Free convection and turbulent fluxes over complex terrain

FREE CONVECTION AND TURBULENT FLUXES OVER
COMPLEX TERRAIN
A disse a ion submi ed o he
F
ACULTY OF
B
IOLOGY
,
C
HEMISTRY AND
G
EOSCIENCES
AT THE
U
NIVERSITY OF
B
AYREUTH
,
G
ERMANY
o a ain he academic deg ee o
D
R
.
RER
.
NAT
.
p esen ed by
R
AFAEL
E
IGENMANN
Dipl. Geoökol.
bo n 29 Ap il 1983
in Eichs ä , Ge many
Bay eu h, Janua y 2013
I
FREE CONVECTION AND TURBULENT FLUXES OVER
COMPLEX TERRAIN
Supe iso : P o . D . Thomas Foken
II
Die o liegende A bei wu de in de Zei on Augus 2008 bis Janua 2013 in Bay eu h
an de Ab eilung Mik ome eo ologie un e Be euung on He n P o . D . Thomas
Foken ange e ig .
Volls ändige Abd uck de on de Fakul ä ü Biologie, Chemie und
Geowissenscha en de Uni e si ä Bay eu h genehmig en Disse a ion zu E langung
des akademischen G ades eines Dok o s de Na u wissenscha en (D . e . Na .).
Disse a ion einge eich am: 09.01.2013
Zulassung du ch die P ü ungskommission: 16.01.2013
Wissenscha liches Kolloquium: 24.04.2013
Am ie ende Dekan:
P o . D . Bea e Lohne
P ü ungsausschuss:
P o . D . Thomas Foken (E s gu ach e )
P o . D . And eas Held (Zwei gu ach e )
P o . D . John Tenhunen (Vo si z)
P o . D . Be nd Huwe
P o . D . Michael Hauhs
C
ONTENTS
III
Con en s
C
ONTENTS
........................................................................................................................III
L
IST OF MANUSCRIPTS
.....................................................................................................IV
A
CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
..................................................................................................VIII
S
UMMARY
.......................................................................................................................IX
Z
USAMMENFASSUNG
.......................................................................................................XI
1 I
NTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................... 1
2 E
XPERIMENTAL DATA SETS AND THE
LES
MODEL
..................................................... 7
2.1 The COPS ield campaign................................................................................ 7
2.1.1 Su ace ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k.......................................... 8
2.1.2 Pos -p ocessing and quali y con ol o he u bulence da a........................ 10
2.2 Da a se o Nam Co s a ion............................................................................. 10
2.3 LES model...................................................................................................... 10
3 R
ESULTS
.................................................................................................................. 11
3.1 Tu bulen luxes and ene gy balance closu e o e complex e ain............... 11
3.2 Nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions (FCCs) o e complex e ain......... 14
3.3 Con ec i e s uc u es in he bounda y laye du ing FCCs............................. 17
4 C
ONCLUSIONS
......................................................................................................... 22
R
EFERENCES
.................................................................................................................... 25
L
IST OF APPENDICES
........................................................................................................ 36
A
PPENDIX
A:
I
NDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE JOINT PUBLICATIONS
........................ 37
A
PPENDIX
B:
E
IGENMANN ET AL
.
(2009)......................................................................... 41
A
PPENDIX
C:
E
IGENMANN ET AL
.
(2011)......................................................................... 55
A
PPENDIX
D:
Z
HOU ET AL
.
(2011)................................................................................... 68
A
PPENDIX
E:
B
RÖTZ ET AL
.
(2013).................................................................................. 80
E
RKLÄRUNG
.................................................................................................................. 100

IV L
IST OF MANUSCRIPTS
Lis o manusc ip s
The hesis is p esen ed in cumula i e o m consis ing o ou manusc ip s. Th ee
manusc ip s ha e been published in pee - e iewed jou nals. The ou h manusc ip has
been submi ed o publica ion o a pee - e iewed jou nal.
Published manusc ip s:
Eigenmann, R., Me zge , S., Foken, T., 2009. Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o
changes o he local ci cula ion sys em. A mosphe ic Chemis y and Physics, 9:
8587–8600.
P e iously published as: Eigenmann, R., Me zge , S., Foken, T., 2009. Gene a ion o
ee con ec ion due o changes o he local ci cula ion sys em. A mosphe ic
Chemis y and Physics Discussions, 9: 11367–11411.
Eigenmann, R., Kal ho , N., Foken, T., Do ninge , M., Kohle , M., Legain, D., Pigeon,
G., Pigue , B., Schü emeye , D., T aulle, O., 2011. Su ace ene gy balance and
u bulence ne wo k du ing he Con ec i e and O og aphically-induced
P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS). Qua e ly Jou nal o he Royal Me eo ological
Socie y, 137: 57–69.
Zhou, D., Eigenmann, R., Babel, W., Foken, T., Ma, Y., 2011. S udy o nea -g ound
ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau. Theo e ical
and Applied Clima ology, 105: 217–228.
Submi ed manusc ip :
B ö z, B., Eigenmann, R., Dö nb ack, A., Foken, T., Wi h, V., 2013. Ea ly-mo ning
low ansi ion in a alley in low-moun ain e ain. Bounda y-Laye
Me eo ology, submi ed.
L
IST OF MANUSCRIPTS
V
O he publica ions no included in his hesis:
In pee - e iewed jou nals:
Kal ho , N., Kohle , M., Ba hlo , C., Adle , B., Mobbs, S.D., Co smeie , U.,
T äumne , K., Foken, T., Eigenmann, R., K auss, L., Khodaya , S., Di Gi olamo,
P., 2011. The dependence o con ec ion- ela ed pa ame e s on su ace and
bounda y-laye condi ions o e complex e ain. Qua e ly Jou nal o he Royal
Me eo ological Socie y, 137: 70–80.
Wul meye , V., Beh end , A., Ko meie , C., Co smeie , U., Ba hlo , C., C aig, G.C.,
Hagen, M., Al hausen, D., Aoshima, F., A pagaus, M., Baue , H.-S., Benne , L.,
Bly h, A., B andau, C., Champollion, C., C ewell, S., Dick, G., Di Gi olamo, P.,
Do ninge , M., Du ou ne , Y., Eigenmann, R., Engelmann, R., Flaman , C.,
Foken, T., Go gas, T., G zeschik, M., Handwe ke , J., Hauck, C., Hölle , H.,
Junke mann, W., Kal ho , N., Kiemle, C., Klink, S., König, M., K auss, L.,
Long, C.N., Madonna, F., Mobbs, S., Neininge , B., Pal, S., Pe e s, G., Pigeon,
G., Richa d, E., Ro ach, M.W., Russchenbe g, H., Schwi alla, T., Smi h, V.,
S einacke , R., T en mann, J., Tu ne , D.D., an Baelen, J., Vog , S., Volke ,
H., Weckwe h, T., We nli, H., Wiese , A., Wi h, M., 2011. The Con ec i e
and O og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS): he scien i ic s a egy,
he ield phase, and esea ch highligh s. Qua e ly Jou nal o he Royal
Me eo ological Socie y, 137: 3–30.
In non- e iewed jou nals:
Me zge , S., Foken, T., Eigenmann, R., Ku z, W., Se a imo ich, A., Siebicke, L.,
Olesch, J., S aud , K., Lüe s, J., 2007. COPS expe imen . Con ec i e and
o og aphically induced p ecipi a ion s udy. 01 June 2007 - 31 Augus 2007,
Documen a ion. Wo k Repo , Uni e si y o Bay eu h, Dep . Mic ome eo ology,
ISSN 1614-8916, 34, 72 pp.
VI L
IST OF MANUSCRIPTS
Da a se s a he Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e (WDCC) in Hambu g, Ge many:
Do ninge , M., Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_neb _u _ lux: Su ace laye
scin illome e da a om COPS ene gy balance ne wo k s a ion un by Uni e si y
o Vienna du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/
WDCC/cops_neb _u _ lux.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _u _ lux
Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_neb _ub _ lux: Eddy-co a iance u bulence da a
om COPS ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k s a ions un by Uni e si y o
Bay eu h du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/
WDCC/cops_neb _ub _ lux.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _ub _ lux
Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_neb _ub _mas : P o ile da a o wind speed,
empe a u e and wa e apo p essu e a p o ile mas un by Uni e si y o
Bay eu h du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/
WDCC/cops_neb _ub _mas .
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _ub _mas
Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_neb _ub _me : Radia ion and soil measu emen
da a om COPS ene gy ne wo k s a ions un by Uni e si y o Bay eu h du ing
COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _
ub _me .
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _ub _me
Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_nsod_ub : wind da a om soda -RASS un by
Uni e si y o Bay eu h du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e.
DOI:10.1594/WDCC/cops_nsod_ub .
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_nsod_ub
Kal ho , N., Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2011. cops_neb _imk_ lux: Eddy-co a iance
u bulence da a om COPS ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k s a ions un
by FZK/IMK-TRO du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:
10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _imk_ lux.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _imk_ lux
Kal ho , N., Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2011. cops_neb _imk_me : me eo ological da a
om COPS ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k un by FZK/IMK-TRO
L
IST OF MANUSCRIPTS
VII
du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/WDCC/
cops_neb _imk_me .
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _imk_me
Pigeon, G., Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., Legain, D., Pigue , B., T aulle, O., 2012.
cops_neb _m _ lux: Eddy-co a iance u bulence da a om COPS ene gy
balance and u bulence ne wo k s a ions un by Me eo-F ance/CNRM du ing
COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o Clima e. DOI:10.1594/WDCC/cops_
neb _m _ lux.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _m _ lux
Schü emeye , D., Eigenmann, R., Foken, T., 2012. cops_neb _ubn_ lux: Eddy-
co a iance u bulence da a om COPS ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k
s a ion un by Uni e si y o Bonn du ing COPS 2007. Wo ld Da a Cen e o
Clima e. DOI:10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _ubn_ lux.
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1594/WDCC/cops_neb _ubn_ lux
2 I
NTRODUCTION
heigh (Mason, 1988). Howe e , in he case o e y low wind speeds ( ee con ec ion
egime), e en pa ch leng hs conside ably smalle han he bounda y laye heigh
(
i
z<
λ
,
≈
λ
250 m) a e su icien o a ec he u bulence s uc u e o he CBL (Shen
and Lecle c, 1994; 1995).
F ee con ec ion is a common phenomenon in he mixed laye o a CBL on clea sunny
days wi h ligh wind speeds. I p e ails when he pa o u bulence kine ic ene gy
(TKE) c ea ed by buoyancy domina es o e ha c ea ed by shea (e.g. S ull, 1988).
Ve ical mo ion is hen p ima ily induced by densi y di e ences wi hin he luid.
Cohe en e ical s uc u es (e.g. plumes o he mal upd a s) exis in he CBL du ing
ee con ec ion leading o an e ec i e e ical anspo . The p esen hesis is ocused
on speci ic si ua ions in which ee con ec ion is al eady obse ed o e ce ain pa ches
o land use e y close o he g ound (in he su ace laye ), whe e no mally shea
p ocesses domina e. Ai masses close o he su ace show di e en cha ac e is ics han
ai masses u he up in he bounda y laye , e.g., a e humid o ha e a cha ac e is ic
chemical composi ion. These cha ac e is ics can hen be anspo ed upwa ds e y
e ec i ely by ee con ec ion which s a s al eady close o he g ound. In he su ace
laye , ee con ec ion can be de ec ed wi h he help o he s abili y pa ame e
ζ
o
alues o 1
−
<
ζ
(e.g. Webb, 1962; Foken, 2008a).
ζ
is he quo ien o he heigh z and
he Obukho leng h L (Obukho , 1946):
(
)
3
*
0
''
u
wgz
L
z
θ
θκ
ζ
−== (1)
He e,
*
u
is he ic ion eloci y, g he accele a ion due o g a i y,
θ
he mean i ual
po en ial empe a u e,
(
)
0
''
w
θ
he buoyancy lux a he su ace and κ he Ká mán
cons an (κ ≈ 0.4). Acco ding o Businge e al. (1971),
ζ
is ela ed app oxima ely
linea ly o he Richa dson numbe o uns able condi ions (
ζ
< 0). The lux Richa dson
numbe
R is de ined as he quo ien o he buoyancy e m B o he shea e m S o he
TKE budge equa ion (e.g. S ull, 1988; Ga a , 1992):








∂
∂
== z
u
wuw
g
SBR
''''
θ
θ
(2)
Rega ding a coo dina e sys em aligned wi h he mean wind, he shea e m S is he

I
NTRODUCTION
3
p oduc o he momen um lux
''wu
and he wind shea zu ∂∂ . Wi h he knowledge o
R≈
ζ
in an uns able su ace laye , |L| can be in e p e ed as he heigh abo e he
su ace a which buoyan p oduc ion i s domina es o e mechanical p oduc ion o
TKE (e.g. S ull, 1988). In o he wo ds, 1
−
<
ζ
means ha buoyancy-d i en u bulence
domina es o e shea -gene a ed u bulence o |L| < z. Thus, he equi emen o 1
−
<
ζ
is used in his hesis (Eigenmann e al., 2009, Appendix B; Eigenmann e al., 2011,
Appendix C; Zhou e al., 2011, Appendix D; B ö z e al., 2013, Appendix E) o de ec
si ua ions o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions (FCCs). Rega ding Eq. (1), ee
con ec ion is achie ed by he condi ions
0
*
→u
and
(
)
0''
0
>
w
θ
. The su ace
u bulen luxes,
*
u
and
(
)
0
''
w
θ
, can easily be measu ed by e.g. he eddy-co a iance
(EC) me hod (e.g. Swinbank, 1951; Foken e al., 2012).
Recen ly, Maye e al. (2008) obse ed he ee con ec i e cohe en e ical anspo o
su ace laye ace gases in o uppe egions o he bounda y laye in he Alpine o eland
du ing ea ly-mo ning si ua ions o low wind speed. The ceasing wind speeds could
o en be ela ed o he onse o a mesoscale ci cula ion sys em called Alpine pumping
(see Lugaue and Winkle , 2005). Du ing he pe iod o changing wind di ec ion, he
ho izon al wind speed anished. The ace gases, anspo ed upwa ds e ically by ee
con ec ion, we e hen ansloca ed ad ec i ely wi h he mean wind owa ds a moun ain
summi and al e ed he ace gas obse a ions he e signi ican ly. Si ua ions o nea -
g ound ee con ec ion can also be seen in he s abili y and da a quali y analysis o EC
da a ob ained in an Alpine alley in Swi ze land (see Hille e al., 2008), al hough hese
au ho s did no add ess hese e en s. Following hese s udies, he main objec i e o his
hesis is o in es iga e in gene al he occu ence o FCCs o e complex e ain and i s
impac on ABL cha ac e is ics. Fo his pu pose, da a o he h ee mon h ield campaign
o he Con ec i e and O og aphically induced P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS, e.g.
Wul meye e al., 2011) in summe 2007 we e mainly used. The expe imen ook place
o e a he e ogeneous low-moun ain egion ypical o Cen al Eu ope, i.e. he Vosges
Moun ains and he Black Fo es . These low-moun ain anges a e well known o induce
he mally d i en o og aphic wind sys ems (e.g. Kossmann and Fiedle , 2000; Kal ho
e al., 2000; Ba hlo e al., 2006; Meißne e al., 2007), which can be expec ed o
igge ee con ec i e si ua ions simila o Maye e al. (2008).
Complex e ain also has an impac on u bulence lux measu emen s, e.g. on he EC
4 I
NTRODUCTION
measu emen s as used in his hesis. I is a well known phenomenon ha , in
mic ome eo ological ield expe imen s conduc ed o e complex e ain, he ene gy
balance canno be closed (e.g. Oncley e al., 2007; Foken, 2008b). Theo e ically, he
inpu o ene gy a he su ace by ne adia ion (-Q
S*
) mus balance he sum o he
sensible (Q
H
), la en (Q
E
), g ound (Q
G
) and s o age hea lux (∆Q
S
):
SGEHS
QQQQQ ∆+++=−
*
(3)
The sum o Q
H
and Q
E
was ound o only amoun o abou 70–90% o he a ailable
ene gy (-Q
S*
-Q
G
-∆Q
S
) a he su ace (e.g. Aubine e al., 2000; Wilson e al., 2002;
Maude e al., 2006; F anssen e al., 2010). Con a y o ha , in landscapes wi hou
he e ogenei ies, a closu e o he ene gy balance was epo ed (e.g. Heusink eld e al.,
2004; Maude e al., 2007; Foken, 2008b). Fo ha eason, i is concluded ha he
landscape he e ogenei y plays an impo an ole o he non-closu e o he ene gy
balance. I is ecognized ha he missing lux componen s a e anspo ed wi hin la ge-
scale eddies caused by he landscape he e ogenei y (e.g. Foken, 2008b, Foken e al.,
2010; 2011). These la ge-scale eddies canno be cap u ed by a single-poin EC s a ion,
as hey a e o ganized abo e he EC owe , a e quasi-s a iona y in space o ha e a longe
wa eleng h han he usual 30 min a e aging pe iod o he EC luxes. Indeed, s ong
indica ions exis ha he esidual o e complex e ain is anspo ed wi hin ad ec i e
and low- equency lux con ibu ions (e.g. Sakai e al., 2001; Finnigan, 2003; Malhi e
al., 2004; Foken e al., 2006; Maude and Foken, 2006) and wi hin quasi-s a iona y
ci cula ions (e.g. Kanda e al., 2004; Inagaki e al., 2006; S ein eld e al., 2007; Huang
e al., 2008; Foken e al., 2010; S oy e al., 2013). These seconda y ci cula ions a e
mainly buoyancy-d i en due o di e ences in he mal hea ing o he land su ace.
Consequen ly, o pa i ion he esidual acco ding o he buoyancy lux a io, as p oposed
by Cha uchi ipan e al. (2013), seems o be an app op ia e app oach o close he ene gy
balance.
