows; howe e , he mean soil empe a u e du ing he ime o he expe imen was 24.80°C
mulched idges and 24.30°C (±1.58) and u ows (Fig. 4) which makes a e y
.5°C (**P = 0.005). In con as , he mean olume ic soil wa e
con en in idges and u ows di e ed wi h a mean alue o 19.80% ( anging om 10% o
32%) in he u ows and 15.62% ( anging om 5% o 15%) in he idges unde nea h he PE
es a highly signi ican di e ence (***P < 0.001) o 4.18%.
Figu e 4: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om June 14
un il Augus 31 o he N200 plo a he adish ield si e in 2010.
a i e N
2
O emissions a he soy bean ield in 2011
O luxes a he soy bean ield si e’s PE
-co e ed and non-PE-
co e ed idges anged
om sligh ly nega i e o 5.2 µmol m
-2
h
-1
(Fig. 5). Du ing he ime o he expe imen hey we e
compa a i ely low: lux peaks occu ed on May 22, June 6, July 6, Augus 23 and Augus 30;
howe e , s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween he PE
-
mulched and non
ound. Fo he u ows he e is a simila pa e n; howe e , hei a e age
O exchange a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace mos o he imes was highe han ha o he
O emissions he g aph (Fig. 5) shows a di e ence be
co e ed and non
-PE-
co e ed idges which is no s a is ically
signi ican . Also, he amoun o N
2
O degassed om he u ows (Tab. 2) exceeds bo h he
O emissions o he PE
-co e ed and non-PE-co e ed idg
es. The N
mulched idges and u ows a he N200 plo
mulched idges han in he
u ows; howe e , he mean soil empe a u e du ing he ime o he expe imen was 24.80°C
mulched idges and 24.30°C (±1.58) and u ows (Fig. 4) which makes a e y
.5°C (**P = 0.005). In con as , he mean olume ic soil wa e
con en in idges and u ows di e ed wi h a mean alue o 19.80% ( anging om 10% o
32%) in he u ows and 15.62% ( anging om 5% o 15%) in he idges unde nea h he PE
es a highly signi ican di e ence (***P < 0.001) o 4.18%.
Figu e 4: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om June 14
un il Augus 31 o he N200 plo a he adish ield si e in 2010.
O emissions a he soy bean ield in 2011
co e ed idges anged
(Fig. 5). Du ing he ime o he expe imen hey we e
compa a i ely low: lux peaks occu ed on May 22, June 6, July 6, Augus 23 and Augus 30;
mulched and non
-PE-mulched
ound. Fo he u ows he e is a simila pa e n; howe e , hei a e age
O exchange a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace mos o he imes was highe han ha o he
O emissions he g aph (Fig. 5) shows a di e ence be
ween he amoun
co e ed idges which is no s a is ically
O degassed om he u ows (Tab. 2) exceeds bo h he
es. The N
2
O luxes o

84
he non-PE-mulched idges amoun ed o 3 mmol m
-2
(equals 1320.4 g N
2
O ha
-1
o 10.9 g
N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
), which is 50% mo e han he emission om he PE-mulched idges. The highes
cumula i e N
2
O emissions we e ound o he u ows (3.9 mmol m
-2
equals 1716.5 g N
2
O ha
-
1
o 14.2 g N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
).
Figu e 5: N
2
O lux [µmol m
-2
h
-1
] and cumula i e N
2
O emission [mmol m
-2
] o he soy bean ield si e
om May 15 un il Sep embe 14, 2011. E o ba s ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean (n=3).
85
Table 2: N
2
O lux [µmol m
-2
h
-1
] and S anda d E o (n=3) as well as cumula i e N
2
O emission [mmol
m
-2
] and S anda d E o (n=3) o he soy bean ield si e’s u ows om May 15 h ough Sep embe 14,
2011. Those N
2
O luxes a e a mix u e o N
2
O luxes om u ows which we e loca ed nex o PE-
mulched and such which we e loca ed nex o non-PE-mulched idges so ha hey canno be included
in o Figu e 5.
Da e
Measu ed
N
2
O lux
[µmol m
-2
h
-1
]
±1SE
Cumula i e
N
2
O emission
[mmol m
-2
]
±1SE
16.05.2011 -0.29 0.18
17.05.2011 0.40 0.56
0.00 0.00
22.05.2011 7.83 4.62
0.50 0.09
27.05.2011 0.23 0.41
0.98 0.19
30.05.2011 1.24 0.69
1.03 0.20
06.06.2011 3.03 2.12
1.34 0.32
08.06.2011 0.42 0.15
1.42 0.36
10.06.2011 0.95 0.09
1.46 0.39
13.06.2011 0.55 0.18
1.51 0.42
15.06.2011 1.02 0.08
1.55 0.43
21.06.2011 0.97 0.54
1.69 0.45
28.06.2011 1.95 1.58
1.93 0.50
02.07.2011 1.35 1.37
2.09 0.53
06.07.2011 3.30 2.53
2.31 0.54
10.07.2011 0.52 0.18
2.50 0.54
15.07.2011 0.50 0.43
2.56 0.56
21.07.2011 0.05 0.05
2.60 0.57
25.07.2011 -0.09 0.10
2.60 0.58
29.07.2011 0.14 0.30
2.60 0.59
02.08.2011 0.38 0.30
2.63 0.61
10.08.2011 0.53 0.49
2.71 0.63
15.08.2011 2.83 2.19
2.91 0.66
19.08.2011 -0.05 0.47
3.05 0.67
23.08.2011 2.16 1.09
3.15 0.69
30.08.2011 2.19 1.91
3.51 0.84
13.09.2011 0.15 0.36
3.91 1.09
3.4 Soil mois u e and empe a u e o he PE mulched idges, he non-PE-mulched idges and
u ows a he soy bean ield
The lowes mean soil empe a u e (21.47°C ±2.44) as well as he smalles empe a u e
luc ua ions occu ed in he u ows (Fig. 6), whose soil empe a u es we e only by end (P =
0.103) di e en om mean daily soil empe a u es in he PE mulched and non-PE-mulched
idges. The empe a u e luc ua ions and a e aged mean daily soil empe a u e we e e y
simila in PE-mulched (21.96°C ±2.57) and non-PE-mulched idges (22.00°C ±2.56).
Volume ic soil wa e con en was e y simila and s a is ically no di e en iable in he u ows
(30.22 ±0.11 %) and non-PE-mulched idges (28.36 ±0.08 %), whe eas he idges which
we e co e ed wi h he PE ilm we e much d ie and s a is ically di e en (19.03 ±4.98 %),
which is e lec ed in a highly signi ican s a is ical e
Figu e 6: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om May 15
un il Sep embe 14 a he soy bean ield si e in 2011.
3.5 Co ela ions be ween N
2
O luxes and soil mois u e, soil
e ilize applied
Nei he soil mois u e no soil empe a u e a ec ed he N
ield si e signi ican ly (R
2
<0.1,
14 appa en ly igge ed he N
2
mo e, smalle , N
2
O peak a he adish ield si e in 2010.
No co ela ion could be ound be ween applied N e ilize amoun s and sum o N
om he adish ield.
4. Discussion
4.1 Gene al commen s on c op yields o he s udy egion
The a e age yield o adish in he s udy a ea in 2010 was 33.1 /ha and in 2011, 32.5 /ha;
a e age yield o soy beans was 1.85 /ha in 2010 and 1.56 /ha in 2011 (Yanggu Coun y
o ice s a is ic 2010, 2011, unpublished da a shee s). Fo adish he a e age
in he li e a u e a ies be ween 60 and 160 /ha and o soy beans he a e age yields a e 0.6
4.9 /ha (Ba i e al., 1983; Mo gan and Midmo e, 2003; Khai ul Alam e al., 2010; Lindne ,
2012, pe sonal communica ion). The e o e, he yields
on a e age whe eas adish yields we e below a e age. Fo o he c ops o he s udy a ea
which also expe ience he PE mulching p ac ice such as po a o and cabbage, he yields a e
86
we e co e ed wi h he PE ilm we e much d ie and s a is ically di e en (19.03 ±4.98 %),
which is e lec ed in a highly signi ican s a is ical e
sul o P < 0.001, H = 86.684.
Figu e 6: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om May 15
un il Sep embe 14 a he soy bean ield si e in 2011.
O luxes and soil mois u e, soil
empe a u e and amoun o N
Nei he soil mois u e no soil empe a u e a ec ed he N
2
O luxes a he adish o soy bean
<0.1,
P
>0.05) e en hough he ain e en om June 12 h ough June
2
O luxes and he July 2 h ough July 5 ain e en p eceded one
O peak a he adish ield si e in 2010.
No co ela ion could be ound be ween applied N e ilize amoun s and sum o N
4.1 Gene al commen s on c op yields o he s udy egion
The a e age yield o adish in he s udy a ea in 2010 was 33.1 /ha and in 2011, 32.5 /ha;
a e age yield o soy beans was 1.85 /ha in 2010 and 1.56 /ha in 2011 (Yanggu Coun y
o ice s a is ic 2010, 2011, unpublished da a shee s). Fo adish he a e age
in he li e a u e a ies be ween 60 and 160 /ha and o soy beans he a e age yields a e 0.6
4.9 /ha (Ba i e al., 1983; Mo gan and Midmo e, 2003; Khai ul Alam e al., 2010; Lindne ,
2012, pe sonal communica ion). The e o e, he yields
o soy beans o he s udy egion we e
on a e age whe eas adish yields we e below a e age. Fo o he c ops o he s udy a ea
which also expe ience he PE mulching p ac ice such as po a o and cabbage, he yields a e
we e co e ed wi h he PE ilm we e much d ie and s a is ically di e en (19.03 ±4.98 %),
sul o P < 0.001, H = 86.684.
Figu e 6: Mean daily olume ic wa e con en [%] and mean daily soil empe a u e [°C] om May 15
empe a u e and amoun o N
O luxes a he adish o soy bean
>0.05) e en hough he ain e en om June 12 h ough June
O luxes and he July 2 h ough July 5 ain e en p eceded one
No co ela ion could be ound be ween applied N e ilize amoun s and sum o N
2
O emi ed
The a e age yield o adish in he s udy a ea in 2010 was 33.1 /ha and in 2011, 32.5 /ha;
a e age yield o soy beans was 1.85 /ha in 2010 and 1.56 /ha in 2011 (Yanggu Coun y
o ice s a is ic 2010, 2011, unpublished da a shee s). Fo adish he a e age
yield da a gi en
in he li e a u e a ies be ween 60 and 160 /ha and o soy beans he a e age yields a e 0.6
-
4.9 /ha (Ba i e al., 1983; Mo gan and Midmo e, 2003; Khai ul Alam e al., 2010; Lindne ,
o soy beans o he s udy egion we e
on a e age whe eas adish yields we e below a e age. Fo o he c ops o he s udy a ea
which also expe ience he PE mulching p ac ice such as po a o and cabbage, he yields a e
87
well on a e age in compa ison o o he a eas’ yields (Ho on e al., 1988; Hassal and
Associa es, 2003; Rahemi e al., 2005; Bohl and Johnson, 2010).
Also, i is known ha he PE mulch - h ough pe o ming as a g eenhouse - in gene al has a
posi i e e ec on he plan p oduc i i y, which is he main eason why i is widely used
wo ldwide. The pu pose o ou s udy was no o econ i m i bu we ook he al eady well-
in es iga ed posi i e PE mulching e ec on c op yields (Ky ikou and B iassoulis, 2007) as
gi en and u he mo e ied o b oaden ou knowledge on side e ec s o he PE mulch, such
as i s impac on N
2
O as i s impac on N
2
O emissions.
4.2 Discussion o he esul s
An unexpec ed esul was ha he soil mois u e o he PE-mulched idges o he adish ield
as well as hose o he soy bean ield was much lowe han we had expec ed and as o he
publica ions p edic (Ky ikou and B iassoulis, 2007; Nishimu a e al. 2012). Nishimu a e al.
(2012) obse ed ha du ing he summe he soil mois u e unde he PE mulch a hei
expe imen al si e anged om 26% o 33%, which is in con as o he conside ably lowe soil
mois u e alues unde nea h he PE mulch ha we ound a ou s udy si es: du ing he ea ly
summe d ough pe iod in 2010 i anged om 9% o 22% a he adish ield si e and du ing
he ea ly summe d ough o he yea 2011 i anged om 12% o 20%. The eason o hose
low soil mois u es could be he soil condi ions o he s udy a ea. Acco ding o Ke e ing e al.
(2013), he soils o he s udy egion we e e y sandy, as we e he soils o ou expe imen al
si es. Such soils show a as in il a ion and seepage o wa e ; hus due o quick seeping o
wa e i appea s plausible o us ha he PE mulch a ou expe imen al si es could no keep
he soil mois u e high and he soils o ou expe imen al si es we e d ye as in he p e ious
s udies.