Based on he heo e ical backg ound in oduced abo e, he o e a ching goal o his
hesis is he in es iga ion and desc ip ion o FCCs de ec ed a he heigh o EC
measu emen s (≈ 2 m) o e complex e ain. Majo poin s o in e es a e he
iden i ica ion o he (mic o-) me eo ological and synop ical condi ions which lead o
hese ee con ec i e e en s, he equency and ime o hei occu ence and hei
I
NTRODUCTION
5
impac on bounda y laye p ope ies. Mo eo e , his hesis aims o in es iga e he
impac o complex e ain on u bulence lux measu emen s and on he ene gy balance
closu e.
Rega ding he manusc ip s a ached o his hesis, Eigenmann e al. (2009, Appendix B)
in oduces he me hod o he de ec ion o FCCs wi h EC lux measu emen s and
in es iga es hei occu ence using da a ob ained in he Kinzig alley in he Black
Fo es du ing he COPS expe imen . This s udy also add esses he impac o FCCs on
ABL p ope ies by analyzing ABL p o iling measu emen s in he Kinzig alley and
s udying he spec al cha ac e is ics o he u bulence du ing FCCs.
Wi hin he COPS ield campaign, an ene gy balance ne wo k was ope a ed (see Sec .
2.1). This ne wo k consis ed o six een indi idual EC s a ions dis ibu ed o e he
complex e ain o he COPS egion. Di e en ypes o land use and di e en
opog aphical ea u es ( alleys and moun ain ops) we e p obed. Ene gy balance
measu emen s in he COPS egion we e al eady ca ied ou wi hin he REKLIP p ojec
(e.g. Wenzel e al., 1997), al hough his p ojec had a mo e clima ological ocus. These
ea lie in es iga ions e ealed a signi ican dependence o he ene gy balance
componen s on he al i ude and on he land-use ypes in he COPS a ea (Kal ho e al.,
1999; Wenzel and Kal ho e al., 2000). Thus, he s udy o Eigenmann e al. (2011,
Appendix C) aims a compa ing he lux measu emen s ob ained du ing COPS wi h he
esul s o he REKLIP p ojec . Mo eo e , his s udy calcula es and discusses he ene gy
balance closu e a he COPS s a ions wi h ega d o he su ounding he e ogeneous
e ain. Also, he occu ence o FCCs wi hin he en i e COPS egion in ela ion o
di e en land-use ypes and opog aphical ea u es is in es iga ed.
In o de o demons a e ha FCCs can also be de ec ed wi hin di e en se ings o
complex e ain besides he s udy a ea o COPS, a da a se o Nam Co s a ion on he
Tibe an Pla eau (see Sec . 2.2) is u he in es iga ed in his hesis (see Zhou e al.,
2011, Appendix D). The domina ing land-use ype (Alpine s eppe) a Nam Co s a ion is
a he homogeneous and he e ain in he immedia e icini y is la . Howe e ,
he e ogenei y in his s udy is gi en by a land-lake su ace and by equen ly changing
hea ing di e ences du ing cloud co e pe iods. These su ace hea ing di e ences du ing
cloud co e pe iods a e enhanced on he Tibe an Pla eau compa ed o lowland si es as
di use adia ion componen s a e s ongly educed a high al i udes. A nume ical
simula ion o he ABL low cha ac e is ics a Nam Co s a ion by Lu e al. (2008)
ecen ly indica ed he occu ence o a he mally d i en land-lake ci cula ion sys em.
6 I
NTRODUCTION
A u he main objec i e o his hesis is o adap a LES model (see Sec . 2.3) o he
he e ogeneous e ain o a segmen o he Kinzig alley using COPS da a (B ö z e al.,
2013, Appendix E). The aim o he model is o simula e he exchange p ocesses in he
ABL du ing he obse ed FCCs. Especially, he o ganisa ion o u bulence in he
con ec i e mixed laye , c ucial o u he e ical anspo o he con ec i ely eleased
su ace laye ai masses, is s udied. The e o e, simula ions o he low ansi ion om
he ee co ec i e low wind speed si ua ion o he ollowing pe iod o along- alley wind
a e pe o med. An ini ial s able s a i ica ion in he ea ly-mo ning hou s is conside ed.
The model p o ides he oppo uni y o es ima e how a su ace laye ai masses a e
anspo ed upwa ds wi hin con ec i e s uc u es du ing he obse ed FCCs.
E
XPERIMENTAL DATA SETS AND THE
LES
MODEL
7
2 Expe imen al da a se s and he LES model
The esul s p esen ed in he s udies o Eigenmann e al. (2009, Appendix B; 2011,
Appendix C) a e based on da a se s ob ained wi hin he amewo k o he COPS p ojec
(Sec . 2.1). The publica ion o Zhou e al. (2011, Appendix D) uses a se en mon h da a
se o measu emen s a Nam Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau p o ided by he p ojec
pa ne s in ol ed in his speci ic s udy (Sec . 2.2). In he LES s udy o B ö z e al.
(2013, Appendix E), da a o he COPS p ojec we e used as bounda y condi ions o he
model (Sec . 2.3).
2.1 The COPS ield campaign
The Con ec i e and O og aphically induced P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS) was an
in e na ional ield campaign (Wul meye e al., 2008) embedded wi hin he Ge man 6-
yea P io i y P og am SPP 1167 “Quan i a i e P ecipi a ion Fo ecas PQP
(P aecipi a ionis Quan i a i ae P edic io)” o he Ge man Science Founda ion (DFG).
The ield campaign was ca ied ou om 1 June o 31 Augus 2007 in a low-moun ain
a ea in sou hwes e n Ge many and eas e n F ance co e ing he Vosges Moun ains, he
Uppe Rhine alley, he Black Fo es and he Swabian Moun ains. I was o ganized in o
di e en In ensi e Obse a ion Pe iods (IOPs), which obse ed speci ic con ec i e
si ua ions wi h a syne gy o me eo ological ins umen s in o de o iden i y he physical
and chemical p ocesses esponsible o he de iciencies in Quan i a i e P ecipi a ion
Fo ecas (QPF) in low-moun ain egions (Wul meye e al., 2011). The in es iga ion o
he ini ia ion o (mois ) con ec ion was a main pa o he esea ch e o s (e.g. Aoshima
e al., 2008; Ko meie e al., 2008; Kal ho e al., 2009, 2011; Beh end e al., 2011;
Benne e al., 2011, Co smeie e al., 2011). Du ing COPS, a la ge numbe o s a e-o -
he-a me eo ological ins umen a ion, combining a syne gy o in si u and emo e-
sensing sys ems (e.g. ada and lida sys ems), was ope a ed (see Wul meye e al.,
2008, 2011). Measu emen s we e ob ained om ne wo ks (see Sec . 2.1.1; Eigenmann
e al., 2011, Appendix C; Hauck e al., 2011), ai c a (e.g. Kiemle e al., 2011) and
sa elli es and we e in ensi ied a speci ic si es (supe si es). In he ollowing, only he
da a se s o he COPS campaign used in his hesis will be in oduced.

8 E
XPERIMENTAL DATA SETS AND THE
LES
MODEL
2.1.1 Su ace ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k
Unde weak synop ic o cing, spa ial he e ogenei ies o su ace cha ac e is ics esul in
he e ogenei ies o u bulen luxes o hea and mois u e in o he ABL and hence may
de e mine i and whe e con ec ion is ini ia ed (e.g. Ko meie e al., 2008; Kal ho e
al., 2011). Mo eo e , land su ace exchange p ocesses modula e he mally induced
o og aphic low sys ems, which in u n in luence he ini ia ion o con ec ion (e.g.
Ba hlo e al., 2006; Meißne e al., 2007, Kal ho e al., 2009). The e o e, a su ace
ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k (Eigenmann e al., 2011, Appendix C) was se
up du ing COPS. Da a o high-quali y su ace lux measu emen s as well as s anda d
su ace mic ome eo ological measu emen s was s o ed a he Wo ld Da a Cen e o
Clima e (WDCC) in Hambu g, Ge many. This p o ided da a is u he used wi hin he
COPS communi y o he o cing and alida ion o he applied mesoscale models.
The su ace ne wo k consis ed o six een s a ions ope a ed by i e collabo a ing
ins i u es (Table 1). The EC measu ing echnique was applied in o de o p o ide
su ace u bulen lux da a o momen um, sensible and la en hea , expec a one si e
whe e scin illome e measu emen s we e used. La en hea lux was only measu ed a
nine si es. A mos o he si es, he emaining componen s o he su ace ene gy balance
we e ob ained by addi ional soil (Hauck e al., 2011) and adia ion measu emen s. The
ins umen a ion o he soil and adia ion measu emen s is lis ed in Table V in
Eigenmann e al. (2011, Appendix C). He e ogenei y in he COPS egion exis s due o
o og aphy and due o a pa chy land-use s uc u e. The e o e, measu ing si es included
loca ions in he alleys (Mu g, Kinzig and Rench alley) and on moun ain ops
(Ho nisg inde, Igelsbe g) o he Black Fo es , loca ions in he Uppe Rhine alley and
loca ions on he eas e n edge o he Black Fo es . Mo eo e , he u bulen luxes we e
measu ed o e di e en ypes o land use, mainly g assland and ag icul u al ields.
Table 1 summa izes all abo e-men ioned in o ma ion. A some o hese s a ions,
Soda /RASS ins umen s we e also ope a ed o p o iling wind componen s and i ual
empe a u e. In his hesis, only he Soda /RASS sys em ins alled in he Kinzig alley is
used (Eigenmann e al., 2009, Appendix B; B ö z e al., 2013, Appendix E). Mo e
de ails abou he expe imen al se up can be looked up in Me zge e al. (2007) and
Eigenmann e al. (2009, Appendix B; 2011, Appendix C).
E
XPERIMENTAL DATA SETS AND THE
LES
MODEL
9
Tabelle 1: Tu bulence measu ing si es o he COPS ield campaign. The column ‘Code’ abb e ia es
he esponsible ins i u e: UBT (Uni e si y o Bay eu h), IMK (Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology),
MF (Mé éo F ance), UV (Uni e si y o Vienna), UBN (Uni e si y o Bonn). Also gi en a e he
coo dina es and he al i ude abo e sea le el (a.s.l.) o he si es as well as he applied ins umen s o
he EC sys em (sonic anemome e , hyg ome e - CSAT3: sonic anemome e by Campbell Scien i ic
Inc., USA; USA-1: sonic anemome e by METEK GmbH, Ge many; Solen R1012: sonic
anemome e by Gill Ins umen s L d., UK; Young 81000: sonic anemome e by R. M. Young
Company, USA; Solen HS: sonic anemome e by Gill Ins umen s L d., UK; KH20: k yp on
hyg ome e by Campbell Scien i ic Inc., USA; LI-7500: open-pa h CO
2
/H
2
O gas analyze by LI-
COR Biosciences, USA). The s a ion UV1 used he Op ical Ene gy Balance Measu emen Sys em
(OEBMS1) wi h a Scin illome e SLS20 sys em by Scin ec AG, Ge many. The column ‘Land use’
indica es he a ge land-use ype: g assland (G), maize (M), s awbe y (S), allow (F) and whea
(W). The column ‘Loca ion’ so s he s a ions by hei loca ion: alley (V) si es, moun ain op (T)
si es, Uppe Rhine (R) alley si es and si es in he lee (L) o he Black Fo es . Table aken om
Eigenmann e al. (2011, Appendix C), modi ied.
Code Si e Coo dina es
(la ., long.) Al i ude Land
use Sonic
anemome e Hyg ome e Loca ion
UBT1 Fußbach I * 48° 22′ 7.82′′
8° 1′ 21.17′′ 178 M CSAT3 LI-7500 V
UBT2 Fußbach II 48° 22′ 0.88′′,
8° 1′ 16.68′′ 180 F USA-1 - V
UBT3 Fische bach * 48° 16′ 57.40′′,
8° 7′ 56.28′′ 226 G CSAT3 KH20 V
UBT4 Hagenbuch * 48°
16′
54.59′′,
8°
12′
16.81′′ 245 G CSAT3 LI-7500 V
IMK1 Ho nisg inde * 48°
36′
12.95′′,
8°
12′
4.88′′ 1158 G Solen R1012 LI-7500 T
IMK2 Baden Ai pa k * 48°
46′
40.51′′,
8°
4′
25.20′′ 120 G Solen R1012 LI-7500 R
IMK3 Linkenheim * 49°
8′
9.24′′,
8°
23′
32.21′′ 96 W Young 81000 - R
IMK4 Sasbach 48°
39′
4.20′′,
8°
5′
19.53′′ 133 G Solen R1012 - R
IMK5 Obe ki ch 48°
31′
19.15′′,
8°
5′
54.00′′ 203 S Solen R1012 - V
IMK6 Bad Ro en els 48°
49′
29.35′′,
8°
17′
30.55′′ 127 G Solen R1012 - V
IMK7 Igelsbe g 48°
31′
40.85′′,
8°
25′
50.35′′ 770 G Solen R1012 - T
IMK8 Bu nhaup 47°
42′
33.52′′,
7°
9′
16.07′′ 299 M Solen R1012 - R
MF1 Niede o * 48°
26′
34.40′′,
7°
32′
38.36′′ 155 M Solen HS LI-7500 R
MF2 No d eld * 48°
27′
58.22′′,
7°
32′
22.35′′ 156 M Solen HS LI-7500 R
UV1 Deckenp onn * 48°
38′
21.12′′,
8°
49′
7.86′′ 574 G - - L
UBN1 Deckenp onn * 48°
38′
21.12′′,
8°
49′
7.86′′ 574 G CSAT3 LI-7500 L
* Addi ional measu emen o adia ion and soil componen s.
10 E
XPERIMENTAL DATA SETS AND THE
LES
MODEL
2.1.2 Pos -p ocessing and quali y con ol o he u bulence da a
In o de o ecei e a da a se o high-quali y u bulen luxes, a pos -p ocessing and
quali y con ol scheme was consis en ly applied o all u bulence s a ions. This allows
o a high compa abili y o he su ace luxes be ween di e en si es. The scheme
included he p ocessing o he u bulence aw da a wi h he so wa e package TK2
(Maude and Foken, 2004; Maude e al., 2008) as well as a oo p in analysis (Göckede
e al., 2004, 2006) and a check o in e nal bounda y laye s (Raabe, 1983; Jegede and
Foken, 1999) a each si e. De ailed in o ma ion abou he indi idual pos -p ocessing and
quali y con ol s eps and he co esponding e e ences o he applied me hods a e gi en
in Eigenmann e al. (2011, Appendix C). In his publica ion, also he applica ion o he
da a quali y con ol scheme o he selec ion o da a can be looked up. The applied
me hods a e in ag eemen wi h he ecen ecommenda ions by Foken e al. (2012).
2.2 Da a se o Nam Co s a ion
The da a se o Nam Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau used in he s udy o Zhou e al.
(2011, Appendix D) was p o ided by he p ojec pa ne s in ol ed in his esea ch and
co e s a ime pe iod o se en mon h om 21 Ma ch 2007 o 21 Oc obe 2007. Nam Co
s a ion was es ablished by he Ins i u e o Tibe an Pla eau Resea ch, Chinese Academy
o Sciences in Augus 2005. Besides s anda d me eo ological, adia ion and soil
measu emen s, lux measu emen s we e ca ied ou wi h an EC sys em. The u bulence
da a was p ocessed in a simila way as he COPS da a (see Sec . 2.1.2). Mo e de ails a e
gi en in Zhou e al. (2011, Appendix D).
2.3 LES model
In he amewo k o his hesis, a LES model was un by he DFG p ojec pa ne s o
simula e u bulen exchange p ocesses in a segmen o he Kinzig alley. The used
nume ical model was he mul iscale geophysical low sol e EULAG (Smola kiewicz e
al., 1997; P usa e al., 2008). Among he b oad ange o applica ion documen ed in
li e a u e, EULAG was also success ully applied o he ABL (see Smola kiewicz e al.,
2007; Pio owski e al., 2009). A ealis ic opog aphy was implemen ed in o he model.
The bounda y condi ions we e chosen acco ding o he COPS obse a ions in he
Kinzig alley a Fußbach (see Table 1). A de ailed desc ip ion o he model and he
se up o he simula ions can be looked up in B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E). The
objec i es o he model applica ion in espec o his hesis a e o mula ed in Sec . 1.
R
ESULTS
11
3 Resul s
3.1 Tu bulen luxes and ene gy balance closu e o e complex e ain
The COPS da a se (see Sec . 2.1.1) allowed an in es iga ion o he in luence o land
use and opog aphical loca ion on he u bulen luxes o sensible and la en hea . Fluxes
we e ound o di e s ongly be ween di e en ypes o land use (see Eigenmann e al.,
2011, Appendix C). In he a e noon, he oasis e ec (e.g. S ull, 1988) caused nega i e
alues o sensible hea o e highly e apo anspi a ing land-use ypes (e.g. maize), while
o e o he s (e.g. g assland) his e ec did no occu . Howe e , lux di e ences could
also be obse ed be ween si es wi h he same ype o land use. This was because o
a ying su ace cha ac e is ics e en o e he same ype o land use due o di e en
imes o mowing o he g assland si es o due o di e en s ages o he ege a ion
de elopmen in gene al. I became clea ha on a speci ic day he lux alues we e
s ongly de e mined by di e en ypes o land use and su ace cha ac e is ics, while he
e ec o al i ude (moun ain op o alley) plays a mino ole. In e p e ing hese indings
wi hin he scope o he COPS p ojec , which deals wi h he ini ia ion o con ec ion o e
complex e ain, i can be concluded ha on con ec i e days wi h weak synop ic
o cing, he spa ial dis ibu ion o land-use cha ac e is ics may be decisi e i and whe e
con ec ion is ini ia ed. Ho spo s o inc eased anspo o hea o mois u e in o
he ABL
may o m o e ce ain pa ches o land use. Howe e , i should be men ioned ha
he mally d i en wind sys ems, which equen ly occu in he Black Fo es (e.g.
Kossmann and Fiedle , 2000; Kal ho e al., 2000; Ba hlo e al., 2006; Meißne e al.,
2007) may edis ibu e he su ace-ini ia ed hea and mois u e dis ibu ion in he ABL
and hus may modula e he local o cing o he ini ia ion o con ec ion by su ace
luxes.
To s udy he e ec o al i ude on lux di e ences, he luxes o e one ype o land use
(he e: g assland, as mos equen ly measu ed) we e a e aged o e he en i e COPS
pe iod (see Eigenmann e al., 2011, Appendix C). The a e aging minimized empo al
lux di e ences due o mowing and ege a ion de elopmen . Highe Bowen a ios we e
ound a he op o he moun ains and lowe alues in he alleys. This is in acco dance
wi h he o me indings by Wenzel e al. (1997) and Kal ho e al. (1999) in he
amewo k o he REKLIP p ojec . These au ho s also ound an inc ease o he Bowen
a io om he Rhine alley o he op o he Black Fo es wi hin a one yea da a se .
18 R
ESULTS
Indeed, s ong upd a s could be equen ly obse ed in he alley bounda y laye by he
Soda /RASS sys em du ing FCCs. The mo ning e olu ion o he e ical wind speed is
exempla ily shown o COPS IOP 15b (13 Augus 2007) in Fig. 5 (lowe panel). I can
be seen ha du ing FCCs – especially om 07:50 o 10:30 UTC – e ical wind speeds
a e s ongly enhanced wi h alues o locally mo e han 0.8 ms
-1
(10 min a e age alue).
Such alues can also be ound wi hin o he s udies using bounda y laye p o iling
echniques (e.g. Ba low e al., 2011; Kiemle e al., 2011). Mo eo e , he co esponding
p o iles o i ual po en ial empe a u e in Fig. 5 (uppe panel) gi e insigh in o he
s a i ica ion o he alley bounda y laye . As expec ed, a imes o s ong cohe en
upd a s (Fig. 5b and d), he s a i ica ion is app oxima ely neu al o sligh ly uns able.
Howe e , in he sho pe iod o in e up ion o s onge upd a s a 09:10 UTC (Fig. 5c),
s able s a i ica ion becomes e iden wi h a p o ile simila o ha obse ed be o e he
pe iod wi h FCCs (Fig. 5a). This indica es ha ou side o he upd a s he alley
a mosphe e is s ill s ably s a i ied and ha he obse ed upd a s deeply pene a e in o
he s ably s a i ied alley bounda y laye du ing FCCs.
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
heigh a.g.l. (m)
(a)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(b)
i ual po en ial empe a u e (°C)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(c)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(d)
60
140
220
300
380
460
540
620
700
heigh a.g.l. (m)
ime (UTC)
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ve ical wind speed (ms−1)
>0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
−0.1
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
<−0.8
05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00
Figu e 5: Uppe panel (a-d): p o iles o he i ual po en ial empe a u e measu ed by he
Soda /RASS in he mo ning hou s o COPS IOP 15b (13 Augus 2007) a Fußbach. The imes o he
p o iles a e ma ked in he lowe panel. Lowe panel: co esponding Soda g amm o he e ical
wind speed in colou om 05:00-13:00 UTC. The black dashed e ical lines indica e he pe iod
wi h FCCs (06:30–10:30 UTC). F om B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E), modi ied.

R
ESULTS
19
To answe he ques ion how hese cohe en upd a s uc u es ge o ganized du ing
FCCs in he bounda y laye o he Kinzig alley, he LES model was adap ed o he
condi ions o he Kinzig alley (see B ö z e al., 2013, Appendix E). Flux di e ences
be ween di e en ypes o land su aces we e ound o be negligible in he obse ed
ea ly-mo ning pe iods wi h FCCs (see Eigenmann e al., 2011, Appendix C). O og aphy
was assumed o mainly de e mine he con ec i e s uc u es in he alley in hese
pe iods. Indeed, he applica ion o an ensemble and ime mean analysis (see B ö z e al.,
2013, Appendix E) o he e ical wind speed e ealed ha he complex o og aphy
imposes he alley low cohe en con ec i e mo ions a speci ic loca ions du ing FCCs
(see Fig. 6). Thei pe sis ence ela i e o he moun ain idges is in con as o he
changing loca ions o cohe en s uc u es in a CBL o e la homogeneous e ain. The
quasi-s a iona y pa e ns o up- and downd a s in he alley a e shown in Fig. 6 a
abou 130 m abo e he alley loo (300 m a.s.l.). This pa e n esembles he ypical
spoke pa e ns known o CBLs wi h ze o mean wind speed (e.g. Schmid and
Schumann, 1989). Rega ding he loca ion o he measu emen si e indica ed in Fig. 6, i
can be seen ha i lies wi hin an a ea o p e e ed cohe en upd a du ing FCCs. Thus,
he simula ions suppo he obse a ions o s ong upd a s by he Soda /RASS (see Fig.
5) du ing FCCs. An analysis o p obabili y densi y unc ions o he simula ed and
measu ed e ical wind speed as desc ibed in B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E) also
showed ha he si e is loca ed p e e ably in an upd a a ea du ing FCCs.
The si ua ion o u bulen anspo in he alley du ing FCCs was u he analysed by
means o LES. The simula ed TKE budge e ms (see Fig. 8 in B ö z e al., 2013,
Appendix E) showed ha he bounda y laye is buoyancy-d i en du ing FCCs. A s ong
anspo o TKE om he lowe hal o he alley bounda y laye in o uppe egions
can be seen in he simula ions. Howe e , he simula ed ollowing along- alley wind
pe iod wi h no FCCs showed ha he quasi-s a iona y spoke pa e ns du ing FCCs a e
dissol ed and i egula s eak-like pa e ns become e iden (see Fig. 5 in B ö z e al.,
2013, Appendix E), ypical o shea -d i en bounda y laye s (e.g. Moeng and Sulli an,
1994; Weckwe h e al., 1997; D obinski e al., 1998; D obinski and Fos e , 2003). The
TKE anspo e m in he along- alley wind si ua ion is much weake compa ed o he
pe iod wi h FCCs.
20 R
ESULTS
0 2 4 6
x (km)
0
2
4
6
y (km)
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Figu e 6: Ensemble and ime mean o he simula ed e ical wind speed in ms
-1
a 300 m a.s.l. in he
Kinzig alley du ing FCCs (colo -coded). Black solid lines ma k he o og aphy in s eps o 50 m.
G ey con ou s indica e he in e sec ion wi h he o og aphy. The ed ame ep esen s he sec ion o
he alley used o Fig. 7. The loca ion o he measu emen si e is ma ked by he black ci cle. F om
B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E).
-0.003 0.000 0.003
g adien po en ial empe a u e (Km-1)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
zzi-1
-0.003 0.000 0.003
g adien po en ial empe a u e (Km-1)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
zzi-1
-0.4 0.0 1.0
QHQH,0
-1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
zzi-1
-0.4 0.0 1.0
QHQH,0
-1
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
zzi-1
o al
up
down
subg id
o al
up
down
subg id
Figu e 7: (le panel) Simula ed e ical p o iles o he g adien o he po en ial empe a u e and
( igh panel) o Q
H
(no malized) du ing FCCs. The solid line shows he alues o all poin s in he
alley (see ed ame in Fig. 6), while he do ed (dashed) line shows he p o iles o he upd a
(downd a ) a eas in he alley. The con ibu ion o Q
H
om he sub-g id model is shown in he
igh panel as dash-do ed line. F om B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E), modi ied.
R
ESULTS
21
To u he highligh he e ec i e e ical anspo du ing FCCs, Fig. 7 shows he
simula ed p o iles o he lux o sensible hea and he co esponding e ical p o iles o
he g adien o he po en ial empe a u e o he alley a ea (see ed ame in Fig. 6).
The mean o al p o ile and he mean p o iles o up- and downd a a eas a e depic ed
sepa a ely. Rega ding he o al lux o sensible hea in he alley, i can be seen ha he
lux is coun e o he empe a u e g adien in he cen e o he alley be ween abou 0.4
z
i
and 0.8 z
i
. The o al hea lux is mainly de e mined by he lux wi hin he upd a
a eas. Rega ding he upd a a eas, he hea lux ollows he (uns able o neu al)
empe a u e g adien up o a heigh o 0.65 z
i
. A coun e -g adien lux emains abo e
his heigh up o abou 0.9 z
i
. Coun e -g adien luxes a e a common ea u e in u bulen
lows (e.g. Schumann, 1987) and can also be ound wi hin o es canopies (see e.g.
Denmead and B adley, 1985). The desc ibed coun e -g adien lux is a e y e ec i e
anspo mechanism o su ace laye ai mass p ope ies o each highe al i udes in he
s ably s a i ied alley. Fo illus a ion, Fig. 8 shows o he e ical wind and he
empe a u e s a i ica ion an ins an aneous e ical slice h ough he model domain
du ing FCCs. S ong con ec i e upd a s uc u es can be seen wi hin he alley
pene a ing h ough he s ably s a i ied alley a mosphe e up o app oxima ely he
heigh o he su ounding moun ains. The simula ed e ical coun e -g adien anspo
in he alley ag ees well wi h he Soda /RASS obse a ions shown in Fig. 5.
0 2 4 6
x (km)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
z (km)
290
292
292
Figu e 8:
I
ns an aneous si ua ion o he simula ed e ical wind speed in ms
-1
(colo -coded) shown
in a e ical c oss sec ion pe pendicula o he axis o he alley du ing FCCs. Black lines a e
isolines o po en ial empe a u e in s eps o 0.2 K. In e sec ion wi h he o og aphy is shaded in
g ey. F om B ö z e al. (2013, Appendix E), modi ied.
22 C
ONCLUSIONS
4 Conclusions
The ollowing conclusions ela ed o ee con ec ion and u bulen luxes o e complex
e ain can be d awn:
(i) High e o was pu in o a uni o m p ocessing and quali y con ol o he
su ace u bulen lux measu emen s conduc ed a six een s a ions du ing
COPS (Eigenmann e al., 2011, Appendix C). This allowed o a high
compa abili y o he measu emen s as me hodical di e ences could be
excluded. Di e ences in lux alues on days wi h weak synop ic o cing
we e ound o be s ongly de e mined by a ying land su ace cha ac e is ics.
The ole o al i ude plays a mino ole, al hough a sligh inc ease o he
Bowen a io om he alleys o he moun ain ops – simila o o me
expe imen s in his a ea (Wenzel e al., 1997; Kal ho e al., 1999) – could
be ound. F om his i can be concluded ha on a single day wi h weak
synop ic o cing, he ini ia ion o con ec ion can be o ced locally by he
spa ial dis ibu ion o land su ace cha ac e is ics.
(ii) Values o he non-closu e o he ene gy balance ypical o ag icul u al si es
we e ound a he si es o he COPS ield campaign ega ding a e age
condi ions. The landscape he e ogenei y causing no measu able ad ec i e
and low- equency lux componen s is assumed o be esponsible o he
obse ed esidual. This hypo hesis is ein o ced by he ac ha he esidual
was ound o inc ease wi h he onse o he oasis e ec . Mo eo e , in he
obse ed low wind speed si ua ions wi h ee con ec ion condi ions (FCCs)
– cha ac e ized by a mo e e ically o ien ed u bulen exchange egime –
he esidual was ound o anish on a e age. Due o he mo e e ical
o ien a ion o he exchange egime du ing FCCs, he landscape
he e ogenei y a a single measu emen si e is o mino impo ance and
missing ad ec i e lux componen s a e s ongly educed. Wi h he onse o
he wind a e he pe iods wi h FCCs, he he e ogenei y o he su ounding
landscape becomes again mo e impo an and ad ec i e lux componen s
and o he he e ogenei y e ec s lead again o an unclosed ene gy balance.
(iii) I was shown ha he ela i e con ibu ions o sensible and la en hea
missing in he conside ed pe iods wi h no FCCs compa ed o he pe iods
wi h FCCs ha e exac ly he p opo ions o he buoyancy lux a io. This
C
ONCLUSIONS
23
inding suppo s he heo y (e.g. Foken e al. 2008b) ha he missing lux
componen s a e anspo ed wi hin buoyancy-d i en seconda y ci cula ions
which de elop o e he e ogeneous e ain. Mo eo e , his inding also
suppo s he ecen sugges ion o Cha uchi ipan e al. (2013) o use he
buoyancy lux a io app oach o he co ec ion o he ene gy balance. The
usually used app oach by Twine e al. (2000) o dis ibu e he esidual
acco ding o he Bowen a io seems o be no app op ia e.
(i ) FCCs could be equen ly obse ed in si ua ions o weak synop ic o cing
du ing COPS. This inding con i med he ini ial ques ion o his hesis based
on he wo k o Maye e al. (2008) whe he FCCs occu in gene al o e
complex e ain. As he occu ence o FCCs is bound o anishing wind
speeds (
0
*
→u
) and simula aneously enhanced posi i e alues o he
buoyancy lux (
(
)
>
0
''
w
θ
20 Wm
-2
), FCCs we e obse ed in all p obed
alleys o he Black Fo es du ing he e e sal o he alley wind sys em
om down- o up- alley winds in he mo ning hou s. Thus, he occu ence
o FCCs is mainly con olled by he adap ion o he mally d i en o og aphic
o local wind sys ems o hea ing di e ences o e complex e ain. Howe e ,
also he su ace cha ac e is ics wi h hei impac on he esul ing u bulen
luxes may con ol he occu ence o FCCs. Fo ins ance, i was shown ha
he nega i e alues o sensible hea du ing he oasis e ec inhibi FCCs.
( ) Wi h he da a se o Nam Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau, he conclusions
d awn in (i ) could be con i med. Howe e , FCCs we e mo e equen ly
obse ed in he a e noon in combina ion wi h cloud co e pe iods a his
si e. As di use adia ion componen s a e s ongly educed a he al i ude o
he Tibe an Pla eau compa ed o lowland si es, he cloud co e pe iods
caused a s ong cooling o he land su ace wi hin a sho ime. Thus, he
adap ion o he land-lake b eeze a Nam Co s a ion o he changing si ua ion
o hea ing di e ences led o mo e pe iods o anishing wind speeds and hus
o mo e FCCs in combina ion wi h cloud co e pe iods compa ed o he
COPS egion.
( i) A spec al analysis o he u bulen scales and an analysis o he e ical
wind speeds measu ed by he Soda /RASS e ealed he exis ence o cohe en
upd a s uc u es in he Kinzig alley du ing FCCs. The Soda /RASS

24 C
ONCLUSIONS
measu emen s u he showed ha hese upd a s pene a e in o he s ably
s a i ied alley bounda y laye indica ing ha su ace laye ai mass
cha ac e is ics can be e ec i ely injec ed in o highe egions o he alley
bounda y laye du ing FCCs. I can be assumed ha hese luxes in he ea ly-
mo ning hou s a e c ucial o he p econdi ioning o he CBL o a u he
de elopmen o mois con ec ion in he cou se o he day. Howe e , he
expe imen al design o COPS – con a y o he ace gas measu emen s in
he s udy o Maye e al. (2008) which acked a pulse o su ace laye ace
gases up o a moun ain summi – was no able o answe such ques ions. An
expe imen simila o ha o COPS, bu ocused on a ce ain segmen o e.g.
he Kinzig alley, should be conside ed in u u e plans o bounda y laye
expe imen s.
( ii) The applica ion o he LES model con i med ha he measu emen si e in he
Kinzig alley is loca ed p e e ably in an upd a egion du ing FCCs. This
was demons a ed by an ensemble and ime mean analysis o he e ical
wind speed in he alley, which showed ha he complex o og aphy o ces
he alley low o o m cohe en con ec i e s uc u es a spa ially ixed
loca ions ela i e o he su ounding moun ain idges. This is in con as o
he andom loca ions o con ec i e s uc u es in case o a CBL o e la
homogeneous e ain.
( iii) Simula ed p o iles o he sensible hea lux showed ha he o al lux ou o
he alley is mainly de e mined by he lux wi hin hese cohe en upd a
s uc u es du ing FCCs. The o al hea lux was ound o be a lux coun e o
he empe a u e g adien in hese ea ly-mo ning si ua ions. This inding
unde lines he obse a ions summa ized in ( i) ha su ace laye ai mass
p ope ies can be e ec i ely anspo ed in o highe egions o he s ably
s a i ied alley bounda y laye du ing FCCs. Acco ding o he simula ion,
hese upd a s each up o app oxima ely he heigh o he su ounding
moun ains. F om his, i can be concluded ha he e ically anspo ed
su ace laye ai mass p ope ies du ing FCCs can be ho izon ally
ansloca ed wi h he abo e- alley o la ge-scale low and can also al e
ABL cha ac e is ics elsewhe e.
R
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36 L
IST OF APPENDICES
Lis o appendices
A
PPENDIX
A:
I
NDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE JOINT PUBLICATIONS
A
PPENDIX
B:
E
IGENMANN ET AL
.
(2009)
A
PPENDIX
C:
E
IGENMANN ET AL
.
(2011)
A
PPENDIX
D:
Z
HOU ET AL
.
(2011)
A
PPENDIX
E:
B
RÖTZ ET AL
.
(2013)
A
PPENDIX
A 37
Appendix A: Indi idual con ibu ions o he join publica ions
The esul s p esen ed in his cumula i e hesis we e ob ained in collabo a ion wi h o he
scien is s. Thus, many au ho s con ibu ed o he publica ions lis ed in he appendices B
o E in di e en ways. This sec ion is o speci y my own con ibu ions o he indi idual
manusc ip s.
Appendix B
Eigenmann, R., Me zge , S., Foken, T., 2009. Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o
changes o he local ci cula ion sys em. A mosphe ic Chemis y and Physics, 9:
8587–8600.
• The da a used in his publica ion we e ob ained du ing he COPS ield campaign
and include he measu emen s o one ene gy balance and u bulence s a ion and
a nea by Soda /RASS sys em. The se -up and main enance o he ins umen s
and he ou inely pe o med da a quali y con ol du ing he expe imen in ol ed
many people o he Depa men o Mic ome eo ology (A. Se a imo ich, L.
Siebicke, K. S aud , J. Lüe s, J. Olesch). S. Me zge was mainly esponsible o
he on-si e da a collec ion and con inuous ope a ion du ing he h ee mon h ield
campaign. I also suppo ed he ield wo k o S. Me zge du ing a wo weeks
s ay.