This unexpec ed inding may be he main eason why ou ini ial hypo hesis could no be
co obo a ed. We we e assuming ha plas ic mulch ilms co e ing ag icul u al ields would
lead o inc eased N
2
O emissions due o highe soil empe a u es and mois u e bu he wo
expe imen s which we conduc ed we e no in line wi h his hypo hesis.
The 2010 expe imen a he adish ield si e p o ided an indica ion ha idges which a e
being co e ed wi h PE mulch ilms show e y iny N
2
O emissions om he PE mulch su ace
whe eas he adjacen plan hole spo s and u ows showed qui e high emissions. This aised
he ques ion whe he less N
2
O p oduc ion occu ed unde nea h he PE mulch ilm o he e
was ho izon al di usion o N
2
O om he idge soil co e ed wi h he mulch ilm o he adjacen
u ows and plan holes, so ha mos o he N
2
O p oduced unde nea h he PE mulch would
ha e degassed om he u ows and plan hole spo s. Recen ly, Nishimu a e al. (2012)
published ha he N
2
O lux by pe mea ion h ough he mulch ilm was much highe han ha
94
Roche e, P., Janzen, H.H., 2005. Towa ds a e ised coe icien o es ima ing N
2
O emissions om
legumes. Nu . Cycl. Ag oecosys. 73, 171–179.
Rodhe, H., 1990. A compa ison o he con ibu ion o a ious gases o he g eenhouse-e ec . Science,
248, 1217-1219.
Ruse , R., Flessa, H., Russow, R., Schmid , G., Buegge , F., Munch, J.C., 2006. Emission o N
2
O, N-
2
and CO
2
om soil e ilized wi h ni a e: E ec o compac ion, soil mois u e and ewe ing. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 38, 263-274.
Scholes, M.C., Ma in, R., Scholes, R.J., Pa sons, D., Wins ead, E., 1997. NO and N
2
O emissions
om sa anna soils ollowing he i s simula ed ains o he season. Nu . Cycl. Ag oecosys. 48, 115–
122.
Shephe d, M.F., Ba ze i, S., Has ie, D.R., 1991. The p oduc ion o a mosphe eic NO
X
and N
2
O om a
e ilized ag icul u al soil. A mos. En i on. Pa A 25, 1961-1969.
S eh es , E., Bouwman, L., 2006. N
2
O and NO emission om ag icul u al ields and soils unde na u al
ege a ion: summa izing a ailable measu emen da a and modeling o global annual emissions. Nu .
Cycl. Ag oecosys. 74, 207–228.
Tilsne , J., W age, N., Lau , J., Gebaue , G., 2003a. Emission o gaseous ni ogen oxides om an
ex ensi ely managed g assland in NE Ba a ia, Ge many. I. Annual budge s o N
2
O and NO
x
emissions. Biogeochemis y 63, 229-247.
Tilsne J., W age N., Lau J., Gebaue G., 2003b. Emission o gaseous ni ogen oxides om an
ex ensi ely managed g assland in NE Ba a ia, Ge many. II. S able iso ope na u al abundance o
N2O. Biogeochemis y 63, 249-267.
Vi ousek, P.M., Abe , J.D., Howa h, R.W., Likens, G.E., Ma son, P.A., Schindle , D.W., Schlesinge ,
W.H., Tilman, D., 1997. Human al e a ion o he global ni ogen cycle: Sou ces and consequences.
Ecol. Appl. 7, 737-750.
WMO (2006). The S a e o G eenhouse Gases in he A mosphe e Using global Obse a ions up o
Decembe 2004. WMO G eenhouse Bulle in 1. Wo ld Me eo ological O ganiza ion,Gene e, 4pp
W age, N., Vel ho , G.L., an Beusichem, M.L., Oenema, O., 2001. Role o ni i ie deni i ica ion in he
p oduc ion o ni ous oxide. Soil Biol. Biochem. 33, 1723-1732.

95
Yamulki, S., Ja is, S.C., 1999. Au oma ed chambe echnique o gaseous lux measu emen s:
e alu a ion o a pho oacous ic in a ed spec ome e - ace gas analyze . J. Geophys. Res. 104, 5463–
5469.
Zhang, S., Li, P., Yang, X., Wang, Z., Chen, X., 2011. E ec s o illage and plas ic mulch on soil wa e ,
g ow h and yield o sp ing-sown maize. Soil Til. Res. 112, 92–97.
96
Appendix
Table 1: S a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween N
2
O luxes o PE mulches, plan holes and
u ows o he N50, N200, N250 and N350 plo s o hose measu emen days when such di e ences
occu ed. * indica es P < 0.05, ** indica es P < 0.01 and *** indica es P < 0.001.
N50 16.06.
2010 23.06.
2010 29.06.
2010 06.07.
2010 24.07.
2010
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole
Plan * P = Plan Plan P = Plan P = Plan
hole 0.036 hole hole 0.138 hole 0.173 hole
Fu - Fu - Fu - * P = P = Fu - * P = P = Fu -
ow ow ow 0.044 0.158 ow 0.017 0.093 ow
N200 12.06.
2010 19.06.
2010 22.06.
2010 03.07.
2010 07.07.
2010
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole
Plan Plan P = Plan P = Plan P = Plan **P=
hole hole 0.063 hole 0.121 hole 0.131 hole 0.003
Fu - P = Fu - * P = * P = Fu - * P = Fu - Fu - P = P =
ow 0.163 ow 0.029 0.029 ow 0.036 ow ow 0.151 0.074
12.07.
2010 21.07.
2010
PE Plan
PE Plan
mulch
hole mulch
hole
Plan * P = Plan
hole 0.022 hole
Fu - * P = Fu - ***P< **P=
ow 0.018 ow 0.001 0.006
N250 16.06.
2010 23.06.
2010 29.06.
2010 06.07.
2010 24.07.
2010
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole
Plan Plan P = Plan * P = Plan P = Plan
hole hole 0.057 hole 0.036 hole 0.056 hole
Fu - Fu - * P = * P = Fu - P = P = Fu - Fu -
ow ow 0.029 0.011 ow 0.109 0.167 ow ow
N350 16.06.
2010 23.06.
2010 29.06.
2010 06.07.
2010 24.07.
2010
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
PE Plan
mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole mulch
hole
Plan * P = Plan * P = Plan **P< Plan Plan ***P<
hole 0.021 hole 0.026 hole 0.005 hole hole 0.001
Fu - Fu - P = Fu - * P = ***P<
Fu - Fu -
ow ow 0.064 ow 0.015 0.001 ow ow
Gi en a e hose p- alues which indica e a s a is ically signi ican di e ence as well as P- alues which
indica e a end (P =/< 0.1). The e we e mo e measu emen days bu he able only p o ides he
s a is ical esul s o such measu emen days on which s a is ical di e ences be ween plan holes, PE-
mulch and u ows could be ound.
97
98
Pa B
The simula ion o N
2
O emissions and ni a e leaching om di e en a es o N e ilize
in he adish ield wi h he Landscape-DNDC model
Youngsun Kim
1,2
, Sina Be ge
3
, Janine Ke e ing
4,5
, John Tenhunen
1
, Ral Kiese
2
1
Depa men o Plan Ecology, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, 95440 Bay eu h, Ge many
2
Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology, Ins i u e o Me eo ology and Clima e Resea ch, IMK-IFU,
82467 Ga misch-Pa enki chen, Ge many
3
BayCEER-Labo a o y o Iso ope Biogeochemis y, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, 95440 Bay eu h,
Ge many
4
Depa men o Ag oecosys em Resea ch, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, 95440 Bay eu h, Ge many
5
P esen add ess: FLAD&FLAD Communica ion GmbH, 90562 He oldsbe g, Ge many,
janine.ke e ing@ lad.de
Manusc ip in P epa a ion
Abs ac
The Landscape-DNDC-model was used o es ima e N
2
O emissions, ni a e concen a ions
and leaching om 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N ha
-1
e ilize ea men s o a adish ield s udy
si e in Ko ea. Hal o he daily p ecipi a ion and he daily a e age maximum empe a u e
we e assumed o be he clima ic condi ions in ows, which we e co e ed wi h impe ious
black poly heylene (PE) mulch du ing he g owing pe iod o adish, in o de o conside he
e ec s o he plas ic mulch on soil biogeochemis y in ows and di e en ia eN
2
O emissions,
ni a e concen a ions and leaching in in e ows which we e no co e ed wi h he plas ic
mulch. Simula ion esul s showed ha he model was capable o p edic ing he dynamics o
N
2
O emissions, ni a e concen a ions and leaching in ows and in e ows. The simula ed
N
2
O emissions in ows we e inc eased wi h inc easing amoun o N e ilize applied bu
unde es ima ed du ing he monsoon season. The model p edic ed mo e N
2
O emissions in
ows han in in e ows. Abou 0.94 and 0.97% o applied N e ilize we e los by N
2
O
emissions om ows and in e ows, espec i ely. The simula ion esul s o ni a e
99
concen a ions a 45 cm dep h in ows anged om 137.1 (50 kg N ha
-1
) o 149.6 mg N l
-1
(350 kg N ha
-1
). Lowe ni a e concen a ions we e simula ed o 45 cm dep h in in e ows as
compa ed wi h ows, anging om 91.1 (50 kg N ha
-1
) o 124.7 mg N l
-1
(350 kg N ha
-1
).
These esul s we e in good ag eemen wi h measu ed ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm dep h
in ows and in e ows. ME was posi i e (ME > O) o all N ea men s and
2
was also high
(eg., 0.89, 0.89 and 0.52 o 50, 150 and 250 kg N ha
-1
) a 45 cm dep h o in e ows. Ni a e
leaching simula ed by he model was inc eased ollowing he ain all e en s and applied N
e ilize a es. In gene al, in e ows which we e no co e ed wi h he plas ic mulch show high
ni a e leaching a es as compa ed wi h ows unde he plas ic mulch. The model simula ed
abou 13.2% mo e ni a e leaching in in e ows han in ows, anging om 403.4 o 452.3 kg
N ha
-1
y
-1
. Abou 72.2% o applied N loss by ni a e leaching om in e ows and abou 62.5%
N loss om ows we e p edic ed by he model.
Keywo ds: Landscape-DNDC, N e ilize , Plas ic mulch, N
2
O, Ni a e leaching

100
In oduc ion
Ag icul u e is he majo an h opogenic sou ce o ni ous oxide (N
2
O) (McC aw and Mo es
1991; Smi h and Conen 2004). O global an h opogenic g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
ag icul u e accoun s o abou 60% o N
2
O (IPCC 2007b). N
2
O emissions a e di ec ly
connec ed o he amoun s o ni ogen applica ion (Smi h and Conen 2004) and ha e been
inc eased by 11% since 1990, p ima ily due o he inc ease in e ilize use and he
agg ega e g ow h o ag icul u e (IPCC 2007a). In Ko ea, ag icul u al N
2
O is es ima ed abou
12 x 10
3
ons, which accoun s o abou 24% o he o al N
2
O emissions. Ag icul u al soils a e
he majo sou ce o N
2
O emissions, con ibu ing abou 58.3% o he o al ag icul u al N
2
O
emissions (KEEI 2009). N
2
O emissions a e in luenced by en i onmen al ac o s such as soil
empe a u e and wa e con en , adia ion, pH, Eh, and subs a e concen a ion g adien , as
well as managemen p ac ices such as plas ic mulch, illage, manu e and e ilize applica ion
and inco po a ion o c op esidues (LI 2007; Smi h e al. 2002).
Fo many yea s he use o impe ious black and clea plas ic (polye hylene) ilms as a mulch
has been widely u ilized o a ious c ops. In he adi ional plas ic mulching sys em he c op
is sown unde he plas ic ilm which is held igh ly ac oss he soil su ace by co e ing he
edges. The c op eme ges h ough pe o a ions in he plas ic mulch, which a e usually made
a he ime o seeding. The plas ic mulch is disca ded a e ha es and new a mulch is laid in
ollowing season (Fishe 1995). In a id and semi-a id egions, c op g ow h is limi ed by wa e .
Amoun o a ailable wa e in soil can be inc eased by mulching (Wang e al. 2009). The
plas ic mulch is e ec i e in educing 3 o 11% c op wa e use and imp o es i s e iciency by
25% (Chak abo y e al. 2010). The plas ic mulch can also p o ide o he bene i s such as
weed con ol, educ ion in soil compac ion and e osion, p oduc ion o s aple ood c ops
(Fishe 1995), and an inc ease in soil empe a u e (Liaka as e al. 1986; Wan and El-Swai y
1999). The plas ic mulch pe o ms like a glass house by cap u ing and e aining day ime
sola adia ion and educing hea loss a nigh , p oducing a mini-g eenhouse e ec (Kwabiah
2004). Many s udies ha e epo ed ha soil empe a u e is inc eased unde he plas ic
mulch. The empe a u e o he black plas ic mulch is g ea e han ha o he soil su ace
du ing he day (Ham and Klui enbe g 1994). The ne e ec o he mulch is o inc ease he
daily mean empe a u e o he soil by 3°C (Liaka as e al. 1986) and he maximum
empe a u e is inc eased by 7°C o soil due o he plas ic mulch (Kwabiah 2004). Less
ain all can pass h ough he oo zoon unde he plas ic mulch because he ain ha alls
on o an impe ious plas ic ilm co e ing a plan ing bed can un in o he u ows, immedia ely
(Ha aguchi e al. 2004). The o al amoun s o p ecipi a ion and su ace uno o wo mon hs
unde he ull-mulching condi ion we e 112.5 and 50.3 mm, espec i ely. Neglec ing he
wa e ha is kep on lea es and he plas ic ilm his esul sugges s ha almos a hal o he
101
ain ha alls in o he lysime e in il a ed in o he soil h ough a hole on a plas ic ilm o
seeding (Ha aguchi e al. 2003).
The black plas ic mulch is he mos commonly used o c op cul i a ion in Ko ea as well. The
main pu poses o using plas ic mulch a e weed con ol and wa e e en ion. The ow is
co e ed wi h he black plas ic mulch be o e seeding o ansplan ing and he mulch is
emo ed a e ha es . The plas ic mulch is one o he ypical ag icul u al p ac ices in Ko ea,
howe e , he model is incapable o simula ing he mulching e ec , ye . The e o e, he daily
mean maximum empe a u e as he daily mean empe a u e and a hal o he p ecipi a ion as
he o al p ecipi a ion we e hypo hesized o he ow condi ion. In con as , he eal clima e
in o ma ion was used o he in e ow condi ion.
Objec i es
The p ocess-based models can be used o p edic he impac o a ious ag icul u al
managemen p ac ices on ne g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by analyzing he
in e ac ions be ween managemen p ac ices, p ima y d i e s such as clima e, soil p ope ies,
c op ypes, e c., and biogeochemical eac ions (Smi h e al. 2010). So a he p ocess-based
model ag icul u al-DNDC (Deni i ica ion and Decomposi ion) (Gil ap e al. 2010; Li e al.
1992a; Smi h e al. 2002) and PnET-N-DNDC (Kesik e al. 2005; Kiese e al. 2011; Li e al.
2000) ha e been es ed on he a ious ypes o ecosys ems since i s de elopmen . The
Landscape-DNDC model, which is combined he Ag icul u al-DNDC wi h he Fo es -DNDC,
has been de eloped a Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology (KIT), IMK-IFU in o de o simula e
he C and N u no e , GHG emissions, ni a e leaching and plan g ow h o a able, o es
and g assland ecosys ems on si e and egional scales (Haas e al. 2012). Howe e , li le o
no a en ion has been gi en o apply he DNDC model o a able o o es ecosys ems o
Ko ea. In his s udy, we applied he Landscape-DNDC o es he e ec s o di e en a es o
N e ilize on N
2
O emissions, ni a e concen a ions and leaching and plan g ow h o a able
ields in Ko ea.
Ma e ials and me hods
Si e desc ip ion
The model was es ed wi h da a om summe adish ields (38.3°N, 128.14°E, 420 m a.s.l) in
Haean-myun Ca chmen , loca ed in he no heas o Yanggu Coun y, Gangwon P o ince,
Sou h Ko ea. The annual a e age ai empe a u e is 8.5°C and he annual p ecipi a ion is
102
app oxima ely 1,500 mm (Fig. 1). Mo e han hal o he annual p ecipi a ion occu s du ing he
monsoon season.
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
P ecipi a ion [mm]
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Ai empe a u e [oC]
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
P ecipi a ion (mm)
Ai empe a u e (oC)
Fig. 1 Daily p ecipi a ion and daily a e age empe a u e a he s udy si e. The da a was collec ed om
he au oma ic wea he s a ion on si e in 2010.
The soil is loamy sand a 0 - 40 cm dep h and sandy loam om 40 - 60 cm (Ke e ing e al.
Submi ed o Nu ien Cycling in Ag oecosys ems 2012) and classi ied as An h osols (FAO
2006) wi h 80.7% sand; 16.3% sil ; 3.0% clay; pH 5.08; bulk densi y 1.64 g cm
-3
. The de ailed
in o ma ion o soil cha ac e is ics o he s udy si e is gi en in Table 1.
Table 1 Soil p ope ies o 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men s in adish ields a 0-20 cm dep h
soils
N a es [kg N ha
-1
] OM [g kg
-1
]
a
pH BD [g cm
-3
]
b
SOC [%]
c
N [%] Sand [%] Sil [%] Clay [%]
A e age 29.7 5.08 1.64 0.21 0.038 80.7 16.3 3.0
50
0.29 0.037 80.3 16.7 3.0
150
0.20 0.036 79.5 17.4 3.2
250
0.21 0.041 81.6 15.6 2.8
350
0.20 0.038 81.6 15.5 2.9
a
O ganic Ma e
b
Bulk Densi y
c
Soil O ganic Ca bon
103
N e ilize ea men s
186.7 kg N ha
-1
e ilize was manually applied o he o al ield as basal e ilize wo weeks
be o e seeding and he ield was plowed wi h abou 15 - 20 cm dep h a he ime o he
e ilize applica ion. To examine he impac s o di e en a es o N e ilize on N
2
O
emissions, ni a e leaching and c op g ow h, a i s , he ield was di ided in o ou di e en N
ea men plo s wi h 196 m
2
size. Each N ea men plo had 4 eplica ed subplo s (49 m
2
size
in each). 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N e ilize we e applied o he plo s as a op d essing,
espec i ely. All ea men plo s we e illed again abou one week a e addi ional N e ilize
applica ion in o de o make ows and in e ows. The ows we e co e ed wi h he black
plas ic mulch p io o adish seeding and he mulch had con inuously co e ed he ow un il
ha es . Abou 2 o 3 seeds o summe adish (Raphanus sa i us L.) we e sown pe one
plan hole a ows in mid-June. De ailed in o ma ion o c op managemen is shown in Table
2.
Table 2 C op managemen s and ou di e en a es o N e ilize applica ion
Seeding da e
[dd/mm]
Basal e iliza ion Tillage Addi ional e iliza ion Ha es da e
[dd/mm]
Da e
[dd/mm]
N a e
[kg N ha
-1
]
Da e
[dd/mm]
Dep h
[cm]
Da e
[dd/mm]
N a e
[kg N ha
-1
]
a
14/06 31/05 186.7 31/05
09/06 15 - 20 01/06 50/150/250/350 31/08
a
50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N ha
-1
we e applied o each N ea men plo wi h 4 eplica es.
Field measu emen s
The ield measu emen s we e conduc ed in he adish ield in 2010. The N
2
O luxes we e
measu ed by he closed chambe in conjunc ion wi h a pho oacous ic in a ed ace gas
analyze (Mul igas Moni o 1312, INNOVA, Balle up, Denma k) (Be ge e al. Submi ed o
Ag icul u e, Ecosys ems & En i onmen 2012) om May (be o e seeding) o Oc obe (a e
ha es ) in ows and in e ows o each N ea men plo wi h 3 eplica es. ECH
2
O logge s
(5TE Soil Mois u e Senso , Decagon De ices, USA) connec ed wi h da a logge s (EM50,
Decagon De ices, USA) we e ins alled in each N e ilize ea men ow in o de o measu e
soil empe a u e and wa e con en a 15 and 30 cm dep h e e y 30 minu es wi h 2
eplica es. Suc ion lysime e s connec ed wi h a soil hyd ological moni o ing ne wo k o
s anda d ensiome e s (Ke e ing e al. Submi ed o Nu ien Cycling in Ag oecosys ems
2012) we e ins alled a 15 and 45 cm dep h in ows and a 45 cm dep h in in e ows in 50,
150, 250 and 350 kg ha
-1
N ea men plo s o es ima e N losses in seepage wa e . The
seepage samples we e collec ed once a week. Suc ion lysime e s a e able o be used o
110
50 kg N
15
20
25
30
35
40
Simula ed_50% p ecipi a ion
Simula ed_annual p ecipi a ion
Measu ed
150 kg N
Volume ic soil wa e con en a 15 cm dep h [%]
15
20
25
30
35
40
250 kg N
15
20
25
30
35
40
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
15
20
25
30
35
40
a
50 kg N
X Da a
15
20
25
30
35
40
Simula ed_50% p ecipi a ion
Simula ed_annual p ecipi a ion
Measu ed
150 kg N
Volume ic soil wa e con en a 30 cm dep h [%]
15
20
25
30
35
40
250 kg N
15
20
25
30
35
40
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
15
20
25
30
35
40
b
Fig. 3 Measu ed (ci cle) and simula ed (line) soil wa e con en a 15 (a) and 30 cm (b) dep h in ows
wi h ou di e en a es o N e ilize . Solid lines ep esen he simula ed soil wa e con en wi h 50%
o he p ecipi a ion in o de o conside ow condi ions co e ed wi h he black plas ic mulch du ing he
whole g owing pe iods o adish. Do ed lines indica e he simula ed soil empe a u e wi h he annual
p ecipi a ion.
Radish biomass
Radish is a cool-season and as -ma u ing c op (El-Desuki e al. 2005) ha g ows well in
sp ing and au umn (Si au as e al. 2011) in Ko ea. Ko ean eco ypes o adish a e cold
sensi i e so ha adish is cul i a ed du ing he au umn when ambien empe a u es goes
down o 5 - 6°C (Cu is 2003). Radish needs a high demand o nu ien s e en hough i is a
apidly g owing and a sho du a ion c op (Akoumianakis e al. 2011; Hegde 1987). Fo
example, adish equi es 183 kg N, 120 kg P
2
O
5
, 232 kg K
2
O, 103 kg CaO, and 54 kg MgO
ha
-1
in o de o p oduce 49,280 kg ha
-1
(Pa k e al. 2006).

111
The Landscape-DNDC is capable o simula e abo e- and belowg ound biomass sepa a ely.
The abo eg ound biomass includes lea es and s ems and he belowg ound biomass s ands
o oo s. The simula ion esul s o adish biomass o all N ea men s we e compa ed wi h
he measu ed biomass a 25, 50 and 75 ha es days. D y weigh s o measu ed and
simula ed adish biomass a he las ha es day (75 days a e seeding) a e lis ed in Table 5.
Bo h measu ed and simula ed adish biomass we e inc eased as he inc ease o he N
e ilize applica ion a es. This posi i e ela ionship be ween adish biomass and N
applica ion a es has been epo ed in se e al esea ches. Maximum adish oo yield (16.6
kg) pe plan was p oduced wi h 200 kg N ha
-1
ollowed by 150 and 100 kg N ha
-1
(Pe ez e
al. 2004). Radish oo yield was 5.7
and 6.9 ha
-1
a 56 and 168 kg N ha
-1
, espec i ely
(Sanchez e al. 1991). The maximum yield (89.2 ha
-1
) o o al adish was eco ded a 200 kg
N ha
-1
and he minimum yield (60.3 ha
-1
) was p oduced a 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men s (Jilani e
al. 2010).
Simula ed belowg ound biomass was unde es ima ed o 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men and sligh ly
o e es ima ed o 150, 250 and 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men s. In con as , he model
o e es ima ed he abo eg ound biomass a 50 and 150 kg N ha
-1
ea men s and
unde es ima ed a 250 and 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men s. To al biomass indica es he sum o
abo e- and belowg ound biomass. The model o e es ima ed he o al biomass o 50 (2.0%)
and 150 (2.0%) kg N ha
-1
ea men s. In con as , he o al biomass om 250 and 350 kg N
ha
-1
ea men s was unde es ima ed by 1.5 and 1.2%, espec i ely.
Table 5 Measu ed and simula ed adish biomass a he las ha es day (75 day)
N a es
[kg N ha
-1
]
Abo eg ound [kg DW m
-
2
]
a
Belowg ound [kg DW m
-
2
]
b
To al [kg DW m
-
2
]
c
Measu ed Simula ed Measu ed Simula ed Measu ed Simula ed
50 0.1264 0.1443 0.2724 0.2680 0.3988 0.4123
150 0.1547 0.1614 0.2971 0.2997 0.4518 0.4612
250 0.1817 0.1735 0.3217 0.3222 0.5034 0.4958
350 0.2005 0.1894 0.3393 0.3517 0.5399 0.5411
a
Lea es and s ems we e included.
b
Roo s we e included.
c
Sum o abo e- and belowg ound biomass
Fig. 4 shows ha he model o e es ima ed bo h abo e- and belowg ound biomass a i s
ha es day (25 day) and well p edic ed he las ha es day (75 day). A he second ha es
day (50 day), he model o e es ima ed he belowg ound biomass bu unde es ima ed he
abo eg ound biomass o e all N ea men s. The g ow h and he de elopmen o simula ed
112
adish we e as e and hey eached he ma u e s age ea lie han he ield adish so ha he
model migh o e es ima e bo h abo e- and belowg ound adish biomass a i s wo ha es
days. In addi ion o his, he less a ailable ield da a migh also esul in inaccu a e
p edic ions o adish biomass by he model in his s udy.