• I alone was esponsible o he pos -p ocessing o he eddy-co a iance, low-
equency soil and adia ion measu emen s and he Soda /RASS da a. The
inno a i e da a analysis p ocedu e o he de ec ion o nea -g ound ee
con ec ion condi ions (FCCs), he analysis o spec al cha ac e is ics o he
u bulence du ing hese si ua ions and he analysis o he Soda /RASS da a was
pe o med by mysel . W. Babel suppo ed me wi h his knowledge abou spec al
analysis me hods. I alone w o e he comple e ex o he manusc ip .
• B. B ö z con ibu ed wi h many ui ul discussions and commen s, especially in
he e iew p ocess o he publica ion.
• T. Foken supe ised his wo k and con ibu ed wi h many help ul ideas and
discussions.
38 A
PPENDIX
A
Appendix C
Eigenmann, R., Kal ho , N., Foken, T., Do ninge , M., Kohle , M., Legain, D., Pigeon,
G., Pigue , B., Schü emeye , D., T aulle, O., 2011. Su ace ene gy balance and
u bulence ne wo k du ing he Con ec i e and O og aphically-induced
P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS). Qua e ly Jou nal o he Royal Me eo ological
Socie y, 137: 57–69.
• This publica ion is an o e iew o e he pos -p ocessing and quali y con ol o
he u bulence da a o all six een s a ions o he su ace ene gy balance and
u bulence ne wo k du ing COPS. The ne wo k consis ed o i e di e en
ins i u ions (Depa men o Mic ome eo ology, Uni e si y o Bay eu h; Ins i u e
o Me eo ology and Clima e Resea ch, Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology;
Me eo ological Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Bonn; Depa men o Me eo ology and
Geophysics, Uni e si y o Vienna; CNRM-GAME, Mé éo F ance). Each
ins i u ion conduc ed he ield wo k du ing he expe imen independen ly.
Responsibili ies o he ield wo k o he Depa men o Mic ome eo ology we e
al eady men ioned wi h he publica ion abo e. Mos ins i u ions p o ided he
esul s o he p ocessing o he u bulence aw da a wi h he so wa e package
TK2. Fo he Uni e si y o Bonn and o ou depa men , he p ocessing o he
da a wi h TK2 was done by mysel .
• My con ibu ion was he de elopmen o a consis en u bulence da a pos -
p ocessing scheme applied o all six een measu ing si es. I alone did he quali y
con ol o he u bulence da a, including a oo p in analysis and a check o
in e nal bounda y laye s. Fo his pu pose, each ins i u ion p o ided land use
da a o he co esponding si es.
• I mysel pe o med he da a analysis abou some ypical ea u es o u bulen
lux da a and he occu ence o FCCs wi hin he en i e COPS egion. I alone
w o e he ex o he manusc ip including some commen s o he coau ho s.
• My supe iso T. Foken con ibu ed o his publica ion h ough many
discussions and ini ia ed he scien i ic exchange be ween he di e en
ins i u ions in ol ed.
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Appendix D
Zhou, D., Eigenmann, R., Babel, W., Foken, T., Ma, Y., 2011. S udy o nea -g ound
ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau. Theo e ical
and Applied Clima ology, 105: 217–228.
• The da a used in his publica ion we e p o ided by he Ins i u e o Tibe an
Pla eau Resea ch, Chinese Academy o Sciences, wi hin he amewo k o he
scien i ic collabo a ion o his s udy o igina ed by T. Foken and Y. Ma. This
s udy aimed a demons a ing he applicabili y o he me hod o he de ec ion o
FCCs also in ano he in es iga ion a ea wi h a di e en se ing o he e ogenei y
(land-lake su ace).
• I mysel , W. Babel and T. Foken in oduced D. Zhou in o he pos -p ocessing o
he u bulence da a, including he usage o TK2 and oo p in analysis ools, and
in o he in es iga ion and ele ance o FCCs a Nam Co s a ion.
• D. Zhou pe o med he p ocessing o he da a unde close ins uc ion o mysel
and W. Babel. D. Zhou also w o e a i s e sion o he manusc ip .
• I mysel in ensi ely e ised and eph ased he ini ial manusc ip e sion o D.
Zhou be o e submission.
• T. Foken, W. Babel and Y. Ma con ibu ed o he p og ess o he manusc ip in
se e al discussions.
Appendix E
B ö z, B., Eigenmann, R., Dö nb ack, A., Foken, T., Wi h, V., 2013. Ea ly-mo ning
low ansi ion in a alley in low-moun ain e ain. Bounda y-Laye
Me eo ology, submi ed.
• B. B ö z was esponsible o he pe o mance o he applied la ge-eddy
simula ions (LES) unde he guidance o V. Wi h and A. Dö nb ack.
• The obse a ional da a om COPS, necessa y o he adap ion o he model o
he complex e ain o a segmen o he Kinzig alley, we e p o ided by mysel
and T. Foken.

40 A
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• The scien i ic con en o his s udy was in ensi ely discussed in many ui ul
mee ings o he coau ho s. Each o hem con ibu ed wi h ideas on da a analyses
in mani old ways. The s udy aimed a in es iga ing he con ec i e s uc u es in
he alley du ing he obse ed FCCs esponsible o he anspo o su ace
laye ai masses in o highe egions o he bounda y laye . Simula ed da a was
compa ed wi h he obse a ions. A g ea numbe o elephone con e ences
be ween mysel and B. B ö z e ined he con en o he manusc ip and led o i s
inal e sion.
• The ex was w i en in close coope a ion wi h mysel and B. B ö z conside ing
many help ul commen s o he supe iso s. I mysel mainly w o e he
in oduc ion o he obse a ional da a (Sec ion 2.1), he in e p e a ion o he
modi ica ion o he ene gy balance closu e du ing FCCs (Sec ion 3.1) and he
in e p e a ion o he obse a ions and he simula ions wi h espec o he e ical
anspo si ua ion du ing FCCs (Sec ion 3.3). A. Dö nb ack s ongly suppo ed
he w i ing in he pa o he desc ip ion o he model (Sec ion 2.2).
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Appendix B: Eigenmann e al. (2009)
A mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8587–8600,2009
www.a mos-chem-phys.ne /9/8587/2009/
©Au ho (s) 2009. This wo k is dis ibu ed unde
he C ea i eCommons A ibu ion 3.0 License.
A mosphe ic
Chemis y
and Physics
Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o changes o he local ci cula ion
sys em
R. Eigenmann1,S. Me zge 1,*,and T.Foken1
1Depa men o Mic ome eo ology,Uni e si y o Bay eu h, Bay eu h, Ge many
*nowa : Ins i u e o Me eo ology and Clima e Resea ch –A mosphe ic En i onmen alResea ch (IMK-IFU), Ka ls uhe
Ins i u o Technology,Ga misch-Pa enki chen, Ge many
Recei ed: 31 Ma ch 2009 – Published in A mos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.: 7May 2009
Re ised: 29 Oc obe 2009 – Accep ed: 5No embe 2009 – Published: 12 No embe 2009
Abs ac . Eddy-co a iance and Soda /RASS expe i-
men al measu emen da a o he COPS (Con ec i eand
O og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy) ield campaign
2007 a e used o in es iga e he gene a ion o nea -g ound
eecon ec ioncondi ions (FCCs)in he Kinzig alley,Black
Fo es , Sou hwes Ge many.The measu ed high-quali y u -
bulen lux da a e ealed ha FCCs a e ini ia ed nea he
g ound in si ua ions whe e mode a e o high buoyancy luxes
and asimul aneously occu ing d op o he wind speedwe e
p esen . The minimum in wind speed –obse able by he
Soda measu emen s h ough he whole e ical ex ension o
he alleya mosphe e –is he consequence o a he mally-
induced alleywind sys em, which changes i s wind di ec-
ion om down o up- alleywinds in he mo ning hou s.
Buoyancy hen domina es o e shea wi hin he p oduc ion o
u bulence kine ic ene gy nea he g ound. These si ua ions
a e de ec ed by he s abili y pa ame e ( a io o he measu e-
men heigh o he Obukho leng h) when he le el o ee
con ec ion, which s a s abo e he Obukho leng h, d ops
below ha o he sonic anemome e .An analysis o he scales
o u bulen mo ions du ing FCCs using wa ele ans o m
shows he occu ence o la ge-scale u bulence s uc u es.
Rega ding he en i e COPS measu emen pe iod, FCCs in
he mo ning hou s occu on abou 50% o all days.Enhanced
su ace luxes o la en and sensible hea a e ound on hese
days.
1In oduc ion
The COPS (Con ec i eand O og aphically-induced P ecip-
i a ion S udy) ield campaign was unde aken om 1June
o 31 Augus 2007 wi hin he lowmoun ain ange o he
Co espondence o: R. Eigenmann
( a ael.eigenmann@uni-bay eu h.de)
Black Fo es , he Vosges Moun ains and he Swabian Ju a
wi h he Rhine i alleyas ap onounced opog aphic low-
land plain in be ween (Wul meye e al.,2008). Rain all in
he COPS a ea is cha ac e ized by subg id-scale con ec ion
ini ia ion (CI) p ocesses, e.g. o og aphically o he mally-
induced local ci cula ion sys ems, igge ed by he complex
e ain, hus complica ing he exac modeling and o ecas ing
o p ecipi a ion e en s (Meißne e al.,2007;Ba hlo e al.,
2006). The p oblems o modeling con ec i eclouds and
p ecipi a ion –i s ime, amoun and loca ion –a e he p e-
ma u e ini ia ion o con ec ion, he simula ion o con ec i e
p ecipi a ion e en s as being oo spa ially widesp ead and he
o e es ima ion o p ecipi a ion on he windwa d compa ed o
he lee side o e low-moun ain anges, e.g. he Black Fo es
(Schwi alla e al.,2008).
The in e ac ion o he land su ace wi h he o e lyinga -
mosphe e c ucially a ec s he ene gy and wa e cycle o e
many empo al and spa ial scales (Be s e al.,1996). The
spa ial dis ibu ion and pa chiness o indi idual land use ele-
men s can ha e a s ong impac on hea mosphe ic bounda y
laye (ABL) e olu ion and i s he modynamic s uc u e, as
changes o he su ace ene gy budge di ec ly in luence he
su ace u bulen luxes o mois u e, momen um and hea ,
which ac as he link be ween he a mosphe e and he un-
de lying soil- ege a ion sys em (Pielke,2001). Dynamical
phenomena in he ABL can be ela ed o changing su ace
cha ac e is ics, since g adien s in sensible hea lux p oduced
by e apo anspi a ion, albedo and soil p ope y discon inu-
i ies induce local o seconda y ci cula ion sys ems (Segal
and A i ,1992). Toge he wi h diu nal moun ain winds de-
eloping o e moun ainous e ain (Whi eman,1990), land
su ace-a mosphe e in e ac ions and he ela ed physical p o-
cesses wi hin complex e ain a e he key o he local occu -
ence and iming o he ini ia ion o con ec ion, cloud o ma-
ion and p ecipi a ion (Hanesiak e al.,2004;Pielke,2001;
Chen and A issa ,1994;Rabin e al.,1990;Ban a,1990,
1984;Raymond and Wilkening,1980). Besides land-su ace
Published by Cope nicus Publica ions on behal o he Eu opean Geosciences Union.
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8588 R. Eigenmann e al.: Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o changes o he local ci cula ion sys em
in e ac ions and o og aphy,mesoscale and synop ic scale
ea u es a e impo an o con ec i ep ocesses (Wul meye
e al.,2007). Ko meie e al. (2008)discusses se e al mech-
anisms ele an o CI in he COPS egion.
The p esen s udy aims a he de ec ion and he desc ip ion
o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions (FCCs) by using
eddy-co a iance (EC) measu emen s. FCCs can be de ec ed
a he heigh o he EC measu emen (see Sec . 2.1)close
o he g ound wi h he help o he s abili y pa ame e (see
Sec . 3.2)and occu i he buoyancy e m domina es o e
he shea e m wi hin he u bulence kine ic ene gy equa ion.
In he case o de ec ion o FCCs nea he g ound, con ec-
i eelemen s a e closely ela ed o g ound sou ces and can
mo e e ec i ely anspo quan i ies o mois u e, hea and
ace gases enhanced in nea -g ound egions in o he ABL.
Mo eo e , ollowing Shen and Lecle c (1995), he dimen-
sions o ou a ge ed land use ype (co n ield) o he EC
measu emen s (see Sec . 2.1)a e la ge enough (>250m) ha
he su ace luxes a e able o exe amajo in luence on ABL
he modynamics and u bulence s uc u e.
Recen ly,Maye e al. (2008) ound ha FCCs de ec ed
close o he bo om o a alley esul in as ong and sudden
ozone dec ease a amoun ain summi (Hohenpeissenbe g) in
he mo ning hou s. In hei s udy, he FCCs a e igge ed
by asimul aneously occu ing wind speed minimum, which
educes shea and leads o adominance o buoyancy.On
abou hal o he days hese wind speed minima could be a -
ibu ed o he onse o Alpine Pumping in he alpine o eland
(Lugaue and Winkle ,2005)associa ed wi h achangeo
wind di ec ion causing ad op o he ho izon al wind speed.
Hence, o he mesoscale o local ci cula ion sys ems ini i-
a ed by complex e ain –e.g. he well known slope and al-
leywinds in he Black Fo es (Kossmann and Fiedle ,2000;
Kal ho e al.,2000)–a e expec ed o igge FCCs.
Fo ha eason, he ocus o he p esen s udy is o demon-
s a e he applicabili y o he EC me hod o he de ec ion o
FCCs in expe imen al da a ob ained du ing he COPS ield
campaign in he Kinzig alley(Black Fo es ), which was
ound in ea lie s udies (e.g., Meißne e al.,2007) o es-
ablish ap onounced diu nal he mally-induced alleywind
sys em. Mo eo e , he p ocessed u bulen lux da a passing
h ough ade ailed quali y assu ance and con ol e o a e
used o selec and desc ibe hese FCCs in de ail.
2Ma e ials and me hods
2.1 Si e desc ip ion and expe imen se -up
Du ing he COPS ield campaign, ane wo k o 17 ene gy
balance and u bulence s a ions was se up o e he en-
i e COPS egion (Wul meye e al.,2007). The ene gy
balance and u bulence s a ion unde in es iga ion in he
p esen s udy is loca ed in he Kinzig alleynea Fußbach
(48◦22′7.8′′ N, 8◦1′21.2′′ E, 178ma.s.l) on he wes e n edge
W−E dis ance om owe [m]
N−S dis ance om owe [m]
deciduous ee
coni e
je usalem a ichoke
co n
meadow
ield/ allow
ga den
slope
s ee
building
s eam
powe pole small
powe pole la ge
x↑↑ N
−500 −250 0 250 500
−500
−250
0
250
500
Fig.1. Land use map (1×1km2)a he Fußbach si e wi h he lo-
ca ion o he eddy-co a iance s a ion indica ed as ablack c oss in
he middle o he map abo e he a ge land use ype (co n). The
addi ional ed c oss ma ks he posi ion o he Soda /RASS sys em.
Fe ch dis ances o he eddy-co a iance sys em depending on wind
sec o can be ob ained om Table 1.
o he Black Fo es , Sou hwes Ge many.The Kinzig alley
a Fußbach is o ien ed in aN-S di ec ion, hus speci ying he
main wind di ec ion, and has a alleywid h o abou 1.3 km.
Moun ain c es s in he immedia e icini y o he Fußbach si e
each maximal alues o abou 450ma.s.l. The a ge land
use ype was aco n ield (leng h: 260 m, wid h: 140m) lo-
ca ed wi hin he pa chy,ag icul u al land use o he Kinzig
alley(see Fig. 1).
In his s udy,da ao an EC owe and anea by So-
da /RASS sys em a e used. The EC sys em(measu emen
heigh : 2.29 m, sampling a e:20Hz) measu ed u bulen
luxes o momen um, sensible and la en hea as well as
ca bon dioxide (CO2)abo e he co n ield using aCSAT3
(Campbell Scien i ic, Inc.) sonic anemome e o eco ding
he wind ec o and he sonic empe a u e TSand aLI-7500
(LI-COR Biosciences) open-pa h gas analyse o wa e a-
po (H2O) and CO2concen a ions. The Soda /RASS sys em
consis ed o aphase a ay Dopple Soda DSDPA.90-64 wi h
a1290 MHz RASS ex ension by Me ek GmbH and p o ided
e ical p o iles o wind eloci y componen s, wind di ec ion
and acous ic empe a u e wi h a e ical esolu ion o 20m
and a empo al esolu ion o 10min. Mo e de ailed in o ma-
ion abou he measu ing se -up and backg ound da a can be
ob ained om Me zge e al. (2007).
2.2 Quali y con ol e o
The EC lux da a measu ed a he Fußbach si e was p ocessed
and quali y con olled applying he la es mic ome eo ologi-
cal pos - ield da a p ocessings anda ds (e.g., Maude e al.,
2006)in o de o ob ain ada a se o he desi ed quali y
and accu acy,which can be u ilized o u he undamen al
A mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8587–8600,2009 www.a mos-chem-phys.ne /9/8587/2009/
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R. Eigenmann e al.: Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o changes o he local ci cula ionsys em 8589
esea ch. Acco dingly, he u bulen lux awda a eco ded
wi h he EC me hod was pos -p ocessed wi h he comp e-
hensi eso wa e package TK2 de eloped a he Uni e si y o
Bay eu h (Maude and Foken,2004), which comp ises s a e
o he a lux co ec ions and pos - ield quali y con ol in-
cluding es s on he ul illmen o in eg al u bulence cha ac-
e is ics and s a iona i y (Foken and Wichu a,1996;Foken
e al.,2004).