150 kg N
Radish biomass [kg DW m
-2
]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
50 kg N
Radish biomass [kg DW m-2]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Simula ed_Roo
Simula ed_Foliage
Simula ed_To al
Measu ed_Roo
Measu ed_Foliage
Measu ed_To al
250 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Fig. 4 Compa ison o measu ed (ci cle) and simula ed (line) adish biomass in ows wi h ou di e en
a es o N e ilize . Ba s ep esen s anda d e o s o measu emen s.
N
2
O emissions om ag icul u al soils
N
2
O emissions depend on applica ion o N e ilize as well as o he ac o s such as soil
condi ions and managemen s, p ecipi a ion and empe a u e (Roeland e al. 2005). In his
s udy, he measu emen s o N
2
O emissions we e conduc ed a 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N
ha
-1
ea men s in ows and in e ows and compa ed wi h he simula ed N
2
O emissions. Bo h
measu ed and simula ed N
2
O emissions we e inc eased as he inc ease o applied N
e ilize a es in ows; 350 > 250 > 150 > 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men s (Fig. 5).
Simila esul s we e shown in in e ows, excep o 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men . O all
measu emen s o N
2
O emissions in in e ows, he highes N
2
O emissions we e obse ed in
50 kg N ha
-1
ea men (77.97 ug N m
-2
h
-1
) and ollowed by 350, 250 and 150 kg N ha
-1
ea men s. The model simula ed mo e N
2
O emissions om 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men (56.54 ug
N m
-1
h
-1
) han o 150 and 250 kg N ha
-1
ea men s as well. In con as wi h measu emen s,
he model p edic ed he highes N
2
O emissions om 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men (73.08 ug N m
-2
h
-1
). The high N
2
O emissions om measu emen s a 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men migh be caused
by unce ain ies in ield measu emen s. The eason is ha abou 3.1 imes mo e N
2
O
emissions we e obse ed in 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men (435.3 ug N m
-2
h
-1
) han in 350 kg N ha
-1
113
ea men (147.6 ug N m
-2
h
-1
) in 23
h
o June. As compa ed wi h 150 and 250 kg N ha
-1
ea men s, N
2
O emissions om 50 kg N h
-1
ea men we e s ill 2.4 and 2.9 imes high,
espec i ely. In his sense, hese high N
2
O emissions a e also conside ed o esul in he
leas co ela ion be ween measu ed and simula ed N
2
O emissions om 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men . Compa ison be ween measu emen and simula ion esul s o N
2
O emissions om
50 kg N ha
-1
ea men shows he highes RMSE (124.5) and he lowes
2
(0.07) o all N
ea men s in in e ows (Table 6). Excep o 50 kg N h
-1
ea men s, N
2
O emissions om
in e ows we e inc eased as he inc ease o N applica ion a es. The simula ion esul s
showed ha he model o e es ima ed N
2
O emissions o all N ea men s in ows. N
2
O
emissions in in e ows we e o e es ima ed as well, excep o 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men . The
model unde es ima ed N
2
O emissions om 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men by 37.9%. As compa ed
wi h simula ed N
2
O emissions be ween ows and in e ows, he model p edic ed N
2
O
emissions be e in ows han in in e ows.
2
was low and ME was nega i e (ME < 0) o
almos all N ea men s in in e ows.
Compa ison be ween measu ed and simula ed N
2
O emissions in ows and in e ows showed
ha measu ed N
2
O emissions om ows we e gene ally highe han om in e ows, excep
o 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men . In case o 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men , abou 2.8 imes mo e N
2
O
emissions we e measu ed in in e ows han in ows. In con as , simula ed N
2
O emissions
om ows we e always highe han om in e ows o all N ea men s. The second illage
and he plas ic mulch a e conside ed o induce he i s high peak o N
2
O emissions in he
measu emen s and he maximum peak o simula ed N
2
O emissions is associa ed wi h N
e ilize applica ion. Because added N e ilize as a op d essing mixed in o he soils du ing
he second illage o c ea ing ows and in e ows and hen he ows we e con inuously
co e ed wi h he black plas ic mulch du ing he whole g owing pe iods o adish in his s udy.
The plas ic mulch in e cep s sunligh which wa ms he soil (McC aw and Mo es 1991). The
mulch keeps he soil wa m and p omo es N mine aliza ion o he applied N e ilize . The soil
empe a u e a 5 cm dep h unde plas ic mulch showed ex ensi e diu nal luc ua ion, mos ly
om 25 o 50°C in summe season (Nishimu a e al. 2012) and he mean empe a u e unde
plas ic mulch was 4°C highe han unde ba e soil ( Liaka as e al. 1986). In gene al, high soil
empe a u e, high soil mois u e and hence high decomposi ion a es p omo e high N
2
O
emissions du ing he summe season (Li e al. 1992b). Since soil co e ed wi h plas ic mulch
igh a e e ilize applica ion is unde high N con en and low O
2
concen a ion, a signi ican
amoun o N
2
O can be p oduced and emi ed o he a mosphe e (Nishimu a e al. 2012).
Simula ed N
2
O emissions we e inc eased ollowing he e ilize applica ion and hen
g adually dec eased. N
2
O emissions a e gene ally inc eased wi h he inc ease o ain all lux
(Li e al. 1992b) and he N
2
O emission peaks usually coincide wi h ain all e en s (Smi h e
al. 2002). The ain ha alls on o he impe meable plas ic mulch is able o un in o he
114
in e ow immedia ely and he less ain all can pass h ough he oo zone in he ow (McC aw
and Mo es 1991). The simula ion esul s showed ha he model was capable o simula ing
N
2
O emissions du ing hea y ain all. As seen in Fig. 5, sligh ly inc eased N
2
O peaks we e
simula ed du ing he monsoon season (June - Augus ). Measu ed and simula ed mean
alues o N
2
O emissions we e p esen ed in Table 6.
50 kg N
0
100
200
300
400
150 kg N
N2O emissions om ows [ug N m-2 h-1]
0
100
200
300
400
250 kg N
0
100
200
300
400
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0
100
200
300
400
Simula ed
Measu ed
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
a
50 kg N
0
100
200
300
400
150kg N
N2O emissions om in e ows [ug N m-2 h-1]
0
100
200
300
400
250 kg N
0
100
200
300
400
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0
100
200
300
400
Simula ed
Measu ed
↓
↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
b
Fig. 5 Measu ed (ci cle) and simula ed (line) N
2
O emissions om ou di e en a es o N e ilize in
(a) ows and (b) in e ows. A ows indica e ime and da e o N e ilize applica ion. Ba s ep esen
s anda d de ia ions o measu emen s.
The model simula ed N
2
O emissions in in e ows wi h he same a es o N e ilize and illing
e en s as ows. The only one di e ence be ween ows and in e ows was ha he e was no
c op in in e ows. I means ha he e is no N loss by he plan up ake in in e ows. The e o e,
mos o added N was los by N
2
O emissions, ni a e leaching and ammonia ola iliza ion in
in e ows as compa ed wi h ows. N
2
O emissions by bo h pe mea ion h ough he plas ic
115
mulch and he ho izon al di usion o he adjacen in e ow may be impo an . The signi ican
amoun s o N
2
O emissions we e obse ed om he un e ilized in e ow be ween ows, which
we e co e ed wi h plas ic mulch a e e iliza ion, indica ing he ho izon al di usion o N
2
O
om ows o he adjacen in e ow (Nishimu a e al. 2012). In his s udy, he same a es o N
e ilize we e added o ows and in e ows because ows and in e ows we e c ea ed a e
e ilize applica ion. The e o e, i was no able o de ec he ho izon al di usion o N
2
O in
in e ows in his s udy.
Ni a e concen a ions and ni a e leaching in ag icul u al soils
Calcula ion o soil ni a e concen a ions in soil laye s akes in o accoun he mine aliza ion,
ni i ica ion and deni i ica ion as well as ni a e leaching. In addi ion, ni a e deposi ion om
he a mosphe e is also conside ed in he i s soil laye (Kiese e al. 2011). In his s udy,
ni a e concen a ions in seepage wa e we e measu ed a 15 and 45 cm dep h o ows
co e ed wi h he black plas ic mulch and a 45 cm dep h o in e ows wi hou he plas ic
mulch o 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg N h
-1
ea men s and compa ed wi h he simula ion
esul s.
The mean measu ed ni a e concen a ions we e inc eased as he inc ease o applied N
e ilize a es in bo h ows and in e ows. The simula ed ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm
dep h o ows and in e ows we e inc eased as he inc ease o N e ilize a es as well (Fig.
6). The simula ion esul s o ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm dep h o ows anged om 137.1
(50 kg N ha
-1
) o 149.6 mg N l
-1
(350 kg N ha
-1
). The less ni a e concen a ions we e
simula ed o 45 cm dep h o in e ows as compa ed wi h ows, anged om 91.1 (50 kg N
ha
-1
) o 124.7 mg N l
-1
(350 kg N ha
-1
). These esul s we e in good ag eemen wi h measu ed
ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm dep h o ows and in e ows. The measu emen s o ni a e
concen a ions a 45 cm dep h in ows we e mo e han o in e ows. In con as , simula ed
ni a e concen a ions a 15 cm dep h in ows dec eased as he inc ease o N e ilize a es.
The model simula ed he high ni a e concen a ions a 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men (173.7 mg N l
-
1
) and he low concen a ions a 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men (158.1 mg N l
-1
).
The model was able o p edic ni a e concen a ions in ows and in e ows. Fo example, ME
was posi i e (ME > O) o all N ea men s and
2
was also high (eg., 0.89, 0.89 and 0.52 o
50, 150 and 250 kg N ha
-1
) a 45 cm dep h o in e ows. The simula ion esul s o ni a e
concen a ions in ows we e gene ally in good ag eemen wi h measu ed ni a e
concen a ions as well. In case o ows a 45 cm dep h, o ins ance,
2
was 0.73 o 50 kg N
ha
-1
and 0.53 o 150 kg N ha
-1
(Table 6). In addi ion, he model was capable o es ima ing
ni a e concen a ions ollowing he ain all e en s. The high ni a e concen a ions we e

116
obse ed in ea ly g owing s age o adish du ing he monsoon season han la e g owing
s age o e all N ea men s.
50 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
150 kg N
Ni a e concen a ions a 15 cm dep h o ows [mg N l-1 d-1]
0
200
400
600
800
250 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0
200
400
600
800
Simula ed
Measu ed
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
a
50 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
Simula ed
Measu ed
150 kg N
Ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm dep h o ows [mg N l-1 d-1]
0
200
400
600
800
250 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0
200
400
600
800
↓
↓
↓↓
↓↓
↓↓
b
50 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
Simula ed
Measu ed
150 kg N
Ni a e concen a ions a 45 cm dep h o in e ows [mg N l-l d-1]
0
200
400
600
800
250 kg N
0
200
400
600
800
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
0
200
400
600
800
↓↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
↓
c
Fig. 6 Compa ison o ni a e concen a ions be ween ows and in e ows wi h ou di e en a es o N
e ilize ; measu ed (ci cle) and simula ed (line) ni a e concen a ions a (a) 15 cm dep h in ows, (b)
45 cm dep h in ows and (c) 45 cm dep h in in e ows. A ows indica e ime and da e o N e ilize
applica ion. Ba s ep esen s anda d de ia ions o measu emen s.
Ni a e leaching a e was mos sensi i e o e ilize applica ion a e and p ecipi a ion (Li e al.
2006). The amoun and he ime o N e ilize applica ion ha e signi ican impac s on he
ni a e leaching (Hansen e al. 2000). The high inpu o N e ilize and low use e iciency may
ce ainly esul in he inc ease o he N loss om leaching (Qiu e al. 2011). In gene al, ni a e
leaching a es inc eased unde high ni ogen le el and he low N le el led o lowe ni a e
leaching (Liu e al. 2003). Howe e , he simula ions o ni a e leaching in his s udy showed
he di e en esul s. Simula ed ni a e leaching was dec eased as he inc ease o N e ilize
a es in ows and in e ows; 350 < 250 < 150 < 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men s. Simula ed annual
ni a e leaching anged om 352.6 (350 kg N ha
-1
) o 382.6 kg N ha
-1
y
-1
(50 kg N ha
-1
) in
ows. The model simula ed abou 13.2% mo e ni a e leaching in in e ows han in ows,
anged om 403.4 (350 kg N ha
-1
) o 452.3 ha
-1
y
-1
(50 kg N ha
-1
) in in e ows.