Theo e ical assump ions ac ually es ic he EC me hod
o homogeneous e ain, bu he inc easing equi emen o
con inuous moni o ing o lux da a (Aubine e al.,2000;Bal-
docchi e al.,2001) o ced he applica ion o he EC me hod
wi hin highly s uc u ed e ain such as ha in he COPS e-
gion. Thiss ep is suppo ed by hede elopmen o asi e e al-
ua ion and cha ac e isa ion app oach (G¨
ockede e al.,2004,
2006), which combines he lux da a quali y app oach (Fo-
ken e al.,2004)wi ha o wa d Lag angian oo p in model
(Rannik e al.,2000,2003). The app oach is able o iden-
i y si e-speci ic spa ial quali y s uc u es and he spa ial ep-
esen i i y o he measu ed lux da a in he con ex o he
unde lying land use dis ibu ion and has been ecen ly em-
ployed on si es o he Ca boEu ope ne wo k by Rebmann
e al. (2005)and G¨
ockede e al. (2008). In his s udy,i
is used – oge he wi h an in e nal bounda y laye e alu-
a ion p ocedu e –in o de o ob ain a ge land use ype-
ep esen a i e u bulen lux da a se s o he equi ed high
quali y usable o u he analyses. The check o possi-
ble in e nal bounda y laye s, which o m as aconsequence
o changes o he unde lying su ace cha ac e is ics, is im-
plemen ed by using he ollowing e ch-heigh ela ion o
oughly es ima e he heigh o he newequilib ium laye
δdepending on e ch x(Raabe,1983;Jegede and Foken,
1999)neglec ing weak s abili y e ec s (Sa elye and Tay-
lo ,2005):
za≤δ=0.3√x(1)
The ae odynamic measu emen heigh zashould be lowe
han δin o de o gua an ee ha he EC measu emen akes
place wi hin he newequilib ium laye es ablishing o e he
a ge land use ype.
2.3 Spec al analysis
Spec al analysis me hods a e used in his pape o s udy he
empo al scales o he u bulence du ing he pe iod o FCCs
(see Sec . 3.2). Me hods used a e he con inuous wa ele
ans o m (CWT) and he compu a ion o powe spec a, bo h
applied o he ime se ies o EC awda a o he e ical wind
speed, he ho izon al wind speed componen s and he sonic
empe a u e om 05:00 o 13:00UTC.
Top epa e da a o he CWT, he ime se ies we e block
a e aged om he o iginal 20Hz awda a o asampling
equencyo 0.5Hz in o de o d as ically educe compu-
a ional ime o he CWT wi hou al e ing he esul s sig-
ni ican ly (e.g., Thomas and Foken,2005)as he decisi e
scales ange in he o de o se e al seconds o a ewmin-
u es. Subsequen ly,all block a e aged ime se ies apa om
he e ical wind speed (no end emo al necessa y) ha e
been de ended using polynomial eg ession. The esul ing
high-pass il e ed ime se ies is ob ained by subs ac ing he
i ed polynomial om he block a e aged ime se ies. The
esidual ime se ies is used o he calcula ion o he CWT
using he Mo le wa ele . The CWT and plo ing ou ine o
he no malized wa ele powe spec a was done by using he
so wa e package sowas (so wa e o wa ele spec al anal-
ysis and syn hesis: Ma aun and Ku hs,2004;Ma aun e al.,
2007)implemen ed in he s a is ical compu ing so wa e R.
Resul s o apoin wise signi icance es (signi icance le el:
0.95) pe o med by Mon e Ca lo simula ions (1000 ealiza-
ions) a e indica ed by black solid lines in he plo s o he
no malized wa ele powe spec a.
The calcula ion o he powe spec a o de ended (by
polynomial eg ession) and ape ed 20Hz ime se ies o he
e ical wind speed, he longi udinal wind speed and sonic
empe a u e be o e, du ing and a e he pe iod o FCCs
wi hin he ime ange om 05:00 o 13:00UTC was ealized
by applying a as Fou ie ans o m (FFT) o he compu ed
au oco ela ion unc ion. Smoo hing o he awpe iodog am
was pe o med using amodi ied Daniell smoo he window
echnique.
3Resul s and discussion
3.1 Quali y con ol o he u bulen lux measu emen s
This sec ion p esen s some esul s o he de ailed quali y con-
ol e o adap ed o he eddy-co a iance lux da a as de-
sc ibed in Sec . 2.2.
P ocessed u bulen luxes o sensible (QH)and la en hea
(QE), ic ion eloci y u∗as well as he CO2ne ecosys em
exchange NEE a e depic ed in Fig. 2as Ho mølle - ype plo s
whe e he colo ba on he igh side ep esen s he calcula ed
alues wi h whi e a eas indica ing da a ailu e (9.9% o each
lux).
Fu he mo e, oo p in analysis (see Sec . 2.2)we e pe -
o med acco ding o he si e e alua ion and cha ac e isa ion
app oach o G¨
ockede e al. (2004,2006). To gain insigh in o
he a e age lux con ibu ion o e he en i e measu emen pe-
iod o he a ge land use ype “co n” as a unc ion o di -
e en wind sec o s and s abili y classes, app op ia e so ed
da a ha ebeen indi idually p ocessed wi hin he oo p in
analysis p ocedu e. The esul s a e lis ed in Table 1and e-
eal good a e age lux con ibu ions o mo e han 92% o
all wind sec o s du ing uns able o neu al cases. Howe e ,
o s able s a i ica ion eas e ly and wes e ly sec o s ha e o
be conside ed c i ically,as lux con ibu ions below80% can
be ound, wi h he minimum (67%) in he 240◦wind sec-
o .Admi edly, he la e inding has o be ega ded wi h
he knowledge ha he densi yo a ailable da a is lowin he
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Table 2. Mean onse and cessa ion imes [UTC] o he up- alleywind di ec ion and he mean imes o FCCs o hose days classi ied as “e en
days”, wi h s anda d de ia ion (SD), and numbe (n) o he indi idual mon hs (June, July,Augus ) and o he whole COPS measu emen
pe iod a Fußbach.
Onse o up- alleywind di ec ion Cessa ion o up- alleywind di ec ion FCCs
Pe iod Mean SD nPe iod Mean SD nPe iod Mean SD n
June 08:01 01:14 8June 17:36 00:55 7June 07:33 01:08 8
July 08:03 00:37 5July 17:23 01:35 5July 08:14 00:51 5
Augus 09:06 00:46 10 Augus 17:56 01:10 10 Augus 08:48 00:42 10
whole 08:29 01:02 23 whole 17:42 01:10 22 whole 08:14 01:01 23
01/06/2007
24/06/2007
17/07/2007
09/08/2007
01/09/2007
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
Time [UTC]
onse
cessa ion
FCCs
sun ise
sunse
Fig.7. Onse and cessa ion imes o he up- alleywind di ec ion
and he co esponding pe iods o FCCs in he mo ning hou s a days
classi ied as “e en days” ega ding he en i e COPS measu emen
pe iod a Fußbach. Also depic ed a e he imes o sun ise and sun-
se .
classi ied as “e en days” coinciding wi h he pa adigm o
he gene a ion o FCCs a COPS IOP8b ou lined in Sec . 3.2.
Fu he mo e, 19 days (21%) can be deno ed as “in e mi en
days”, as hey do no exhibi a clea diu nal, pe sis en alley
wind ci cula ion. FCCs occu bu can only be a ibu ed o
b ie du a ion –se e al minu es up o a ewhou s –changes
om down- alley oup- alleywinds du ing he day, hese
some imes no e en eaching a ull wind o a ion o 180◦.
Despi e he ac ha mos o he FCCs o hese “in e mi en
days” seem o be igge ed by sho changes o wind di ec-
ion o a ying du a ion, i was decided o sepa a e he “in e -
mi en ” om he “e en days” ino de o ha esimila low
pa e ns ini ia ing he FCCs and hus aclea ly s uc u ed da a
se . The eason o he in e mi ence o he alleywinds is a
dec ease o he sola ene gy inpu , e.g. due o cloud shad-
ing. Finally,37 days (40%) a Fußbach can be cha ac e ized
as “non-e en days”, as FCCs do no appea .Thi een days
(14%) canno be e alua ed due o da a ailu e.
Figu e7showsall days classi iedas“e en days”(23) wi h
he onse and cessa ion imes o he up- alleywind di ec-
ion, he pe iods in which FCCs occu ed and he imes o
sun ise and sunse du ing he en i e COPS campaign. The
mean onse and cessa ion imes o he up- alleywind di ec-
ion and he mean imes o FCCs o hose days classi ied as
“e en days”, wi h s anda d de ia ion and numbe ,a e lis ed
in Table 2 o he indi idual mon hs and he whole measu e-
men pe iod. Rema kable is he adjus men o he onse o
he up- alleywind di ec ion and o he FCCs o he seasonal
change o sun ise e iden in hemean alueso he indi idual
mon hs. The mean du a ion o he pe iods in which FCCs oc-
cu –depic ed in Fig. 7 – is 84 min wi h as anda d de ia ion
o 57min.
Tocla i y he di e ence o “e en ” and “in e mi en days”
as ela ed o he diu nal alleywind sys em,pe sis ence al-
ues Pwe e calcula ed om he wes -eas and sou h-no h
componen s (uand , espec i ely) and he ho izon al wind
speed ho he EC sonic anemome e ollowing Lugaue and
Winkle (2005):
P( )=qu( )2+ ( )2
h( )(6)
whe e he empo al ec o mean o he ho izon al wind speed
is di ided by he a i hme ic mean o he ho izon al wind
speed a e e y ime o he day.Pcan adop alues be ween
0and 1, whe e 1means ha e e y day a ha ime he wind
blew om he same di ec ion. Figu e 8adepic s he calcu-
la ed pe sis ence P o all days, “e en days”, “in e mi en
days” and “non-e en days”. Twop onounced eye-ca ching
minima can be ound he “e en days”, i.e. one a he imes
he up- alleywinds s a (a abou 08:00UTC) and ano he
a he imes he up- alleywinds o a e back o down- alley
winds (a abou 18:00UTC), indica ing highly a iable wind
di ec ions du ing hese imes. The P alues abo e0.75 o
he es o he ime poin o aquasi-iden ical lowpa e n on
he 23 selec ed “e en days” a Fußbach. The small pe sis-
ence alues o he “in e mi en days” be ween 06:00 and
18:00UTCcan be a ibu ed o he non-pe sis ence o he
up- alleywinds, as b ie ly las ing up- alleywindsa e in e -
up ed by equen o a ions back o he o iginal wind di ec-
iondue o adec ease o hesola ene gyinpu ( h ough cloud
shading) which o he wise usually d i es cons an ly blowing
up- alleywinds.
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0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
P [-]
all days (n=92)
“e en days” (n=23)
(a)
-40
0
40
80
120
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
QH [W m-2]
“in e mi en days” (n=19)“non-e en days” (n=37)
(d)
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
ζ [-]
(b)
0
300
600
900
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Global adia ion [W m-2]
(e)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Time [UTC]
u* [ms-1]
(c)
0
100
200
300
400
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Time [UTC]
QE [W m-2]
( )
Fig.8. Pe sis ence P[−](a) and mean diu nal ends o he s abili y pa ame e ζ[−](b), ic ion eloci y u∗hms−1i(c),sensible hea lux
QHhWm−2i(d),global adia ion hWm−2i(e) and la en hea lux QEhWm−2i( ) o all days o he COPS measu emen pe iod (92),
days classi ied as “e en days” (23), “in e mi en days” (19) and “non-e en days” (37) a Fußbach. Thi een days canno be classi ied due
o da a ailu e.
Mean diu nal ends o ζ(Fig. 8b), u∗(Fig. 8c), QH
(Fig. 8d), global adia ion (Fig. 8e) and QE(Fig. 8 ) o he
indi idually classi ied days can be applied o cha ac e ize he
FCCs. The mean alues o ζindica e he occu ence o FCCs
in he mo ning hou s a abou 08:00UTC on bo h “in e mi -
en ” and “e en days”. A e his dis inc minima o ζa
abou 08:00UTC (un il abou 12:00UTC), he “in e mi en
days” showsligh ly lowe alues o ζ,indica ing ha he in-
e mi ence o he alleywind sys em causes mo e equen
igge ing o FCCs. Aclea di e ence in he magni ude o
u∗compa ing “e en ” and “non-e en days” (see Fig. 8c) a
abou 08:00UTC unde lines ha he d op o u∗caused by
he alleywind e e sal in he mo ning hou s igge s FCCs.
The gene ally lowe alues o u∗on he “in e mi en days”
can be explained by he non-pe sis ence o he alleywinds
esul ing in acon inuous d op o he ho izon al wind speed.
Abo e-a e age alues o QHand global adia ion (Figs.8d
and 8e) can be ound on he “e en days”, hus indica ing he
p e e ed occu ence o FCCs inclea ,undis u bed wea he
si ua ions wi h high sola adia ion d i ing he alleywinds,
which ac as he igge mechanism o FCCs by p o iding
he necessa y minimum o u∗in he ea ly mo ning ansi-
ion pe iod. Mo eo e ,abou 100Wm−2highe QE alues
(Fig. 8 ) can be obse ed on he “e en days” compa ed o
he “non-e en days”, which also con ibu e, due o densi y
e ec s, o he des abiliza ion o nea -g ound ai masses.
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8598 R. Eigenmann e al.: Gene a ion o ee con ec ion due o changes o he local ci cula ion sys em
4Conclusions
Acomp ehensi equali y assu ance and con ol e o , in-
cluding oo p in analysis and acheck o in e nal bounda y
laye s, was adap ed o he EC u bulence measu emen s a
Fußbach in o de o ob ain high-quali y su ace lux da a us-
able o he de ec ion (ζ<−1) and desc ip ion o FCCs in he
Kinzig alley.FCCs we e ound o be igge ed by achange
o he local alleyci cula ion sys em om down o up- alley
winds in he mo ning hou s and occu ed on abou hal o he
o al 92 COPS days summing up days classi ied as “e en ”
and “in e mi en days”. This equen occu ence o FCCs
con i ms he assump ion o Maye e al. (2008) ha o he
egions showing complex e ain –besides he alpine o e-
land in es iga ed in hei s udy –migh ace igge mecha-
nisms, such as local o mesoscale ci cula ion sys ems lead-
ing o he con ec i e elease o nea -g ound ai masses in o
he ABL. FCCs ini ia ed by achange o he alleywinds
we e also ound by Hille e al. (2008)in an alpine al-
leyin Swi ze land ollowing hei s abili y and da a quali y
analysis. Un o una ely, hese au ho s did no add ess hese
e en s. The la ge-eddy scale cha ac e o he u bulence nea
he g ound du ing pe iods o FCCs could be con i med by
applying spec al analysis me hods (see Figs. 5and 6), hus
sugges ing ha plume-likecohe en s uc u es o ising ai
masses eme ge om he de ec ed FCCs. These la ge-scale
s uc u es can mo e e ec i ely anspo quan i ies o hea
and mois u e enhanced in nea -g ound egions in o he ABL.
As enhanced su ace luxes o la en and sensible hea we e
ound on he “e en days” compa ed o “non-e en days” (see
Fig. 8)as well as inc eased upwa d e ical wind speeds in
he Soda measu emen s du ing FCCs (see Figs. 3eand 3 ),
aclea e ec o he de ec ed FCCs on he he modynamic
s uc u e o he ABL is ob ious. Tosum up, FCCs a elikely
–in addi ion o o he o og aphic o landscape e ec s – o
ha e a non-negligible impac on ABL empe a u e and mois-
u e p o iles and o play a ole o CI p ocesses.
In o de o di ec ly simula e he impac o FCCs on ABL
he modynamics and on possiblysubsequen cloud o ma-
ion, ala ge-eddy simula ion (LES) model will be applied
o u he in es iga ions.
Acknowledgemen s. The p ojec was unded wi hin he P io i y
P og am 1167 “Quan i a i eP ecipi a ion Fo ecas PQP (P ae-
cipi a ionis Quan i a i ae P edic io)” by he Ge man Science
Founda ion (DFG), second and hi d (Fo226/19-1) pe iod. The
au ho s wish o acknowledge he suppo and da a p o ision by he
pa icipan s o he COPS expe imen and he COPS Ope a ions
Cen e as well as Bj¨
o n B ¨
o z o many ui ul discussions and
commen s. Las bu no leas , he au ho s wan o hank all people
which ook pa in he ield wo k, especially And ei Se a imo ich,
Lukas Siebicke, Ka ha ina S aud , Johannes L¨
ue s and Johannes
Olesch.
Edi ed by: G. Vaughan
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Appendix C: Eigenmann e al. (2011)
Su ace ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k du ing he
Con ec i e and O og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy
(COPS)
R. Eigenmann,a*N.Kal ho ,
bT. Foken,aM. Do ninge ,cM. Kohle ,bD. Legain,dG. Pigeon,d
B. Pigue ,dD. Sch¨
u emeye eand O.T aulled
aDepa men o Mic ome eo ology, Uni e si yo Bay eu h, Bay eu h,Ge many
bIns i u e o Me eo ology and Clima e Resea ch, Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology,Ka ls uhe, Ge many
cDepa men o Me eo ology and Geophysics, Uni e si y o Vienna, Vienna, Aus ia
dCen e Na ional de Reche ches M´
e ´
eo ologiques –G oupe d’´
e ude del’A mosph`
e e M´
e ´
eo ologique (CNRM-GAME), M´
e ´
eo
F ance –CNRS, Toulouse, F ance
eMe eo ological Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Bonn, Bonn, Ge many
*Co espondence o: R. Eigenmann, Depa men o Mic ome eo ology, Uni e si y o Bay eu h, Uni e si ¨
a ss asse 30,
95440 Bay eu h, Ge many.
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Expe imen al da a o he ene gy balance and he u bulence ne wo k ins alled
du ing heCon ec i eandO og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS)
ield campaign o 2007 a e p esen ed in his s udy. The ne wo k aims a p o iding
con inuous su ace lux and o he su ace mic ome eo ological da a o he equi ed
high accu acy and quali y o u he undamen al esea ch. An o e iew o he
u bulence da a p ocessing and da a quali y con ol, including oo p in analysis
and acheck o in e nal bounda y laye s, isgi en. The consis en ly applied app oach
allows o ahigh compa abili y o he u bulen lux da a o sensible and la en
hea . The eac ion o su ace luxes du ing he obse ed on al passage du ing he
In ensi e Obse a ion Pe iod (IOP) 9c(20 July 2007) is p esen ed. As su ace luxes
we e measu ed o e di e en land-use ypes and a di e en loca ions wi hin he
COPS a ea, he e ec o land use and o og aphy on u bulen luxes isdiscussed
wi h he help o IOP 8b (15 July 2007). The lux di e ences be ween indi idual si es
due o a ying su ace cha ac e is ics a e o en la ge han he lux di e ences wi h
changing al i ude. The oasis e ec obse ed o he highly e apo anspi a ing maize
ields is ound o inc ease he esiduum o hesu ace ene gy balance. A all si es and
du ing bo h IOPs he occu ence o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions (FCCs)
is in es iga ed. Du ing he oasis e ec , FCCs do no occu . Copy igh c
2011 Royal
Me eo ological Socie y
Key Wo ds: eddy-co a iance; u bulen luxes; ene gy balance closu e; esiduum; oasis e ec ; nea -g ound
ee con ec ion condi ions
Recei ed 12 Feb ua y 2010; Re ised 27Augus 2010; Accep ed 31 Augus 2010; Published online inWiley Online
Lib a y 2Feb ua y 2011
Ci a ion: Eigenmann R,Kal ho N,Foken T, Do ninge M,Kohle M,Legain D,Pigeon G,Pigue B,
Sch¨
u emeye D,T aulle O. 2011. Su ace ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k du ing he Con ec i e and
O og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy (COPS). Q.J. R. Me eo ol. Soc. 137:57–69. DOI:10.1002/qj.704
1. In oduc ion
Ane wo k o su ace ene gy balance and u bulen lux
measu emen s a ions was se updu ing he comp ehensi e
Con ec i e and O og aphically-induced P ecipi a ion S udy
(COPS) ield campaign (Wul meye e al.,2008). The
campaign ook place insou hwes e n Ge many and
eas e n F ance om 1June o 31 Augus 2007. I was
Copy igh c
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o ganized in o In ensi e Obse a ion Pe iods (IOPs), which
obse ed speci ic con ec i e si ua ions wi h asyne gy
o me eo ological ins umen s (Wul meye e al.,2011).
Theaim o heCOPS ene gy balance and u bulence
ne wo k was o p o ide in o ma ion abou he empo al
and spa ial he e ogenei y o high-quali y u bulen lux
alues o sensible and la en hea o indi idual IOPs.
This is impo an , since unde weak synop ic o cing
spa ial inhomogenei ies o su ace cha ac e is ics esul in
inhomogenei ies o u bulen luxes o hea and mois u e
in o he a mosphe ic bounda y laye (ABL) and hence may
de e mine i and whe e con ec ion isini ia ed (e.g. Aoshima
e al.,2008; Ko meie e al.,2008, Beh end e al.,2011;
Benne e al.,2011; Weckwe h e al.,2011). Ananalysis
o lux measu emen s wi h amo e clima ological ocus
was al eady pe o med in he COPS a ea wi hin p e ious
s udies (Wenzel e al.,1997). These in es iga ions e ealed
asigni ican dependence o he ene gy balance componen s
on he al i ude and on he land-use ypes in he a ea o he
Uppe Rhine alleyand he BlackFo es (Kal ho e al.,1999,
Wenzel and Kal ho e al.,2000). The u bulence ne wo k o
he COPS campaign iscompa able o ha o he LITFASS-
2003 expe imen (Mengelkamp e al.,2006), whe e u bulen
luxes we e measu ed wi hin ana ea o 20 ×20 km2o e
all ele an land-use ypes and we e a ea-a e aged bymeans
o a ile app oach (A issa , 1991). The agg ega ed su ace
luxes showed good ag eemen wi h a ea-in eg a ed luxes
om long- ange scin illome e and ai bo ne measu emen s
(Bey ich e al.,2006). Howe e , no all exis ing land-use
ypes we e co e ed wi h u bulence measu emen s a ions
in he case o he COPS ne wo k. The e o e, an a ea-
a e aging o luxes based onmeasu emen s isimpossible
o he COPS pe iod. Mo e impo an o he COPS se -up
a e lux di e ences be ween he Uppe Rhine alley and
he moun ain ops and alleys o he Black Fo es and lux
di e ences be ween di e en land-use ypes. Flux di e ences
be ween di e en land-use ypes mainly occu due o
al e ing su ace cha ac e is ics such as albedo, emissi i y,
lea a ea index (LAI), canopy heigh and s uc u e (e.g.
Munn, 1966; Oke, 1987). Di e en s ages o ege a ion
de elopmen and mowing o g assland si es also lead o
empo al a ia ions o su ace cha ac e is ics a asingle
loca ion. The u bulen luxes a indi idual loca ions a e
also in luenced bydi e ences in al i ude. (Wenzel e al.,
1997) gi e heo e ical conside a ions o he dependence
o he Bowen a io (Bo)onal i ude. They showed ha
an inc ease o dec ease o Bo wi h al i ude depends on
heai empe a u eand he ela iono he empe a u e
and humidi y g adien . Obse a ions o bo h an inc ease
o dec ease o Bo wi h al i ude we e made (e.g. Kessle ,
1985). Acco dingly, he i s objec i e o his s udy is he
in es iga ion o lux di e ences due o di e en loca ions
and land-use cha ac e is ics and hep esen a ion o heda a
p ocessing and quali y con ol o he lux da a. The in luence
o he su ace luxes on he ABL condi ions and on he p e-
con ec i e en i onmen isin es iga ed inde ail in he s udy
o Kal ho e al.,(2010). Using some s a ions o he COPS
u bulence ne wo k, he au ho s ocused on he ela ionship
be ween soil mois u e, su ace luxes, ABL condi ions and
con ec i e indices. I was ound ha he con ec i e indices
depend on ABL condi ions, which in u n a e in luenced by
he ene gy ans o ma ion a he Ea h’s su ace. Howe e ,
due o aweak co ela ion be ween he su ace luxes and he
ABL condi ions, especially o e he Black Fo es , he au ho s
Figu e 1. Topog aphic map o he u bulence measu ing si es o he COPS
ield campaign (see also Table I).
concluded ha ad ec i e p ocesses also de e mine he ABL
cha ac e is ics o e he complex e ain o he COPS a ea.
The second objec i e o he p esen s udy is he
in es iga ion o he non-closu e o he su ace ene gy
balance. A esiduum o 10–30% is o en ound in
mic ome eo ological ield expe imen s (e.g. Foken e al.,
2010, Oncley e al.,2007) and a FLUXNET si es
(Wilson e al.,2002). Ano e iew o he ene gy
balance p oblem is gi en inCul e al. (2004) and
Foken (2008b). The main eason o he esiduum
is assumed obe he landscape he e ogenei y causing
ad ec i e and low- equency lux componen s (Foken e al.,
2006) and seconda y ci cula ions (Inagaki e al.,2006),
which a e no caugh by hes anda d eddy-co a iance
measu emen s and which anspo hesu plus o ene gy.
The imbalance has impo an consequences o he use
o su ace u bulen lux da a o g ound u h and
model alida ion. As he ene gy balance is, byde ini ion,
closed in mos o he applied models, he esiduum
has obeconside ed when compa ing modelled and
measu ed lux alues (e.g. K ache e al.,2009). Asa
i s guess i isacommon p ocedu e odis ibu e he
esiduum acco ding o he Bowen a io (Twine e al.,
2000).
Mo eo e , he p esen s udy ex ends he in es iga ion o
he occu ences o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions
(FCCs) o Eigenmann e al. (2009) in he Kinzig alley
o he Black Fo es o all si es in he COPS egion. FCCs
occu du ing si ua ions o high buoyancy luxes which
coincide wi h e y low wind speeds. Buoyancy-d i en
u bulence hen domina es o e shea -d i en u bulence
nea he g ound, which esul s in an e ec i e e ical
anspo mechanism o hea and mois u e, enhanced in
nea -g ound egions, in o uppe pa s o he ABL. As he
dimensions o he a ge land-use ypes o mos o he COPS
si es a e la ge enough (>250 m) ha he su ace luxes
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Table I.Tu bulence measu ing si es o he COPS ield campaign.The column ‘Code’ abb e ia es he esponsible ins i u e
(UBT: Uni e si y o Bay eu h; IMK: Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology; MF: M´
e ´
eo F ance; UV: Uni e si y o Vienna;
UBN: Uni e si y o Bonn) ollowed by a unning numbe . Also gi en a e he coo dina es (la i ude, longi ude), he al i ude
(me es a.s.l.) and he EC se -up (sonic anemome e , hyg ome e –CSAT3: sonic anemome e byCampbell Scien i ic Inc.,
USA; USA-1: sonic anemome e byMETEK GmbH, Ge many; Solen R1012: sonic anemome e byGill Ins umen s L d.,
UK; Young 81000: sonic anemome e byR.M.Young Company, USA; Solen HS: sonic anemome e by Gill Ins umen s
L d., UK; KH20: k yp on hyg ome e byCampbell Scien i ic Inc., USA; LI-7500: open-pa h CO2/H2Ogas analyze by
LI-COR Biosciences, USA). The s a ion UV1 used he Op ical Ene gy Balance Measu emen Sys em (OEBMS1) wi h a
Scin illome e SLS20 sys em byScin ec AG, Ge many ins eado he EC measu ing echnique. The column ‘Land use’
indica es he a ge land-use ype: g assland (G), maize (M), s awbe y (S), allow (F) and whea (W). The column
‘Loca ion’ so s he s a ions by hei loca ion: alley (V) si es, moun ain op (T) si es, Uppe Rhine (R) alley si es and si es
in he lee (L) o he Black Fo es .
Code Si e Coo dina es Al . Land use Sonic Hyg ome e Loca ion
(la ., long.) anemome e
UBT1 Fußbach Ia48◦22′7.82′′,8
◦1′21.17′′ 178 MCSAT3 LI-7500 V
UBT2 Fußbach II 48◦22′0.88′′,8
◦1′16.68′′ 180 FUSA-1 -V
UBT3 Fische bach a48◦16′57.40′′,8
◦7′56.28′′ 226 GCSAT3 KH20 V
UBT4 Hagenbuch a48◦16′54.59′′,8
◦12′16.81′′ 245 GCSAT3 LI-7500 V
IMK1 Ho nisg inde a48◦36′12.95′′,8
◦12′4.88′′ 1158 GSolen R1012 LI-7500 T
IMK2 Baden Ai pa k a48◦46′40.51′′,8
◦4′25.20′′ 120 GSolen R1012 LI-7500 R
IMK3 Linkenheim a49◦8′9.24′′,8
◦23′32.21′′ 96 WYoung 81000 -R
IMK4 Sasbach 48◦39′4.20′′,8
◦5′19.53′′ 133 GSolen R1012 -R
IMK5 Obe ki ch 48◦31′19.15′′,8
◦5′54.00′′ 203 S Solen R1012 -V
IMK6 Bad Ro en els 48◦49′29.35′′,8
◦17′30.55′′ 127 GSolen R1012 -V
IMK7 Igelsbe g 48◦31′40.85′′,8
◦25′50.35′′ 770 GSolen R1012 -T
IMK8 Bu nhaup 47◦42′33.52′′,7
◦9′16.07′′ 299 MSolen R1012 -R
MF1 Niede o a48◦26′34.40′′,7
◦32′38.36′′ 155 MSolen HS LI-7500 R
MF2 No d eld a48◦27′58.22′′,7
◦32′22.35′′ 156 MSolen HS LI-7500 R
UV1 Deckenp onn a,b 48◦38′21.12′′,8
◦49′7.86′′ 574 G- - L
UBN1 Deckenp onn a48◦38′21.12′′,8
◦49′7.86′′ 574 GCSAT3 LI-7500 L
aAddi ional measu emen o adia ion and soil componen s.
bNo included in he da a analyses o sec ion 4 o compa abili y easons.
a eable oin luence hes uc u eo heABL(Shenand
Lecle c, 1995), he de ec ed FCCs may ha e as ong impac
on ABL cha ac e is ics and hence on he p e-con ec i e
en i onmen in heCOPS egion. Animpac o FCCs on
e ical wind speeds (Eigenmann e al.,2009) and onozone
concen a ions (Maye e al.,2008) in he ABL was ecen ly
demons a ed.
Two IOPs a e selec ed in he amewo k o his s udy: IOP
8b (15 July 2007) and IOP 9c (20 July 2007). These IOPs
a e chosen because he p ocesses o con ec ion ini ia ion
(CI) a e in ensi ely in es iga ed and well unde s ood (e.g.
Ko meie e al.,2008; Kal ho e al.,2009; Ba hlo e al.,
2010). The mechanisms leading oCIa e e y di e en on
bo h days. Acco ding oKo meie e al. (2008), con ec ion
du ing IOP 8b is locally ini ia ed, which means ha su ace
luxes and alley winds play an impo an ole o CI,
while con ec ion du ing IOP 9c occu s nea p e on al
con e gence zones.
The a icle is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2ou lines he
expe imen al se -up. Sec ion 3desc ibes he p ocessing
and quali y con ol o he u bulence da a as well as
he de e mina ion o he ene gy balance closu e and he
de ec ion o FCCs. Sec ion 4shows and discusses he e ec
o land use and loca ion on lux measu emen s, he ene gy
balanceclosu eand heoccu enceo FCCs.Insec ion5a
summa y and conclusions a e gi en.
2. Expe imen al se -up
The su ace ene gy balance and u bulence ne wo k
consis ed o six een s a ions se upwi hin he he e ogeneous
landscape o he COPS a ea (see Figu e 1and Table I). The
eddy-co a iance (EC) measu ing echnique was applied
in o de op o ide high-quali y and con inuous su ace
u bulen lux da a o momen um and sensible and la en
hea . Addi ionally, soil (Hauck e al.,2011) and adia ion
measu emen s as well as s anda d su ace me eo ological
da a we e eco ded a mos o he si es. He e ogenei y
in he COPS egion exis s due o o og aphy and due o
apa chy land-use s uc u e. The e o e, measu ing si es
included loca ions in he alleys (V) and on moun ain ops
(T)o he BlackFo es , loca ions in he Uppe Rhine (R)
alley and loca ions in he lee (L) o he Black Fo es (see
Table Iand Figu e 1). Con e sely, he u bulen luxes we e
also measu ed o e di e en land-use ypes (see Table I):
g assland (G), maize (M), s awbe y (S), allow (F) and
whea (W). Mainly g assland si es (nine s a ions) and maize
ields ( ou s a ions) we e p obed. The ypical EC measu ing
se -up consis ed o asonic anemome e and a as - esponse
hyg ome e acco ding oTable I. The measu emen heigh
o all s a ions was in he ange o 1.8–10 m, and hesampling
equency o he EC aw da a amoun ed o10, 20 o
32 Hz. The ime s amp used was UTC (Uni e sal Time
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Table II. Flux con ibu ions om he a ge land-use ype (g assland), in%,dependen on wind di ec ion sec o and
s abili y class o he s a ion Hagenbuch (UBT4, see Table I).A e age lux con ibu ions o e he en i e COPS pe iod a e
shown. Mo eo e , he in e nal bounda y laye e alua ion p ocedu e o a e age condi ions o e he en i e COPS pe iod
is p esen ed o Hagenbuch. The heigh o he new equilib ium laye , δ0,iscalcula ed wi h he e ch, x,acco ding o
Eq. (1). Bo h a iables a e lis ed o di e en wind di ec ion sec o s. The lagging scheme o Table III is applied wi h an
ae odynamic measu emen heigh o za=2.0m.
Wind sec o : 30◦60◦90◦120◦150◦180◦210◦240◦270◦300◦330◦360◦
Flux con ibu ions, in %, om he a ge land-use ype (g assland):
S able 78 85 89 94 93 91 83 83 96 97 97 91
Neu al 9497959899989695999910096
Uns able 100 100 99 100 100 100 100 97 100 100 100 100
In e nal bounda y laye e alua ion:
x(m) 95 105 97 101 84 115 44 48 95 247 239 101
δ0(m) 2.9 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.8 3.2 2.0 2.1 2.9 4.7 4.6 3.0
Flag000000100000
Coo dina ed). All da a we e ans o med in o acommon
da a o ma and ans e ed o he COPS da a base ope a ed
by he Wo ld Da aCen e o Clima e (WDCC)in Hambu g,
Ge many.
3. Tu bulence da a p ocessing
3.1. TK2 p ocessing
The EC lux da a o he COPS u bulence ne wo k we e
p ocessed and quali y-con olled wi h he so wa e package
TK2 de eloped by he Depa men o Mic ome eo ology,
Uni e si y o Bay eu h (Maude and Foken, 2004; Maude
e al.,2008). Following Maude e al.(2006), he p ocessing
s eps and lux co ec ions lis ed below a e applied o he EC
aw da a while unning TK2.
•Calcula ion o a e ages, a iances and co a iances
o ana e aging in e al o 30 min and aking
in o conside a ion he ime delays be ween di e en
senso s and excluding physically in alid alues and
spikes (Vicke s and Mah , 1997).
•C oss-wind co ec ion o he sonic empe a u e i
necessa y (depending on sonic anemome e ype).
•Co ec ion o oxygen c oss-sensi i i y o k yp on
hyg ome e s (Tanne e al.,1993, an Dijk e al.,
2003).
•Plana i coo dina e o a ion (Wilczak e al.,2001).
•Co ec ion o spec al loss due o pa h-leng h
a e aging, spa ial sepa a ion o hesenso s and he
equency dynamic e ec o signals (Moo e, 1986).
•Con e sion o buoyancy in o sensible hea lux
(Scho anus e al.,1983, Liu e al.,2001)
•Co ec ion o densi y luc ua ions (WPL co ec ion)
o de e mine luxes o he scala quan i ies H2Oand
CO2(Webbe al.,1980; Fueh e and F iehe, 2002;
Liebe hal and Foken, 2003, 2004).
The impac o hese p ocessing and lux-co ec ion s eps
on lux es ima es and ene gy balance closu e isdiscussed in
Maude and Foken (2006).
Quali y es s implemen ed inTK2 consis o as a iona i y
es and a es on he ul ilmen o in eg al u bulence
cha ac e is ics (ITC) o each u bulen lux (Foken and
Wichu a, 1996; Foken e al.,2004). Acco ding oFoken e al.