117
Table 6 The model pe o mance o Landscape-DNDC o simula ion o adish ields wi h ou di e en
N ea men s
Mean Model Pe o mance
Measu ed Simula ed ME RMSPE
2
Soil empe a u e [°C] a 15 cm dep h
50 kg N ha
-
1
24.01 25.88 -2.62 2.23 0.28
***
150 kg N ha
-
1
23.69 25.84 -3.86 2.55 0.14
**
250 kg N ha
-1
23.91 25.81 -2.38 2.51 0.05
*
350 kg N ha
-
1
23.96 25.79 -2.61 2.13 0.32
***
Soil empe a u e [°C] a 30 cm dep h
50 kg N ha
-
1
23.00 25.00 -4.91 2.11 0.66
***
150 kg N ha
-
1
22.85 24.95 -7.53 2.28 0.39
***
250 kg N ha
-
1
23.43 24.90 -2.80 1.67 0.50
***
350 kg N ha
-
1
23.37 24.86 -3.69 1.74 0.37
***
Soil wa e con en [ ol %] a 15 cm dep h
50 kg N ha
-
1
18.61 20.61 -0.23 3.58 0.22
***
150 kg N ha
-
1
19.30 22.37 -0.74 4.15 0.32
***
250 kg N ha
-
1
17.92 22.35 -2.05 6.58 0.02
350 kg N ha
-
1
27.73 29.21 0.19 3.29 0.36
***
Soil wa e con en [ ol %] a 30 cm dep h
50 kg N ha
-
1
25.06 25.28 0.33 3.28 0.33
***
150 kg N ha
-
1
24.49 25.16 0.30 2.80 0.36
***
250 kg N ha
-
1
22.02 25.42 -0.38 4.32 0.48
***
350 kg N ha
-
1
18.68 24.92 -3.73 6.67 0.41
***
N
2
O emissions [ug N m
-
2
h
-
1
] in Rows
50 kg N ha
-
1
27.88 61.53 -0.35 50.83 0.27
150 kg N ha
-
1
38.91 66.79 0.13 57.41 0.33
250 kg N ha
-
1
58.83 73.48 0.27 91.13 0.34
350 kg N ha
-
1
65.82 98.02 0.12 106.7 0.21
N
2
O emissions [ug N m
-
2
h
-
1
] in In e ows
50 kg N ha
-
1
77.97 56.54 0.04 124.5 0.07
150 kg N ha
-
1
26.56 55.41 -0.24 55.22 0.11
250 kg N ha
-
1
27.12 54.49 -0.24 50.08 0.15
350 kg N ha
-
1
29.89 73.08 -0.99 63.31 0.16
Ni a e
concen a ions [mg N l
-
1
] a 15 cm dep h in Rows
50 kg N ha
-
1
79.81 173.7 -2.17 134.1 0.35
150 kg N ha
-
1
92.50 172.1 -0.03 99.10 0.69
*
250 kg N ha
-
1
143.2 165.4 0.37 69.03 0.59
*
350 kg N ha
-
1
141.6 158.1 -0.14 84.57 0.34
Ni a e concen a ions [mg N l
-
1
] a 45 cm dep h in Rows
50 kg N ha
-
1
61.24 137.1 0.69 44.29 0.73
**
150 kg N ha
-
1
52.01 125.8 -5.31 145.3 0.53
*
250 kg N ha
-
1
107.6 139.9 -7.22 168.2 0.30
350 kg N ha
-
1
116.9 149.6 -8.94 163.4 0.32
Ni a e concen a ions [mg N l
-
1
] a 45 cm dep h in In e ows
50 kg N ha
-
1
53.00 91.05 0.43 44.54 0.89
***
118
150 kg N ha
-
1
56.75 96.87 0.38 50.05 0.89
***
250 kg N ha
-
1
104.8 118.3 0.41 43.36 0.52
*
350 kg N ha
-
1
108.0 124.7 0.07 64.12 0.25
*
P < 0.05,
**
P < 0.01,
***
P < 0.001
N e ilize applied ea ly in he c op g owing s age has a high po en ial o being los by
leaching (E ebhi e al. 1998; Romic e al. 2003). The c op was no able o use up all ni a es,
which usually linked o hea y ain all, esul ed in ni a e leaching (Romic e al. 2003).
F equen ain all may cause apid mo emen o ni a e om he oo ing zone h ough he
in e media e soil laye (Islam e al. 1994). The ain all o 15 days induced mo e han 50.0%
o ni a e leaching du ing he c op g owing s age (Vázquez e al. 2006). The esul s om
p e ious s udies a e in good ag eemen wi h simula ed ni a e leaching in his s udy. Hea y
ain all in ea ly g owing s age o adish had signi ican e ec s on ni a e leaching. Abou
34.6% (510 mm) o he o al p ecipi a ion was obse ed du ing he measu emen s o ni a e
concen a ions ( om 30
h
o June o 23
d
o Augus ). The model simula ed abou 18.5% and
52.2% o he o al ni a e leaching in ows and in in e ows du ing his hea y ain all,
espec i ely.
150 kg N
0
5
10
15
20
25
250 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
Ni a e leaching [kg N ha
-1
]
0
5
10
15
20
25
50 kg N
0
5
10
15
20
25
Row
In e ow
350 kg N
Mon h
Dec Ap Aug Dec
Ni a e leaching [kg N ha
-1
]
0
5
10
15
20
25
↓
↓
↓
↓↓↓
↓↓
Fig. 7 Simula ed ni a e leaching in ows and in e ows wi h ou di e en a es o N e ilize . Solid
lines ep esen ni a e leaching in ows wi h he black plas ic mulch. Do ed lines indica e ni a e
leaching in in e ows wi hou he black plas ic mulch. A ows indica e ime and da e o N e ilize
applica ion.
Se e al s udies ha e shown ha he plas ic mulch has a posi i e e ec on he educ ion o
ni a e leaching. Ni a e leaching in he plo wi h he mulch was less han wi hou he mulch.
The plas ic mulch p o ec s soil om he di ec in il a ion o p ecipi a ion so ha ni a e
119
leaching om he oo zone is educed (Islam e al. 1994; McC aw and Mo es 1991; Romic e
al. 2003; Zhang e al. 2012). Fo example, a ni a e leaching a e o 7% om he o al wa e
was shown in he plo wi h mulching and 10% wi hou mulching (Romic e al. 2003). This
esul is in good ag eemen o simula ion esul s o ni a e leaching in his s udy. Compa ison
o simula ed annual ni a e leaching be ween ows and in e ows showed ha he model was
able o p edic ni a e leaching unde he plas ic mulch (Fig. 8). The model simula ed abou
13.2% mo e ni a e leaching in in e ows wi hou he plas ic mulch han in ows wi h he
plas ic mulch. The di e ences o ni a e leaching be ween ows and in e ows anged om
50.78 (350 kg N ha
-1
) o 69.65 kg N ha
-1
y
-1
(50 kg N ha
-1
).
N e ilize a es [kg N ha-1]
50 150 250 350
Ni a e leaching [kg N ha-1 y -1]
340
360
380
400
420
440
460
Row
In e ow
Fig. 8 Compa ison o simula ed annual ni a e leaching be ween ows and in e ows wi h ou di e en
a es o N e ilize
Table 7 shows he annual N
2
O emissions and ni a e leaching om 50, 150, 250 and 350 kg
N ha
-1
ea men s by he model. The o al N
2
O emissions we e high in ows wi h 350 kg N ha
-
1
ea men (3.472 kg N y
-1
) and in in e ows wi h 350 kg N ha
-1
ea men (3.155 kg N y
-1
).
The high ni a e leaching a es we e shown bo h in ows and in e ows wi h 50 kg N ha
-1
ea men s.
Abou 0.94% o applied N e ilize was los by N
2
O emissions and mo e han a hal o
applied N e ilize was los by ni a e leaching in ows. As compa ed wi h ows and in e ows,
he model p edic ed mo e N los by ni a e leaching in in e ows (72.2%) han in ows
(62.5%). Conside ing bo h he a io o o al N
2
O emissions and ni a e leaching o he o al
biomass, 250 kg N ha
-1
was ecommended o apply o he adish cul i a ion.
126
McC aw D and Mo es J E 1991 Use o plas ic mulch nad ow co e s in ege able p oduc ion.
Oklahoma Coope a i e Ex ension Se ice HLA-6034, Oklahoma S a e Uni e si y, 1-7.
Mosie A R and F eney J R 2002 NATURAL RESOURCE SYSTEM CHALLENGE: CLIMATE
CHANGE, HUMAN SYSTEMS, AND POLICY-Vol. II - Ni ous Oxide Emission Reduc ion and
Ag icul u e (An oane a Yo o a ed) Encyclopedia o Li e Suppo Sys ems (EOLSS).
Nishimu a S, Komada M, Takebe M, Yonemu a S and Ka o N 2012 Ni ous oxide e ol ed om soil
co e ed wi h plas ic mulch ilm in ho icul u al ield. Biology and Fe ili y o Soils, 1-9.
Pa k W, Jeong B, Song Y, Jeon H, Jeong K and Lee C 2006 S anda d a es o e ilize applica ion o
each c op Ru al De elopmen Adminis a ion, 87-89.
Pe ez M A, Ayub C M, Saleem B A, Vi k N A and Mahmood N 2004 E ec o ni ogen le els and
spacing on g ow h and yield o adish (Raphanus sa i us L.). In e na ional Jou nal o
Ag icul u e & Biology 1560-8530, 504-506.
Qiu J, Li H, Wang L, Tang H, Li C and Van Rans E 2011 GIS-model based es ima ion o ni ogen
leaching om c oplands o China. Nu ien Cycling in Ag oecosys ems 90, 243-252.
Roeland C, Van Wesemael B and Rounse ell M 2005 Es ima ing annual N
2
O emissions om
ag icul u al soils in empe a e clima es. Global Change Biology 11, 1701-1711.
Romic D, Romic M, Bo osic J and Poljak M 2003 Mulching dec eases ni a e leaching in bell peppe
(Capsicum annuum L.) cul i a ion. Ag icul u al Wa e Managemen 60, 87-97.
Sanchez C A, Ozaki H Y, Schule K and Lockha M 1991 Ni ogen e iliza ion o adishes on
his osols: esponse and
15
N eco e y. HORTSCIENCE 26 (7), 865-867.
Si au as R, Samuoliene G, B azai y e A and Ducho skis P 2011 Tempe a u e and pho ope iod e ec s
on pho osyn he ic indices o adish (Raphanus sa i us L.). Zemdi bys e (Ag icul u e) 98, 57-
62.
Smi h K A and Conen F 2004 Impac s o land managemen on luxes o ace g eenhouse gases. Soil
Use and Managemen 20, 255-263.
Smi h P, Smi h J U, Powlson D S, McGill W B, A ah J R M, Che o O G, Coleman K, F anko U,
F olking S, Jenkinson D S, Jensen L S, Kelly R H, Klein-Gunnewiek H, Koma o A S, Li C,
Molina J A E, Muelle T, Pa on W J, Tho nley J H M and Whi mo e A P 1997 A compa ison o
he pe o mance o nine soil o ganic ma e models using da ase s om se en long- e m
expe imen s. Geode ma 81, 153-225.
Smi h W N, Desja dins R L, G an B, Li C, Lemke R, Roche e P, Co e M D and Pennock D 2002
Tes ing he DNDC model using N2O emissions a wo expe imen al si es in Canada.
Canadian Jou nal o Soil Science 82, 365-374.
Smi h W N, G an B B, Desja dins R L, Wo h D, Li C, Boles S H and Hu man E C 2010 A ool o link
ag icul u al ac i i y da a wi h he DNDC model o es ima e GHG emission ac o s in Canada.
Ag icul u e, Ecosys ems and En i onmen 136, 301-309.
Somme S G, Schjoe ing J K and Denmead O T 2004 Ammonia Emission om Mine al Fe ilize s
and Fe ilized C ops. In Ad ances in Ag onomy. pp 557-622. Academic P ess.
Vázquez N, Pa do A, Suso M L and Quemada M 2006 D ainage and ni a e leaching unde
p ocessing oma o g ow h wi h d ip i iga ion and plas ic mulching. Ag icul u e, Ecosys ems
& En i onmen 112, 313-323.
Wan Y and El-Swai y S A 1999 Runo and soil e osion as a ec ed by plas ic mulch in a Hawaiian
pineapple ield. Soil and Tillage Resea ch 52, 29-35.
Wang Y, Xie Z, Malhi S S, Ve a C L, Zhang Y and Wang J 2009 E ec s o ain all ha es ing and
mulching echnologies on wa e use e iciency and c op yield in he semi-a id Loess Pla eau,
China. Ag icul u al Wa e Managemen 96, 374-382.