(2004), he inal quali y lag (1–9) isassigned o aspeci ic
hal -hou ly u bulen lux alue by combining he quali y
lags o s a iona i y and ITC. Classes 1–3 can beused o
undamen al esea ch, classes 4–6 o gene al use such as
con inuously unning sys ems and classes 7–8 o a ough
o ien a ion. Tu bulen lux alues ma ked wi h aquali y
lag o class 9should be ejec ed. This in o ma ion isalso
p o ided in he COPS da a base a he WDCC (see sec ion 2)
as well as he in o ma ion on he oo p in modelling esul s
(sec ion 3.2) and hein e nal bounda y e alua ion (sec ion
3.3), asdesc ibed below.
3.2. Foo p in modelling
In o de oe alua e hespa ial ep esen a i i y o he
measu ed u bulen lux da a in he con ex o he unde lying
land-use dis ibu ion, a oo p in model was applied oall
EC lux si es o he COPS u bulence ne wo k. Following he
app oach o G¨
ockede e al. (2004, 2006), he lux da a-quali y
lagging scheme o Foken e al. (2004) is combined wi h he
Thomson (1987) h ee-dimensional Lag angian s ochas ic
ajec o y model o Lange in ype (Wilson and Saw o d,
1996). The pa ame iza ion ollows he low s a is ics and he
e ec o s abili y on he p o iles used inRannik e al. (2003).
The app oach o G¨
ockede e al. (2004, 2006) allows he
de e mina ion o he oo p in clima ology in ela ion o he
land use (spa ial ep esen a i i y)and he spa ial dis ibu ion
o quali y lags (spa ial quali y s uc u e) as well as he
calcula ion o he lux con ibu ion o he a ge land-use
ype o he o al lux measu ed o each hal -hou ly u bulen
lux alue. Recen ly, his lux da a-quali y e alua ion
app oach was adap ed o he si es o he Ca boEu ope
ne wo k byRebmann e al. (2005) and G¨
ockede e al. (2008).
As an example, TableII shows he lux con ibu ion
om he a ge land-use ype a hes a ion Hagenbuch
(UBT4, see Table I) o di e en wind di ec ion sec o s and
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s abili y classes. The en i e COPS measu emen pe iod is
conside ed. Asexpec ed, lux con ibu ions om he a ge
su ace inc ease om s able owa ds uns able condi ions.
The main wind di ec ions (120, 150, 270 and 300◦)wi h he
highes da a densi y (no shown) show lux con ibu ions
o e 93% e en unde s able condi ions. The lowes lux
con ibu ions a e ound insec o s wi h low da a densi y,
e.g. 78% in he 30◦sec o du ing s able condi ions. O e all,
hemeasu ed u bulen lux da a a Hagenbuch a e highly
ep esen a i e o he a ge land-use ype.
3.3. In e nal bounda y laye s
All measu emen s a each ECs a ion o he COPS u bulence
ne wo k we e checked o he exis ence o in e nal bounda y
laye s (IBL), which o m asa esul o changes ing ound-
su ace cha ac e is ics adjacen o he owe . The exchange
o ene gy and ma e o e he a ge land use isa ec ed
by neighbou ing a eas when measu ing abo e he IBL. The
ollowingequa ion wasused o es ima e oughly he heigh o
he new equilib ium laye , δ0,depending on he e ch, x, o
each 30◦wind sec o (Raabe, 1983; Jegede and Foken, 1999):
za<δ
0=0.3√x.(1)
The ae odynamic measu emen heigh , za,isde inedas
he geome ic heigh minus he ze o-plane displacemen .
The la e can be de e mined wi h wo- hi ds o he canopy
heigh (e.g. Foken, 2008a). In o de ogua an ee ha he
measu emen akes place wi hin he new equilib ium laye
ha es ablishes o e he a ge land-use ype, zashould be
lowe han δ0.Abo eδ1, he measu emen canno be ela ed
o he a ge land-use ype:
za>δ
1=0.5√x.(2)
Be ween δ0and δ1,a ansi ion a ea is assumed. Aweak
e ec o s abili y onδ0,1 is neglec ed (Sa elye and Taylo ,
2005).
Fo he ou come o he IBL e alua ion p ocedu e, a
lagging scheme was de ined depending on he ela ion o za
o δ0and δ1(see Table III). This scheme was applied oeach
hal -hou ly u bulen lux alue. Flux alues lagged wi h 1
should be conside ed wi h ca e and lux alues lagged wi h
2should be ejec ed inany case, as he measu ed lux canno
beasc ibed o he a ge land-use ype.
As an example, Table II shows he esul s o he IBL
e alua ion p ocedu e o a e age condi ions o e he en i e
COPS measu emen pe iod o he s a ion Hagenbuch
(UBT4, see Table I).The heigh o he new equilib ium
laye , δ0(see Eq. (1)), and he e ch,x,a ebo hgi en
o di e en wind di ec ion sec o s. I can be seen ha
in he 210◦sec o he ae odynamic measu emen heigh ,
za=2.0m,equals he heigh o he new equilib ium laye ,
δ0=2.0. This indica es ha he lux measu emen akes
place a he lowe edge o he ansi ion a ea o he IBL and
hus is lagged wi h 1(see Table III).
Table III. Flagging scheme o he in e nal bounda y laye s.
Condi ion Flag Desc ip ion
za<δ
00Measu emen below δ0
δ0≤za≤δ11 ansi ion a ea
za>δ
12Measu emen abo eδ1
3.4. Da a selec ion
Fo he esul s shown in sec ion 4, he ollowing da a
selec ion c i e ia we e applied; hese esul om he da a-
quali y es s desc ibed insec ions 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3. Only
u bulen lux da a wi h
•TK2 quali y lags ≤6(see sec ion 3.1),
• lux con ibu ions om he a ge land-use ype
>70% (see sec ion 3.2) and
• lags o he IBL e alua ion p ocedu e ≤1(seesec ion
3.3)
a e conside ed u he o da a analysis. Due o he high
landscape he e ogenei y a he COPS measu emen si es, we
decided oallow u bulen lux da a wi h lux con ibu ions
om he a ge land-use ype >70% ins ead o >80% as
was ecommended byG¨
ockede e al. (2008) as a easonable
alue o ep esen a i e measu emen s in his s udy abo e
all ege a ion.
The esul ing da a a ailabili y a e heapplica ion o
hese da a selec ion c i e ia is shown inTable IV. O e all,
mos o hesi es each anadequa e da a a ailabili y o mo e
han 50%. Howe e , six s a ions also show e y low da a
a ailabili y below 30%. This can be mainly a ibu ed o da a
ejec ion due o low lux con ibu ions om he a ge land-
use ype, ei he iden i ied by he applied oo p in model
o by he IBL e alua ion p ocedu e. Un a ou able e ch
condi ions we e p esen a hese si es, as hey we e closely
si ua ed a he bounda ies o he a ge land-use ypes, which
esul s inaninc ease o he in luence o neighbou ing a eas.
A he s a ion Linkenheim (IMK3) he la ge measu emen
heigh o 10 mis esponsible o he ailu e o he IBL c i e ia
and hus o da a ejec ion.
3.5. Ene gy balance closu e
Apossible esiduum, es,o hesu ace ene gy balance
can be e alua ed a all measu ing si es o he u bulence
ne wo k whe e addi ional adia ion and soil measu emen s
we e ca ied ou and bo h u bulen luxes o sensible hea ,
QH,and la en hea , QE,we e measu ed (see Table I). A he
su ace, he ne adia ion, Q∗
S,is ans o med in o QHand
QEand in o he g ound hea lux, QG:
−Q∗
S=QH+QE+QG+ es.(3)
Thes o age o hea in he uppe soillaye is included in his
s udy wi hin he alue o QGand was calcula ed acco ding
o he‘simple measu emen ’ me hod a e Liebe hal and
Foken (2007). O he s o age e ms (plan s, ai , e c.) and
pho osyn hesis can beneglec ed as hey a e usually e y
small (Foken, 2008b).
3.6. Nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions
Nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions can bede ec ed
wi h he ECmeasu emen s bycalcula ing he s abili y
pa ame e , ζ,which is he quo ien o he measu emen
heigh , z,and he Obukho leng h, L:
ζ=z
L=−zκgw′θ′
0
θ u3
∗
.(4)
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Appendix D: Zhou e al. (2011)
ORIGINAL PAPER
Theo Appl Clima ol (2011) 105:217–228
DOI 10.1007/s00704-010-0393-5
The s udy o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam
Co s a ion on he Tibe an Pla eau
Degang Zhou &Ra ael Eigenmann &Wol gang Babel&
Thomas Foken&Yaoming Ma
Recei ed: 18 May 2010 /Accep ed: 6Decembe 2010 /Published online: 1Janua y 2011
#Sp inge -Ve lag 2010
Abs ac This s udy in es iga es he nea -g ound ee
con ec ion condi ions(FCCs)based on eddy co a iance
(EC) measu emen s a Nam Co s a ion nea he Nam Co
Lake on he Tibe an Pla eau (TP). The spa ial and empo al
s uc u e o EC measu emen s a his s a ion is e alua ed by
using he comp ehensi e so wa epackage TK2 oge he
wi h a oo p in model. The ob ained high-quali y u bulen
lux da a a e used o s udy he occu ence o FCCs, which
can be de ec ed wi h he EC sys em by calcula ing he
s abili y pa ame e .Two ypes o gene a ion o FCCs can be
iden i ied. (1) Du ing he wind di ec ion change o adiu nal
he mally o ced land-lake ci cula ion sys em in he
mo ning, s ongly educed wind speeds and simul aneously
high buoyancy luxeslead o ape iod o dominance o
buoyancy o e shea ,and hence, o he occu ence o FCCs.
(2) On days wi h he appea ance o clouds, he land-lake
ci cula ion is weakened o e e sed, dependen on he
empe a u e g adien s be ween he land and he Nam Co
Lake. Du ing he pe iod o adap a ion o he land-lake
b eeze o he al e na ing si ua ion o hea ing di e ences,
wind speeds dec ease and buoyancy again domina es o e
shea nea he g ound. These a e he si ua ions whe e FCCs
a e also de ec ed du ing he en i e day a Nam Co s a ion.
The in es iga ion o FCCs ega ding he wholemeasu e-
men pe iod shows ha FCCs can be mainly a ibu ed o
case (1) du ing he non-monsoon pe iod, while FCCs a e
gene a edbybo hmechanisms(1and2)du ing he
monsoon season.Animpac o he FCCs on he nea -
g ound p o iles o ai empe a u e and humidi yisdemon-
s a ed. The FCCs a e assumed o play an impo an ole o
he land su ace-a mosphe e exchange p ocesses and he
a mosphe ic bounda y laye (ABL) condi ionson he TP by
p o iding an e ec i e anspo mechanism o nea -g ound
ai mass cha ac e is ics in o uppe pa s o he ABL.
1In oduc ion
The Tibe an Pla eau (TP) is he la ges and highes pla eau
in he wo ld. Because o he opog aphic ea u e o he TP,
he unde lying su ace abso bsala ge amoun o sola
adia ion and unde goes d ama ic diu nal and seasonal
changes o su ace hea ing andwa e luxes. Such ene gy
and wa e cycles on he TP play an impo an ole in he
Eas e n Asian Monsoon ci cula ion (e.g., Yeand Gao
1979). Se e al la ge ield expe imen ssuch as GAME-
Tibe and CAMP-Tibe we e ca ied ou o in es iga e he
land su ace-a mosphe e exchange p ocesses on he TP,
whose indings a e epo ed in many s udies (e.g., Yang e
al. 2002,2004;Ma e al. 2002,2005;Zuo e al. 2005). The
e ain on he TP consis s o alo o di e en land use ypes
such as lake, glacie ,alpine s eppe, ba e soil, and we land
wi h di e en scales. As aconsequence, he e a e complex
in e ac ions be ween di e en ypes o land use and he
a mosphe e, which a ec he de elopmen o he mally
inducedci cula ionsand wa e and ene gy cycles (Whi eman
D. Zhou (*)
Cen e o Monsoon Sys em Resea ch, Ins i u e o A mosphe ic
Physics, Chinese Academy o Sciences,
P.O. Box 2718, No. 6, Bei’e iao, Haidian dis ic ,
Beijing 100190, China
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]
R. Eigenmann :W.Babel :T.Foken
Depa men o Mic ome eo ology,Uni e si y o Bay eu h,
Uni e si ä ss asse 30,
95440, Bay eu h, Ge many
Y. Ma
Ins i u e o Tibe an Pla eau Resea ch,
Chinese Academy o Sciences,
P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
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1990;SegalandA i 1992;Lie al.2006;Lue al.2008),
and heoccu ence o la ge he mal con ec i ecells
(Chen e al.2002). In gene al, land su ace-a mosphe e
in e ac ionsa ehighly decisi e o he localoccu ence
and iming o he ini ia ion o con ec ion, cloud o ma ion,
and p ecipi a ion (e.g., Hanesiak e al. 2004;Chenand
A issa 1994;Rabin e al. 1990;Ban a1990;Raymond
and Wilkening 1980).
Following he s udy o Eigenmann e al. (2009), he
p esen s udy aimsa he in es iga ion o nea -g ound ee
con ec ion condi ions(FCCs) in expe imen alda a a Nam
Co S a ion o Mul isphe e Obse a ion and Resea ch,
ChineseAcademy o Sciences (he eina e Nam Co
s a ion).FCCs obse ed a g ound le el may esul in an
e ec i e, e ical anspo o nea -g ound ai mass cha ac-
e is ics in o uppe pa s o he a mosphe ic bounda y laye
(ABL). An impac o he FCCs on he e ical wind speeds
in heABL measu ed wi h aSoda and on ozone
concen a ions a amoun ain summi was ecen ly demon-
s a ed by Eigenmann e al. (2009)and Maye e al. (2008),
espec i ely.Bo h au ho sde ec ed FCCs wi h he help o
an eddy co a iance (EC) sys em by calcula ing he
s abili y pa ame e om di ec ly measu ed u bulen lux
da a. In he p esen s udy, he same app oachwill be
applied ode ec FCCs a Nam Co s a ion. As he EC da a
a e used o he de ec ion o FCCs, his s udy will also gi e
asho in oduc ion in he EC da a p ocessing and EC da a
quali y including oo p in analysis a Nam Co s a ion. A
mo e de ailed quali y assessmen o ECda a a Nam Co
s a ion can be looked up in Me zge e al. (2006). The
p econdi ions o he occu ence o FCCs a e pe iods o
high buoyancy luxeswhich coincide wi h as ong
dec easeo he wind speed. Buoyancy hen domina es o e
shea wi hin u bulence p oduc ion nea he g ound. In he
case o Eigenmann e al. (2009), he d op o he wind speed
was ini ia ed by achange o he diu nal alley ci cula ion
sys em in he Kinzig alley,Black Fo es ,sou hwes e n
Ge many.The nigh ime down- alley winds cease and up-
alley winds slowly build up in he mo ning, leading o he
low wind speeds du ing he pe iod o wind di ec ion change
in he Kinzig alley.Simila indings we e epo ed by
Maye e al. (2008). These au ho s ound ha ozone d op
e en s on amoun ain summi in he Alpine o eland o
sou he n Ge many can be a ibu ed o he occu ence o
FCCs, which e ec i ely anspo ozone- ee ai masses
om he nea by alley owa ds he measu ing si e a he
moun ain op. In hei s udy, he low wind speed pe iodin
he mo ning, which igge s he occu ence o FCCs, is
caused by achange o he wind di ec ion o amesoscale
ci cula ion sys em knownasAlpine Pumping (Lugaue and
Winkle 2005). Simila mechanismsleading o FCCs a e
assumed o occu a Nam Co s a ion on he TP.Anume ical
simula ion o he ABL low cha ac e is ics in he egion o
he Nam Co s a ion by Lu e al. (2008) ecen ly indica ed
ha local ci cula ion sys ems nea Nam Co s a ion include a
wind ci cula ion be ween anea by moun ain ange and i s
o elandaswellasasmalle scale ci cula ion induced by
he inhomogenei y o he mal o cing be ween he la ge
Nam Co Lakeand he g asslands.This land-lake ci cula ion
sys em is expec ed o igge FCCs a Nam Co s a ion. In
gene al, he FCCs a e assumed o play an impo an ole o
he land su ace-a mosphe e exchange p ocesses on he TP
simila o he indings in o he s udy a eas as desc ibed
abo e.
The a icle is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2in oduces
he ieldmeasu emen s a Nam Co s a ion. Sec ion 3
ou lines some ypical ea u es o EC da a quali y by
applying a oo p in model, and Sec ion4p esen s he
indings o he in es iga ion o FCCs a Nam Co s a ion.
Conclusions a e gi en in Sec ion 5.
2Field measu emen s a Nam Co s a ion
NamCos a ion (30.773 N,90.963 E,4,745 ma.s.l.)was
es ablished by heIns i u eo Tibe an Pla eauResea ch,
ChineseAcademyo Sciences in Augus 2005.Thes a ionis
loca eda 1km dis ance sou heas o NamCo Lake,whichis
hesecond la ges saline lake on heTP(Guane al.1984).
Mo eo e , hes a ionis si ua ed 15 kmno h-no hwes o a
moun ain ange(Nyainqen anglhaMoun ain)o ien ed om
wes -sou hwes o eas -no heas wi h an al i ude o up o
5,700 ma.s.l. Figu e 1shows heposi ion o heNamCo
s a ionand hedis ibu ion o heland use. Asmall inne
lakeo ien ed omwes -sou hwes o eas -no heas is
loca ed 300 mno hwes e n,anda52-m me eo ological
owe 40 mno heas e n o heEC lux si e.Fu he mo e,a
sola panel, hes a ionmain building,andano he building
a eloca ed 70 m, 90 m, and 105 mabou 10°wes by sou h
o he lux si e, espec i ely.The e ainis sligh lyinclined
wi h he al i uded opping by abou 1mon a250-mdis ance
along hedi ec ion om he lux si e o heinne lake.The
domina ing land use class is alpine s eppe, e e ed oas
g ass(−)inFig.1,wi ha canopy heigh no exceeding 5 cm.