127
Xiong Z, Xie Y, Xing G, Zhu Z and Bu enho C 2006 Measu emen s o ni ous oxide emissions om
ege able p oduc ion in China. A mosphe ic En i onmen 40, 2225-2234.
Zhang H, Liu Q, Yu X, Lü G and Wu Y 2012 E ec s o plas ic mulch du a ion on ni ogen
mine aliza ion and leaching in peanu (A achis hypogaea) cul i a ed land in he Yimeng
Moun ainous A ea, China. Ag icul u e, Ecosys ems & En i onmen 158, 164-171.
128
129
Chap e 4
N
2
O and CH
4
emissions om ice paddies as a ec ed by wa e managemen
130
131
A eco d o N
2
O and CH
4
emissions and unde lying soil p ocesses o Ko ean ice
paddies as a ec ed by di e en wa e managemen p ac ices
Sina Be ge
1
, Inyoung Jang
2
, Juyoung Seo
2
, Hojeong Kang
2
, Ge ha d Gebaue
1
1
BayCEER - Labo a o y o Iso ope Biogeochemis y, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, 95440
Bay eu h, Ge many;
2
School o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, Yonsei Uni e si y, Seoul, Republic o
Ko ea;
Co esponding au ho : Ge ha d Gebaue , BayCEER - Labo a o y o Iso ope
Biogeochemis y, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, 95440 Bay eu h, Ge many, email:
ge ha d.gebaue @uni-bay eu h.de, phone: +49 (0)921/55-2060, ax: 49 (0)921/55-2564
Submi ed o Biogeochemis y on 19 Sep embe 2012
Abs ac
Rice is s aple ood o hal o mankind and paddy soils accoun o he la ges an h opogenic
we lands on ea h. Ample o esea ch is being done o ind cul i a ion me hods unde which
he in eg a i e g eenhouse e ec caused by CH
4
and N
2
O emissions would be mi iga ed.
Whe eas mos o he esea ch ocuses on quan i ying such emissions, he e is a lack o
s udies on he biogeochemis y o paddy soils. In o de o deepen ou mechanis ic
unde s anding o N
2
O and CH
4
luxes in ice paddies, we also de e mined NO
3-
and N
2
O
concen a ions as well as N
2
O iso ope abundances and p esence o O
2
along soil p o iles o
paddies which unde wen h ee di e en wa e managemen s du ing he ice g owing
season(s) in (2010 and) 2011 in Ko ea. La ges amoun s o N
2
O (2 mmol m
-2
) and CH
4
(14.5
mol m
-2
) degassed om he con inuously looded paddy, while paddies wi h less looding
showed 30-60% less CH
4
emissions and e y low o nega i e N
2
O balances. In acco dance,
he global wa ming po en ial GWP was lowes o he In e mi en I iga ion paddy and
highes o he T adi ional I iga ion paddy. The N
2
O emissions could he bes be explained

132
(*P<0.05) wi h he δ
15
N alues and N
2
O concen a ions in 40-50 cm soil dep h, implying ha
majo N
2
O p oduc ion/consump ion occu s he e. No signi ican e ec o NO
3-
on N
2
O
p oduc ion has been ound. Ou s udy gi es insigh in o he soil o a ice paddy and e eals
a eas along he soil p o ile whe e N
2
O is being p oduced. The eby i con ibu es o ou
unde s anding o subsoil p ocesses o paddy soils.
Keywo ds
Ni ous oxide,
15
N, NO
3-
, adi ional i iga ion, in e mi en i iga ion, Ko ea
133
In oduc ion
Ni ous oxide (N
2
O) is a signi ican long-li ing g eenhouse gas and i cu en ly con ibu es
abou 6% o he annual inc ease in adia i e o cing (WMO 2006). Wo ldwide, sou ces o
N
2
O a e domina ed by ag icul u e (Po e e al. 1996, Robe son and G ace 2004), wi h he
amoun o N e ilize applied as one o he key d i e s o he N
2
O emission (Shepe ed e al.
1991).
Rice is he s aple ood o almos 50% o he ea h’s popula ion and 20% o he ag icul u ally
managed soils a e ice plan ing a eas (F olking e al. 2002). Whe eas ice paddies a e known
o be among he mos impo an sou ces o me hane (CH
4
) (IPCC 1992, Neue and Sass
1998; Yan e al. 2009), hei N
2
O emissions a e conside ed negligible, in pa icula unde
condi ions o 4-6 mon hs o con inuous looding (Cai e al. 1997; Smi h and Pa ick 1983; Zou
e al. 2005a) because such s ong anae obic condi ions lead o a u he educ ion o he
in e media y deni i ica ion p oduc N
2
O o N
2
, so ha no degassing o N
2
O can occu (G anli
and Bøckman 1994), whe eas ha i iga ion me hod has he g ea disad an age o p oducing
g ea amoun s o CH
4
(IPCC 1992; Neue and Sass 1998; Sass e al. 1999; Yan e al. 2009).
Howe e , i is he scien is s aim o ind i iga ion me hods which would cause he leas
in eg a i e g eenhouse e ec by mi iga ing CH
4
and N
2
O emissions as much as possible by
ensu ing enough ice yields (Chapagain and Yamaji 2010; Miyaza o e al. 2010; Sa o e al.
2011; Peng e al. 2011). Con olled i iga ion p ac ices which lea e ice paddies unde non-
wa e logged condi ions 40-80% o he ime, a e subjec o plen y o s udies (Cai e al. 1997;
Wu 1999; Mao 2002; Zou e al. 2007; Quin e al. 2010; Peng e al. 2011). This no only sa es
wa e bu also mi iga es CH
4
emissions, howe e a s onge N
2
O emissions due o changes
in soil oxygen s a us, soil edox po en ial, mois u e, empe a u e e c. (Smi h and Pa ick
1983; Cai e al. 2001; Zou e al. 2005b; Johnson-Beebou e al. 2009; Liu e al. 2010; Peng e
al. 2011). Such con olled i iga ion me hods a e in e mi en i iga ion, looding-midseason
d ainage- equen wa e logging wi h in e mi en i iga ion (FDF), and looding-midseason
d ainage- e looding-mois in e mi en i iga ion bu wi hou wa e logging (FDFM) (Mao 2002;
Wu 1999; Zou e al. 2007).
This is a moni o ing s udy compa ing no only N
2
O and CH
4
luxes a he soil/a mosphe e
in e ace o h ee ice paddies in Sou h Ko ea, which we e unde di e en wa e managemen
p ac ices, bu i e en mo e ocuses on a couple o biogeochemical soil ac o s which a e
known o a ec N
2
O emissions, such as NO
3-
and N
2
O concen a ion, δ
15
N-N
2
O alues,
p esence o absence o oxygen along soil p o iles in addi ion o paddy wa e le el and wa e
empe a u e du ing he ege a ion pe iod o 2010 and 2011. The in es iga ed wa e
managemen p ac ices we e 1) ‘ adi ional i iga ion’ (TI) wi h 5 mon hs o looding, 2)
‘ looding-midseason d ainage- e looding-mois in e mi en i iga ion wi hou wa e logging’
134
(FDFM) wi h only 2.5 mon hs o con inuous looding be o e he d ainage and 3) ‘in e mi en
i iga ion’ (II) wi hou con inuous looding. Ou objec i es we e o es how he di e en wa e
managemen p ac ices would a ec he biogeochemis y o he ice paddies wi h espec o
N
2
O p oduc ion and emission. Acco ding o he li e a u e, we hypo hesized ha he mos N
2
O
would degas om he paddies expe iencing less looding and mos CH
4
would be emi ed
om he con inuously looded paddy; bu u he mo e we we e expec ing o see g ea
changes in N
2
O, NO
3-
and O
2
concen a ions, as well as in δ
15
N-N
2
O alues along he soil
p o iles in dependence o he wa e le els especially in he FDFM and II ields.
2. Me hods
2.1 S udy egion and expe imen al si es
All he ield wo k was conduc ed in he moun ainous Haean Basin be ween longi ude 128° 5’
o 128° 11’ E and la i ude 38° 13’ o 38° 20’ N in Yanggu Coun y, Gangwon P o ince in he
no h-eas e n pa o Sou h Ko ea. The a e age annual ai empe a u e a he alley si es is
10.5°C and he a e age p ecipi a ion is app oxima ely 1500mm, wi h 70% alling du ing he
summe monsoon om June o Augus . Rice paddies co e o e 507 ha which is 25% o he
c opland a ea in he Haean Basin, which makes ice he mos impo an c op o he egion.
Th ee ice paddies ha e been selec ed as esea ch si es (see Table 1).
The i s one was unde going looding-midseason d ainage- e looding-mois in e mi en
i iga ion wi hou wa e logging (FDFM) wi h only 2.5 mon hs o con inuous looding; he
second one was exposed o in e mi en i iga ion (II) and he hi d one expe ienced
adi ional i iga ion (TI) o 5 mon hs o con inuous looding.
Measu emen s ha e been aken om 11 May 2010 un il 23 Oc obe , 2010 a he FDFM
paddy and om 6 May un il 15 Sep embe 2011 a all h ee paddies.
The h ee paddies had a subs a e o sandy-loam ex u e and he soils we e cha ac e ized as
e ic cambisols o e en as an h osols (IUSS Wo king G oup WRB 2007) because o an
a i icial long- e m addi ion o sandy soil on he op o he ields.
The paddies we e ea ed in he ollowing way: he i s i iga ion occu ed be ween end o
Ap il and he i s days o May. Be ween 8 and 10 May he paddies we e e ilized (see Table
1) on hei mois soils. Be ween 10 and 15 May he con inuous looding as well as he
i iga ion o he paddies s a ed. The ansplan ing o he ice seedlings ook place be ween
25 and 30 May. He bicides and pes icides we e sp ead by end o June. The ha es was
be ween middle and end o Oc obe . The owne s o he h ee paddies ollowed ha
adi ional p ocedu e in 2011 as well as he a me o he FDFM paddy did in 2010.
135
In 2010 he measu emen s we e aken a he edge o he FDFM ice paddy, and po en ial
edge e ec s could no be excluded. To a oid hose edge e ec s, he 2011 measu emen s
we e aken wi hin he paddies 5-8 m away om he paddies’ edges. Walkways we e used o
access he expe imen al si es in 2011. These walkways aimed o minimize dis u bances o
he si es om s epping on o he soil leading o soil compac ion and pushing o gas bubbles
om he sub-soil.
Fu he mo e, he paddies di e ed in hei soil ho izons which we e in es iga ed un il 60 cm
soil dep h. The FDFM paddy had an Apg-ho izon om 0 un il 22 cm soil dep h, ollowed by
an A p ho izon. The II paddy had wo di e en Apg-ho izons ( he i s one eached om 0 o
11cm and om 11 o 34cm), ollowed by wo di e en A p-ho izons. The II paddy’s sequence
o ho izons was qui e di e en om he o he wo paddies’ sequence o ho izons: he hin (0-
15cm) Apg-ho izon was ollowed by a hin (15-33cm) A p-laye which was ollowed by wo
di e en B-ho izons wi h Bg1 eaching om 33 o 55cm and Bg2 s a ing a 55cm, eaching
deepe . Ap-ho izons may be oxic o anoxic, A p-ho izons a e cha ac e ized by he absence
o ee oxygen since hey ep esen he puddled bu compac ed laye . B ho izons may ei he
be ae obic o anae obic (IUSS wo king g oup WRB, 2006).
Fig. 2: N
2
O lux and cumula i e N
2
O emissions as a unc ion o ime om 11 May o 23 Oc obe 2010 and 5 May o 14 Sep embe 2011 a he expe imen al si es.
E o ba s in N
2
O lux-
and cumula i e N
142
O emissions as a unc ion o ime om 11 May o 23 Oc obe 2010 and 5 May o 14 Sep embe 2011 a he expe imen al si es.
and cumula i e N
2
O emission-
g aphs ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean (n=8).
O emissions as a unc ion o ime om 11 May o 23 Oc obe 2010 and 5 May o 14 Sep embe 2011 a he expe imen al si es.
g aphs ep esen he s anda d e o o he mean (n=8).

3.3 CH
4
luxes and cumula i e CH
While he CH
4
luxes o he II paddy we e compa ably low, he e we e qui e huge amoun s o
CH
4
degassing om he TI and FDFM paddies (see Fig. 3). The e was a decline o ze o
luxes a he II and FDFM paddies on 12 July.
Du ing he measu emen pe iod, he paddy wi h he highes CH
one wi h TI (14.5 mol m
-2
; equals 2328 kg
FDFM paddy (9.6 mol m
-2
; equals 1541 kg CH
emission balance was ound o he II paddy wi h 4.4 mol m
5.89 kg CH
4
ha
-1
d
-1
).
Fig 3: CH
4
lux and cumula i e CH
he expe imen al si es.
E o ba s in N
3.4. P esence o O
2
along he paddies’ soil p o iles
The O
2
p o iles o he ice paddies look e y di e en (Fig. 4). The FDFM paddy did no seem
o con ain any O
2
om he s a ing poin o he O
ab up ly huge amoun s o O
2
The II and TI paddies had a mo e complex O
had high o low amoun s o O
measu emen pe iod
and almos no O
O
2
in he opsoil du ing hal o he O
and 70 cm dep h du ing mo e han hal o he ime o he in es iga ion pe iod.
143
luxes and cumula i e CH
4
emissions
luxes o he II paddy we e compa ably low, he e we e qui e huge amoun s o
degassing om he TI and FDFM paddies (see Fig. 3). The e was a decline o ze o
luxes a he II and FDFM paddies on 12 July.
Du ing he measu emen pe iod, he paddy wi h he highes CH
4
emission balance was he
; equals 2328 kg
CH
4
ha
-1
o 19.4 kg CH
4
ha
-1
d
; equals 1541 kg CH
4
ha
-1
o 12.8 kg CH
4
ha
-1
d
emission balance was ound o he II paddy wi h 4.4 mol m
-2
(equals 706.42 kg CH
lux and cumula i e CH
4
emissions as a unc ion o ime om 29 May o 28 Augus 2011 a
E o ba s in N
2
O lux- and cumula i e N
2
O emission-
g aphs ep esen he
s anda d e o o he mean (n=5).
along he paddies’ soil p o iles
p o iles o he ice paddies look e y di e en (Fig. 4). The FDFM paddy did no seem
om he s a ing poin o he O
2
in es iga ion un il mid o Augus when
occu ed om he opsoil un il deep down in he paddy’s soil.
The II and TI paddies had a mo e complex O
2
si ua ion han he one wi h FDFM. Whe eas II
had high o low amoun s o O
2
om he opsoil down o 30 cm dep h du ing he whole
and almos no O
2
occu ed in he deepe soil laye s, TI did no ha e any
in he opsoil du ing hal o he O
2
in es iga ion pe iod bu i did ha e some O
and 70 cm dep h du ing mo e han hal o he ime o he in es iga ion pe iod.
luxes o he II paddy we e compa ably low, he e we e qui e huge amoun s o
degassing om he TI and FDFM paddies (see Fig. 3). The e was a decline o ze o
-
emission balance was he
d
-1
), ollowed by he
d
-1
). The lowes CH
4
(equals 706.42 kg CH
4
ha
-1
o
emissions as a unc ion o ime om 29 May o 28 Augus 2011 a
g aphs ep esen he
p o iles o he ice paddies look e y di e en (Fig. 4). The FDFM paddy did no seem
in es iga ion un il mid o Augus when
occu ed om he opsoil un il deep down in he paddy’s soil.
si ua ion han he one wi h FDFM. Whe eas II
om he opsoil down o 30 cm dep h du ing he whole
occu ed in he deepe soil laye s, TI did no ha e any
in es iga ion pe iod bu i did ha e some O
2
be ween 40
and 70 cm dep h du ing mo e han hal o he ime o he in es iga ion pe iod.
Fig. 4
: P esence o absence o oxygen (O
3.5 NO
3-
concen a ions o he paddies’ soil p o iles
The NO
3-
pa e n o he h ee paddies is simila (Fig. 5). All o hem show high concen a ions
o NO
3-
(abou 40 mg/l; in 50 cm dep h a he TI paddy he e we e 100mg/l) in June. F om 10
June un il 1 Augus , he NO
3
dec eased o minimum alues o 5 mg/l, hen inc eased up o 55 mg/l and dec eased again.
The TI paddy showed sligh ly inc eased NO
s ong dec ease down o 3 mg/l. The e we e no s a is ical di e
concen a ions o he h ee paddies a each measu emen day.
Fig. 5: NO
3-
concen a ion as a unc ion o soil dep h and ime om 10 June o 11 Sep embe 2011 a
he expe imen al si es. [Fo de ia ions om mean alues see
144
: P esence o absence o oxygen (O
2
) as a unc ion o soil dep h and ime om 10 June o 13
Sep embe a he expe imen al si es.
concen a ions o he paddies’ soil p o iles
pa e n o he h ee paddies is simila (Fig. 5). All o hem show high concen a ions
(abou 40 mg/l; in 50 cm dep h a he TI paddy he e we e 100mg/l) in June. F om 10
3
-
concen a ions along all dep hs o he FDFM an
dec eased o minimum alues o 5 mg/l, hen inc eased up o 55 mg/l and dec eased again.
The TI paddy showed sligh ly inc eased NO
3-
concen a ions (35mg/l) on 17 July bu hen a
s ong dec ease down o 3 mg/l. The e we e no s a is ical di e
ences (P > 0.05) o he NO
concen a ions o he h ee paddies a each measu emen day.
concen a ion as a unc ion o soil dep h and ime om 10 June o 11 Sep embe 2011 a
he expe imen al si es. [Fo de ia ions om mean alues see
s anda d e o s in Table 2 in he
Appendix.]
) as a unc ion o soil dep h and ime om 10 June o 13
pa e n o he h ee paddies is simila (Fig. 5). All o hem show high concen a ions
(abou 40 mg/l; in 50 cm dep h a he TI paddy he e we e 100mg/l) in June. F om 10
concen a ions along all dep hs o he FDFM an
d II paddies
dec eased o minimum alues o 5 mg/l, hen inc eased up o 55 mg/l and dec eased again.
concen a ions (35mg/l) on 17 July bu hen a
ences (P > 0.05) o he NO
3-
concen a ion as a unc ion o soil dep h and ime om 10 June o 11 Sep embe 2011 a
s anda d e o s in Table 2 in he
145
3.6 N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues along he paddies’ soil p o iles
In gene al, he N
2
O concen a ions along he paddies’ soil p o iles a e qui e low, excep o
beginning o June 2011 a he FDFM and II paddy, whe e maximum alues o 6700 and 9900
ppb we e eached (Fig. 6). A he o he measu emen days N
2
O concen a ions in he soils o
hese wo paddies we e simila o he N
2
O concen a ion o ambien ai (abou 320 ppb). Fo
he paddy unde going TI, no huge changes in soil N
2
O concen a ions could be obse ed; he
lowes concen a ions we e a ound 460 ppb and he highes ones a ound 2085 ppb. The
2010 and 2011 N
2
O concen a ion p o iles o he FDFM paddy di e a lo . Whe eas he e
we e huge luc ua ions in 2011, hey we e almos s able in 2010, anging om 425 o 1420
ppb. In addi ion o he s a is ical di e ences be ween he da es a each si e, which a e gi en
in Fig. 6, compa isons o all h ee paddies’ N
2
O concen a ions in June, July and Augus
we e done, oo. They e ealed ha he e we e no s a is ical di e ences (P > 0.05) in June
and July, bu he e we e such di e ences in Augus (*P = 0.018, F = 5.706) wi h he paddy
unde going FDFM on he one hand ha ing signi ican ly highe N
2
O concen a ions han he II
paddy, bu on he o he hand no di e en om he TI paddy.
The δ
15
N-N
2
O cu es a all si es in 2011 as well as in 2010 a ied s a is ically signi ican (Fig.
6). While he TI and II paddy’s cu es s a ed wi h δ
15
N alues down o -11.85‰, o he
ollowing wo da es he II paddy’s alues inc eased up o -0.51‰ and he TI paddy’s alues
e en u ned in o posi i e ones (3.8‰). Fo he FDFM paddy in 2011 he opposi e pa e n
could be obse ed: he June ini ial alues we e posi i e o less nega i e ones ( anging om
1.51‰ down o -5.68‰), emained s able in July, bu declined in Augus down o -11.84‰. A
s a is ical compa ison o he 2010 and 2011 δ
15
N-N
2
O alues o he FDFM paddy showed
ha he e we e no s a is ical di e ences be ween June and July, bu he di e ences we e
e y signi ican (P = <0.001, = -5.405) o he las measu emen da e, which was 24 Augus
in 2011 and 23 Oc obe in 2010. A di ec compa ison o he δ
15
N alues o each
measu emen day among he h ee paddies e ealed ha he e we e e y signi ican
di e ences in June (**P = 0.004, F = 9.109; FDFM di e en om II bu no om TI),
signi ican di e ences in July (P = 0.012; II di e en om TI bu no di e en om FDFM) and
highly signi ican di e ences in Augus (P = <0.001, F = 31.146; di e ences be ween all o
he h ee paddies).
Fig. 6: N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues on 6 June, 1 Augus and 23 Oc obe 2010 a he FDFM paddy and 14 June, 18 July and 24 Augus 2011 a he
h ee expe imen al si es.
Le e s indica e s a is ical di e ences.
146
O alues on 6 June, 1 Augus and 23 Oc obe 2010 a he FDFM paddy and 14 June, 18 July and 24 Augus 2011 a he
Le e s indica e s a is ical di e ences.
[Fo de ia ions om mean alues see s anda d e o s in Table 3 in he App
O alues on 6 June, 1 Augus and 23 Oc obe 2010 a he FDFM paddy and 14 June, 18 July and 24 Augus 2011 a he
[Fo de ia ions om mean alues see s anda d e o s in Table 3 in he App
endix.]
147
3.7 Co ela ions o N
2
O luxes a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace and wa e le el, CH
4
luxes,
he soils’ N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues
Fo each expe imen al si e a co ela ion be ween N
2
O- and CH
4
luxes could be ound, as
well as he e we e co ela ions be ween N
2
O luxes and wa e le el a he indi idual si es.
O e all si es co ela ions e ealed ela ions be ween N
2
O luxes and N
2
O concen a ions in
di e en soil dep hs as well as δ
15
N-N
2
O alues a 50 cm dep h (see Table 4).
Table 4: P- and R
2
alues o co ela ions o N
2
O luxes wi h hose pa ame e s (CH
4
luxes, wa e le el,
N
2
O concen a ion in 10, 20, 40 and 50 cm soil dep h, δ
15
N alue a 50 cm dep h) which esul ed in a
s a is ical end (P =/< 0.1) o we e signi ican (*P < 0.05) o e y signi ican (**P < 0.01).
Co ela ions a indi idual expe imen al si es - N
2
O lux s. :
CH
4
lux (FDFM) CH
4
lux (II) CH
4
lux (TI) Wa e le el (II) Wa e le el (TI)
P = 0.1089; R
2
= 0.39
*P = 0.0285; R
2
= 0.39
**P = 0.0092; R
2
= 0.81
P = 0.0839; R2 = 0.10 P = 0.0760; R2 = 0.10
nega i e co ela ion nega i e co ela ion posi i e co ela ion nega i e co ela ion nega i e co ela ion
Co ela ions o e all expe imen al si es - N
2
O lux s. :
N
2
O conc. 10 N
2
O conc. 20 N
2
O conc. 40 N
2
O conc. 50 δ
15
N 50
P = 0.1011; R
2
= 0.25
P = 0.1061; R
2
= 0.24 *P = 0.0450; R
2
= 0.30 *P = 0.0386; R
2
= 0.30
**P = 0.0079; R
2
= 0.47
posi i e co ela ion posi i e co ela ion posi i e co ela ion nega i e co ela ion nega i e co ela ion
4. Discussion
4.1 E alua ion o he N
2
O and CH
4
luxes and emissions wi h espec o wa e managemen
The i s o he wo ini ial hypo heses was ha he mos N
2
O would degas om he paddies
expe iencing less looding and he leas N
2
O bu he highes amoun o CH
4
would be emi ed
om he con inuously looded TI paddy. This hypo hesis could no be co obo a ed o N
2
O,
whe e he opposi e esul was ound, bu i could be co obo a ed o CH
4
. The TI paddy
emi ed he mos N
2
O (2 mmol m
-2
, equals 880.2 g N
2
O ha
-1
o 6.57 g N
2
O ha
-1
d
-1
) as well as
he highes amoun s o CH
4
(14.5 mol m
-2
; equals 2328 kg CH
4
ha
-1
o 19.4 kg CH
4
ha
-1
d
-1
),
whe eas he II paddy consumed exac ly ha amoun o N
2
O and emi ed only 30% o he CH
4
emi ed om he TI paddy, which s ill sums up o a conside able amoun o 4.4 mol m
-2
(equals 706.42 kg CH
4
ha
-1
o 5.89 kg CH
4
ha
-1
d
-1
) du ing he measu emen pe iod. The
FDFM paddy showed 65% o he TI paddy’s CH
4
emissions; i s N
2
O emissions in 2011
summed up o almos ze o, bu in 2010, when he N
2
O lux measu emen s con inued un il
end o Oc obe , he FDFM paddy consumed 1.47 mmol N
2
O m
-2
, which co esponds o 72%
o he amoun ha he II paddy consumed in 2011.

148
In gene al, p e ious s udies ha e shown ha N
2
O luxes in ice paddies a e s ongly a ec ed
by sou ce and a e o e ilize applied (Clay on e al. 1997; Cai e al. 1997; Bouwman e al.
2002; Zou e al. 2005a; Ma e al. 2007) as well as by he i iga ion me hod (Smi h and Pa ick
1983; Cai e al. 2001; Zou e al. 2005b; Johnson-Beebou e al. 2009; Liu e al. 2010; Peng e
al. 2011), whe eupon i ’s he cumula i e N
2
O emission ha can be co ela ed wi h i iga ion
me hod (Zou e al. 2007), bu i is no he N
2
O lux which is ela ed o he wa e le el, as ou
p esen esul con i ms, ega dless o obse a ions o N
2
O emission peaks du ing midseason
ae a ion, which – when inco po a ed in o s a is ics – do no b ing signi ican esul s (Zou e al.
2007, Li e al. 2011, Yao e al. 2012).
T adi ionally i iga ed paddies (which expe ience con inuous looding) ha e been ound o
show he leas N
2
O emissions, which we e consis en wi h he N
2
O emissions we measu ed
in ou expe imen al si es (Zou e al, 2007; Peng e al. 2011). Fo FDFM paddies (which a e
looded o a sho e ime o 2 o 3 mon hs in he beginning o he ice g owing pe iod,
expe ience midseason-d ainage and s and mois bu no looded un il he ha es ) cumula i e
N
2
O emissions ange be ween 1.21 and 6.17 kg N
2
O-N ha
-1
(Zheng e al. 2000; Zheng e al.
2004; Zou e al. 2005a,b; Zou e al. 2007; Peng e al. 2011), which in any case exceeds he
emissions we ha e measu ed. O he wa e managemen p ac ices lead o cumula i e N
2
O
emissions o 0.17 o 2.5 kg N
2
O-N ha
-1
(Cai e al. 1997; Cao e al. 1999; Zou e al. 2005;
Peng e al. 2011). The N
2
O balances ound in ou s udy a e conside ably low, especially he
ones o he II and FDFM paddies, which had been expec ed o be high, a e lowe han he TI
paddy’s cumula i e emission and e en nega i e. N
2
O consump ion in ice paddies was
obse ed ecen ly, oo, (Fe é e al. 2012) occu ed unde looded and wa e -logged
condi ions and migh be explained by a mo e and mo e declining a ailabili y o NO
3-
, which
had se ed as elec on accep o be o e; and when ni a e became limi ed, mic obes
me abolized NO
2-
, NO and N
2
O ins ead, esul ing in he p oduc ion o N
2
, which degassed
om he soil in o he a mosphe e e y quickly (Kögel-Knabne e al. 2010). This
deni i ica ion p ocess, leading o dec eased N
2
O emissions bu inc eased N
2
O consump ion
and N
2
emission, would only occu unde anoxic condi ions (Khalil and Bags 2005; Sey e al.
2008; Kögel-Knabne e al. 2010) which we hough ou II expe imen al si e did no ha e o
ace; so we can only specula e ha , ei he ou ice paddy’s soil did emain we e han we
hough i was, o ano he p ocess – me abolizing NH
4+
o NO
3-
and u he o N
2
unde
ae obic condi ions – could ha e aken place: ni i ie deni i ica ion (W age e al. 2001; Kool
e al. 2011). In ac , i is known ha in ice paddy soils a igh coupling be ween ni i ica ion
and deni i ica ion p ocesses exis s (A h e al. 1998). Since i is also known ha he
applica ion o NH
4+
e ilize s imula es ammonium oxidizing bac e ia (Cai e al. 1997; Kögel-
Knabne e al. 2010), we assume ha in ou II si e a o able condi ions o NH
4+
oxida ion
and u he p ocessing unde ae obic condi ions o N
2
could be ound, which may also ha e
149
lead o he use o N
2
O and i s being p ocessed o N
2
. The TI paddy expe ienced wa e -
logging du ing he whole ice g owing season, whe eas FDFM was looded con inuously o
2.5 mon hs, so hey unde wen he p ocedu e which ypically leads o a hin laye o
ammonium oxidizing bac e ia in he uppe ew cm o he paddies’ soils and unde nea h,
whe e i is supposed o be anoxic, he e would be he deni i ying bac e ia (FAO 2006; Kögel-
Knabne e al. 2010) all oge he causing he p ocessing o NH
4+
ia NO
3-
o N
2
. This would
ha e caused e y low N
2
O luxes, which is indeed wha we ha e measu ed, excep o wo
unexpec ed N
2
O emission peaks which boos ed he TI paddy’s N
2
O balance. Bu luc ua ions
o he amoun o N
2
O emi ed om paddies wi h iden ical wa e managemen and e ilize
applica ion ha e been obse ed be o e (Zheng e al. 2004) a e no o be o e -in e p e ed.
The qui e high CH
4
emissions a ou si es may be explained by he NH
4+
e ilize , oo,
because he p esence o a high NH
4+
concen a ion also leads o a dec eased CH
4
oxida ion,
which may cause highe CH
4
concen a ions in he soil and inally leads o high CH
4
luxes
(Cai e al. 1997). On he o he hand one mus be awa e ha we measu ed CH
4
luxes a he
in equen and seldom in con as o ou N
2
O emission measu emen s, so we may ha e
missed CH
4
peaks as well as days wi h low CH
4
luxes, which makes he CH
4
lux esul s
less obus .
Thus, bo h seems possible, inc easing N
2
O emissions wi h inc easing CH
4
emissions (as we
ound o he TI paddy) acco ding o he p eceding, o NH
4+
e e ing explana ion, as well as
he common opinion and ou in oduc o y hypo hesis ha con a y N
2
O and CH
4
luxes would
occu (as ound o FDFM and II), meaning la ge emissions o one gas would cause less
emissions o he o he one, as a o able condi ions o he p oduc ion o he wo gases, a e
assumed o be mu ually exclusi e (G anli and Bøckman 1994, Klübe and Con ad 1998).
When conside ing he combined Global Wa ming Po en ial (GWP) o CH
4
and N
2
O,
calcula ed in uni s o CO
2
equi alen s o e a 100-yea ime ho izon (based on a adia i e
o cing po en ial ela i e o CO
2
o 298 o N
2
O and 25 o CH
4
(IPCC 2001)), i u ns ou ha
he adi ional i iga ion lead o he highes GWP o 363.1 mol CO
2
eq m
-2
, ollowed by FDFM,
which lead o degassing o 240 mol CO
2
eq m
-2
. In e mi en I iga ion u ned ou o ha e a
GWP o 109 mol CO
2
eq m
-2
. Thus, we would conclude ha in e mi en i iga ion caused he
leas g eenhouse gas emissions.
4.2 E alua ion o he N
2
O luxes a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace wi h espec o he soil
pa ame e s: p esence o absence o O
2
, NO
3-
and N
2
O concen a ion and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues
We hypo hesized g ea changes in N
2
O, NO
3-
and O
2
concen a ions, as well as in δ
15
N-N
2
O
alues o e ime and along he soil p o iles especially in he FDFM and II paddy, whe eas we
had expec ed he TI paddy o ha e a he s able soil condi ions. This hypo hesis could pa ly
150
be co obo a ed. In e ms o O
2
p esence he FDFM and II paddy beha ed exac ly as
expec ed, so he FDFM paddy soil was anae obic un il mid Augus and a e wa ds
expe ienced ae obic condi ions, and II was in il a ed wi h O
2
om he op downwa ds du ing
he whole measu emen pe iod. TI was iddled wi h O
2
in i s deepe soil laye s in pa icula ,
which a i s sigh appea s odd, ega ding ha TI is he paddy wi h he smalles Ap-ho izon
( he ho izon which con ains oxygen (F enzel e al. 1992; FAO 2006; Yu e al. 2007; Kögel-
Knabne e al. 2010)), bu a second sigh one no ices he paddy’s B-ho izon which may ha e
oxic condi ions, oo (Kögel-Knabne e al. 2010). We specula e ha he TI paddy’s deepe
soil laye s con ain O
2
because hey may ha e access o g ound wa e p o iding hem wi h
O
2
. In con as o ha , he o he wo paddies’ oxygen-con aining ho izons each down o 20
and 35 cm, espec i ely, and ge illed up wi h O
2
e e y ime when he wa e le el declines.
Rega ding he NO
3-
concen a ions along he soil p o iles we go any hing bu he expec ed
esul . Ins ead o g ea di e ences and concen a ion changes among s udy si es we ound
no s a is ical di e ences be ween NO
3-
concen a ions o he expe imen al si es.
Fu he mo e, no ela ions de ec ed be ween N
2
O luxes and NO
3-
concen a ions o di e en
soil laye s makes us conclude ha NO
3-
concen a ions in he soils only play a mino ole o
he N
2
O p oduc ion and exchange a he paddies’ soil/a mosphe e in e aces. To ou
knowledge he e a e no o he lysime e s udies in es iga ing NO
3-
leaching om ice paddies,
bu he e a e such s udies on DOC-leaching e ealing ha he e a e ex emely la ge luxes
om op- o subsoil (Michalzik e al. 2001; Ka oh e al. 2004; Maie e al. 2004). In gene al,
one assumes ha he highly mobile NO
3-
can leach easily o deepe soil laye s o is
me abolized by mic obes unde anoxic condi ions, quickly (Kögel-Knabne e al. 2010), which
d as ically educes N e ilize use e iciency in ice paddies in compa ison o o he
ag icul u al sys ems (DeDa a 1981; Cao e al. 1984a,b; Roy and Mis a 2003). Thus, we
conclude ha he wa e managemen o he h ee paddies had no e ec on hei NO
3-
concen a ions h oughou he measu emen pe iod. In he sho e m he e migh ha e been
signi ican di e ences be ween he paddies’ NO
3-
concen a ions, which we ailed o de ec ,
because NO
3-
is highly mobile and i migh ha e leached o me abolized by mic obes oo
quickly.
Wi h ega d o N
2
O concen a ions and δ
15
N-N
2
O alues along soil p o iles, in oduc o ily i
needs o be said ha ha high N
2
O concen a ions oge he wi h deple ed δ
15
N-N
2
O alues
a e in e p e ed as N
2
O p oduc ion, whe eas low N
2
O concen a ions and posi i e δ
15
N-N
2
O
alues a e ega ded as N
2
O consump ion (Goldbe g e al. 2010). The FDFM paddy showed
high N
2
O concen a ions in June and by end o Augus 2011, a he same ime when i s δ
15
N-
N
2
O alues (in June in he deepe soil laye s) we e ai ly nega i e (down o -11.84‰), which
is ega ded indica i e o N
2
O p oduc ion and u he educ ion o N
2
gas. The II paddy
possessed high amoun s o N
2
O (9977ppb) as well as ai ly nega i e δ
15
N-N
2
O alues (-
151
11.85‰) in June, which we also in e p e as N
2
O p oduc ion and subsequen educ ion o N
2
gas whe eas he es o he measu emen pe iod showed δ
15
N-N
2
O alues a ound -3‰ and
N
2
O concen a ions be ween 957 and 2106 ppb, indica ing less N
2
O p oduc ion han in June.
The TI paddy’s soil was deple ed in
15
N-N
2
O in June (-9.94‰), bu compa ably en iched
(δ
15
N-N
2
O alues up o 3.41‰), a compa ably low N
2
O concen a ions (567-3904ppb)
h oughou he measu emen pe iod, sugges ing ha a e a sho N
2
O p oduc ion pe iod in
June, ha dly any N
2
O had been p oduced anymo e du ing he ollowing measu emen days.
These p o iles explain he N
2
O exchange we ha e measu ed a he soil/a mosphe e in e ace
o a good ex end; so we iden i ied he deepe soil laye s’ (40-50 cm soil dep h) N
2
O
concen a ions and
14
N/
15
N a ios o ha e a signi ican e ec on he N
2
O luxes. Unpublished
da a on gene abundances o deni i ying and ni i ying bac e ia a ou FDFM paddy s udy si e
by Seo and Kang (2012) e ealed a highe ni K / nosZ a io a he subsoil (be ween 25 and
65 cm soil dep h), sugges ing ha N
2
O migh be p oduced in he subsoil, which suppo s ou
indings.
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k is pa o he esea ch g oup “TERRECO - Complex TERRain and ECOlogical
He e ogenei y” and inancially suppo ed by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG). We
uly hank Hee a Lee, Youngsun Kim and Bo a Lee o he g ea language help. We hank
And eas Kolb, who cons uc ed he po able acuum pump o us and Isolde Baumann o
skil ul assis ance by measu ing N
2
O iso ope abundances. We u he mo e acknowledge
Sebas ian A nholds help wi h digging and in e p e ing soil p o iles and we a e e y hank ul o
John Tenhunen, who p o essionally coo dina ed he TERRECO ieldwo k.