Asmall po ion o g ass is highe and dense ,whichis
named g ass(+).Tosumup, he canopy a NamCo s a ion
canbeconside edas a he homogenous.
The 52-m me eo ological owe was se up o obse e
he lowe bounda ylaye wi h wind speed, ai empe a u e,
and ela i e humidi y measu emen s in i e le els (1 m,
2m,4m, 10 m, and 20 m), and wind di ec ion measu e-
men s in h ee le els (1 m, 2m,and 20 m). Addi ionally,
p essu e andp ecipi a ion we e measu ed as wellas he soil
empe a u e and he soil mois u e con en insix le els
(0 cm, 10 cm, 20 cm, 40 cm, 80 cm, and 160 cm). The
a e aging in e al o all hese measu emen s was 10 min.
218 D. Zhou e al.
70 A
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The EC lux si e was equipped wi h aCSAT3 (Campbell
Scien i ic, Inc.) sonic anemome e and aLI-7500 (LI-COR
Biosciences) open-pa h H
2
O/CO
2
gas analyze a aheigh
o 3m.The sampling equency was 10 Hz. Addi ionally,
upwa d and downwa d componen s o long wa e (Kipp &
Zonen CG3) and sho wa e adia ion (Kipp &Zonen CM3)
we e measu ed wi h an a e aging in e al o 30 min.All
measu emen s a e a ailable o abou 7mon hs om 21
Ma ch 2007 o 21 Oc obe 2007. Howe e ,da a ailu e
occu ed om 20 Ap il o 24 May due o ins umen
mal unc ion.
3Da a p ocessing and quali y con ol o u bulence
measu emen s
The u bulen lux measu emen s a Nam Co s a ion we e
ca ied ou wi h he EC me hod. Thisme hod is one o he
bes measu emen echniques cu en ly a ailable o he
de e mina ion o ma e ial and ene gy luxes be ween he
a mosphe eand he unde lying su ace (Monc ie 2004),
al hough some gene al p oblems a e s ill p esen , e.g., he
widesp ead sho all o he sum o sensible and la en hea
lux measu ed by his me hodascompa ed o he a ailable
ene gy (e.g., Aubine e al. 2000;Foken 2008a). The EC
me hodhas becomeby now awidely accep ed ool o he
de e mina ion o mass and ene gy luxes applied by se e al
lux ne wo ks such as Ame i lux, CARBOEUROFLUX
and AsiaFlux, o e all coo dina ed wi hin FLUXNET
(Baldocchi e al. 2001).Mo eo e , he ocus o lux
obse a ionshas shi edp og essi ely om idealand
homogeneous si es o si es wi hin complex and he e oge-
neous e ain (e.g., Schmid 2002). In gene al, he adop ion
o he EC me hod is based on he assump ion ha ce ain
s a is icaland me eo ological equi emen s a e ul illed(e.g.,
Massmanand Lee2002;Foken andWichu a 1996)and ha
he equipmen is wo king eliably.Wi h hede elopmen o
hequali y con oland si e cha ac e iza ion p ocedu e
including oo p in in es iga ions (e.g., Fokene al.2004;
Maude e al.2006;Göckedee al.2004,2006,2008), si e-
speci ic spa ialquali ys uc u es and hespa ial ep esen a-
i eness o hemeasu ed luxescanbe iden i ied,gi en ha
he unde lying land use dis ibu ion is a ailable. This
app oach imp o es ou unde s anding o he lux measu e-
men s and su ey in complex e ainandisalsoapplied o
heEC lux da a a NamCo s a ionwi hin hep esen s udy.
The u bulen lux da a we e pos -p ocessed wi h he
comp ehensi e so wa epackage TK2 de eloped a he
Depa men o Mic ome eo ology,Uni e si y o Bay eu h
(Maude and Foken2004;Maude e al.2008). The
so wa ecomp ises all s a eo he a lux co ec ions and
pos - ieldquali y con ol including es s o s eadys a eand
in eg al u bulencecha ac e is ics(Foken and Wichu a
1996;Foken e al. 2004). Plana i o a ion acco ding o
Wilczak e al.(2001)was done o six pe iods, P1 o P6,
due o changes in ege a ion s uc u e and la ge-scale
me eo ological condi ions. The s a imeand end imeo
hese pe iods, and he momen um oughness leng h o g ass
(−)de i ed om Monin–Obukho simila i y heo ydu ing
hese pe iodsa e epo ed in Table 1.He e, P1, P2, and P6
a e pe iods du ing he non-monsoon pe iod, P4 and P5
pe iods du ing he inne -monsoon pe iod, and P3, ape iod
du ing he ansi ion o bo h.
Figu e 2shows he diu nal and seasonal a ia ions o he
sensible hea lux, he la en hea lux, he ic ion eloci y,
u
*
,aswell as he wind di ec ion o he en i e measu emen
pe ioda Nam Co s a ion. The esul s indica e ha he
sensible hea lux domina es he ene gy ans e om he
Ea h’s su ace in o he a mosphe e be o e monsoon.
Howe e ,wi h he s a o he monsoon pe iod in July, he
alues o he sensible hea lux dec easeand la en hea
domina es he u bulen ene gy exchange a he su ace
un il he e ea o monsoon in Oc obe .The ic ion
eloci y is usually smalldu ing he nigh and inc eases in
31.0N
30.3N 90.0E
Nam Co Lake
Nam Co S a ion o Mul isphe e
Obse a ion and Resea ch
x (km)
y (km)
-2 -1 012
-2
-1
0
1
2
91.5E
Nam Co Lake
Nam Co S a ion o Mul isphe e
Obse a ion and Resea ch
Nam Co Lake
Nam Co S a ion o Mul isphe e
Obse a ion and Resea ch
x (km)
-2 -1 012
-1
0
1
2
g
ass(-)
g
ass(+)wa e se lemen
g
ass(-)
g
ass(+)wa e se lemen
Fig. 1Posi ion and land use
map o Nam Co s a ion. The
land uses a Nam Co s a ion
include sho g ass, e e ed o
as g ass(−), dense g ass, e-
e ed o as g ass(+), wa e ,and
se lemen
The s udy o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam Co 219
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he day ime. Adiu nal ci cula ion sys emp esen a Nam
Co s a ion becomes isible ega ding he wind di ec ion in
Fig. 2d.Winds coming om no hwes o sou hwes p e ail
in he day ime, while eas e ly o sou he ly winds domina e
a nigh . Du ing non-monsoon, he diu nal ci cula ion is
supe imposed by asou hwes e ly low,while du ing
monsoon, an inc eased sou heas e ly componen is ob ious.
Foo p in analyses acco ding o Göckede e al. (2004,
2006)incombina ion wi h he da a quali y lagging scheme
o Foken e al. (2004)we epe o med wi h a o wa d
Lag angian oo p in model (Rannik e al. 2003;Göckede e
al. 2005). De ailed e ain da a we eused o he land use
dis ibu ion. Me zge e al. (2006)al eadyin es iga ed he
empo al and spa ial quali y dis ibu ion o u bulen lux
da a a Nam Co s a ion. Thei esul s indica ed ha he
gene al poo da a quali y o he sensible hea lux migh be
a ibu ed o he occu ence o o ganized s uc u eso
mesoscale low pa e ns in he bounda ylaye a he si e. In
his s udy,only asho o e iew o he esul s o he quali y
con ol e o applied on he u bulen lux da a shall be
gi en in he ollowing.
Foo p in calcula ions we e pe o med in all pe iods, P1
o P6. The momen um oughness leng hs o he lake and o
he se lemen we e se cons an o 0.002 mand 0.5 m,
espec i ely,and he momen um oughness leng h o g ass
(+) was se o double he alue o g ass(−)ineach pe iod as
lis ed in Table1.The esolu ion o he land use map used
o he oo p in calcula ions amoun s o 20 m(see Fig. 1).
In he ollowing, only he oo p in analysis esul s o he
pe iodP5a e p esen ed. The esul s in he o he pe iods a e
simila and no discussed wi hin his s udy.Mo eo e , he
quali y lagging scheme acco ding o Rebmann e al. (2005)
is used o all ollowing igu es, wi h lags anging om 1
(good da a quali y) o 5(poo da a quali y). Figu e 3shows
he spa ial dis ibu ion o he quali y lags o he ic ion
eloci y du ing he pe iod P5 as ela ed o he oo p in
clima ology.I can be seen ha du inguns able and neu al
s a i ica ions, quali y a ings wi hin he 5% e ec le el ing
mos ly consis o classes 1and 2, which means ha he da a
a e sui able o undamen al esea ch. Howe e ,du ing
s able s a i ica ion, quali y lags some imes deg ade o
class 3 o 4.In he case o he oo p in analyses o he
sensible hea lux (no shown), mos o he quali y lags a e
a ed as 1 o 2du ing uns able s a i ica ion, while du ing
neu al and s able s a i ica ions, quali y lags deg ade e en
o 5.
The eason o he poo quali y a ings( lag 5) o he
ic ion eloci y du ing he day and du ing he nigh is
ob iously di e en .Eigh y-one pe cen o he bad alues
a ed as 5among he nigh ime da a can be ela ed o bad
in eg al u bulence cha ac e is ics. This means ha he e is
abig de ia ion o he ic ion eloci y om s a is ical
Table 1The s a ime and end ime o he plana i pe iods P1 o P6 dis inguished o he p ocessing o u bulen lux da a a Nam Co s a ion in
2007. The momen um oughness leng h, z
0m
,o g ass(−)du ing each pe iod is also gi en
Pe iod P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
S a ime 22 Ma 25 May 21 Jun 29 Jul 20 Aug 18 Sep
End ime 20 Ap 19 Jun 26 Jul 17 Aug 17 Sep 21 Oc
z
0m
(mm) 3.9 3.8 5.3 7.3 6.0 4.0
0
6
12
18
0
0
6
12
18
Local ime
(a)
Ap Jun Aug Oc
0
n.V.
−250
−50
0
50
200
600
(b)
Ap Jun Aug Oc
0
6
12
18
0
n.V.
−300
−50
0
50
200
600
Local ime
(c)
Ap Jun Au
g
Oc n.V.
0
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
2 (d)
Ap Jun Au
g
Oc
0
6
12
18
0
n.V.
N
E
S
W
Fig. 2Thediu nal a ia ions o
a hesensiblehea lux(Wm
−2
),
b hela en hea lux(Wm
−2
), c
he ic ion eloci y,u
*
(m s
−1
),
andd hewind di ec ion o e
he en i emeasu emen pe iod a
NamCos a ion.The alueso
he a iablesa ecolo -coded
( alueso he a iablesa eg ay-
coded o hep in ed e sion)
220 D. Zhou e al.

72 A
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.
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simila i y cha ac e is ics unde s ong s ables a i ica ion,
which migh be ela ed o he occu ence o in e mi ency o
g a i y wa es. On he con a y,68% o he bad alues a ed
as 5among he day ime da a can be a ibu ed o
s a iona i y p oblems.
Rega ding he spa ial dis ibu ion o quali y lags, he
bad- a ed measu emen s in he wes e n and no heas e n
upwind sec o can be explained by he in luence o he
s a ion buildingand he me eo ological owe on he
measu emen s. As he e ec o asligh ly inclined e ain
is elimina ed by he plana i o a ion and he bad quali y
a ings indeed do no concen a e on ace ain sec o , he
poo quali y lags wi hin o he sec o s han he wes e n and
no heas e n canno bea ibu ed o he local opog aphy.
Consequen ly, his implies ha ins a iona i y is he eason
o he bad quali y a ings in he o he sec o s in he
day ime, which is caused by changing mesoscale o local
low pa e ns.
Mo eo e , he su ace ene gy imbalance was in es iga -
ed a Nam Co s a ion. Fo example, he a e age non-closu e
du ing he pe iodP5 eaches 31%. This alue is simila o
hose ound in p e ious s udieson he TP (Tanaka e al.
2001;Yang e al. 2004). The soil hea lux in he p esen
s udy is calcula ed by using six laye s o soil empe a u e
and soil mois u e con en and applying he he mal
di usion equa ion and co ec ion me hod acco ding o
Yang and Wang (2008). In he p esen li e a u e o he
ene gy balanceclosu e discussion (e.g., Foken e al. 2010;
Foken 2008a;Cul e al. 2004), he landscape he e ogene-
i y,which induces ad ec i e and low- equency lux
componen s (e.g., Fokene al. 2006), and seconda y
ci cula ions (e.g., Inagaki e al. 2006), which may anspo
he su plus o ene gy no caugh by he s anda d EC
measu emen s, a e conside ed o mainly cause he esiduum
o he su ace ene gy balance. In summa y, he e ain
ea u es a Nam Co s a ion a e p edes ina ed o induce
he mallyd i en ci cula ions, hus, in luencing he non-
closu e o he su ace ene gy balance.
4Nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions
4.1 The de ec ion o FCCs
FCCs occu in hea mosphe e i he buoyancy e m
domina eso e he shea e mwi hin he u bulence
kine ic ene gy equa ion (e.g., S ull 1988). Thebuoyancy
e m (B),
B¼g
q
w0q0

0;ð1Þ
consis s o hep oduc o hebuoyancy pa ame e ,
gq
1,and hebuoyancy luxa hesu ace,w0q0
.The
buoyancy pa ame e is he quo ien o he accele a ion due
o g a i y,g,and he mean i ualpo en ial empe a u e,
q .The shea e m(S),
S¼
u0w0@u
@z;ð2Þ
is hep oduc o he momen um lux, u0w0,and he wind
shea ,@[email protected] quo ien o BandScan also be
exp essedas he lux Richa dson numbe R
(e.g., S ull
y (m)
−400
−200
0
200
400
20
5
O e all
20
5
Uns able
x (m)
y (m)
−400 −200 0200 400
−400
−200
0
200
400
20
5
Neu al
x (m)
−400 −200 0200 400
20
5
S able
n.V.
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 3Spa ial dis ibu ion o
quali y lags o he ic ion
eloci y as ela ed o oo p in
clima ology depending on
a mosphe ic s a i ica ion a
Nam Co s a ion. The lux si e is
indica ed by he cen al, black
(whi e in he p in ed e sion)
c osshai ,whe eas quali y lags
(1–5) a e Rebmann e al.
(2005)a e dis inguished acco d-
ing o he colo ba .Black (whi e
in he p in ed e sion) con ou
lines display he 5% (do ed)
and 20% (solid)e ec le el
ings o he measu emen s
The s udy o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam Co 221
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.
(2011) 73
1988). Du ing uns able s a i ica ion (R
<0),R
equals he
s abili y pa ame e (e.g., Ay a 2001),
z¼z
L¼
zkgw0q0

0
q u3
»
;ð3Þ
whe e zdeno es he measu emen heigh , L heObukho
leng h, κ he on-Ká mán’scons an ,andu
*
he ic ion
eloci y.Consequen ly,by calcula ing he s abili y pa am-
e e ,ζ, omdi ec ly measu ed EC u bulen lux da a, ee
con ec ion condi ionscan bede ec ed o ζ<−1(e.g.,
Foken 2008b). Rega ding Eq. 3, he ul illmen o ζ<−1
o heoccu ence o FCCs equi es ha high buoyancy
luxes coincide wi h small alueso u
*
a he same ime.
In he ollowing sec ions, he a e agingin e al o he
EC lux da a is educed om 30 min o 5min in o de o
ge abe e insigh in o he empo al s uc u e o he FCCs.
The e o e, i should bekep in mind ha he depic ed
u bulen luxes do no include spec al ene gy om eddies
o la ge scales. Mo eo e , he in es iga ion o FCCs is
es ic ed o days wi h no p ecipi a iondu ing he day and
o imepe iods when he sensible hea lux exceeds he
h esholdo 20Wm
−2
.This h eshold seems o be
easonable o he c i e ia o high buoyancy luxes equi ed
o he occu ence o FCCs acco ding o Eq. 3.Low alues
o u
*
occu a Nam Co s a ion du ing he wind di ec ion
change o aland-lake wind ci cula ion sys em be ween he
Nam Co Lakeand he g assland, which domina es he local
low s uc u e a he measu ing si e (see e.g. Lu e al. 2008).
Hence, he change o he he mally inducedci cula ion is
able o cause heoccu ence o FCCsa NamCos a ion.Two
ypeso p ocessesleading o helow wind speedpe iodsin
combina ionwi hawind di ec ionchangeo heci cula ion
sys em,and consequen ly o heoccu ence o FCCs,can be
dis inguishedand a ep esen edin henex sec ion.
4.2 The ypes o gene a ion o FCCs
4.2.1 Gene a ion o FCCs due o achange o he diu nal
ci cula ion sys em
The i s ype o gene a ion o FCCs is simila o he case
de ec ed by Eigenmann e al. (2009)in he Kinzig alley,
Black Fo es , sou hwes e n Ge many,whe eFCCs appea
in he mo ning hou s du ing he change o he diu nal
alley ci cula ion sys em om down o up- alley winds.
Typical o his ype o gene a ion o FCCs is ha he d op
o he ho izon al wind speed, which is oge he wi h high
buoyancy luxes ap econdi ion o he occu ence o FCCs
(see Eq. 3), is caused by he wind di ec ion change o a
diu nal ci cula ion sys em in he mo ning a e sun ise. This
diu nal ci cula ion sys em is o ced by sola hea ing on ai
wea he days. The low wind speeds occu du ing he wind
di ec ion change when he p e iously p e ailed wind ceases
and winds om ano he di ec ion s a o build up
acco ding o he he mal o cing.
A Nam Co s a ion, adiu nal ci cula ion sys em can be
obse ed on many ai wea he days as shown in Fig. 4.
Rega ding he wind s a is ics o he en i e measu emen
pe iod, i can be con i med ha a he mallyinduced, land-
lake wind ci cula ion be ween Nam Co Lakeand he
g assland nea he s a ion is domina ing he local wind
egime a Nam Co s a ion (see also Fig. 1). Du ing he
day ime (Fig. 4a), he equen occu ence o alake b eeze
is ob ious om he high equency o winds coming om
no hwes e n di ec ions (7.3%). Highe equencies can also
be ound in he wes -sou hwes e n sec o .On he con a y,
du ing he nigh (Fig. 4b), aland b eeze wi h sou h-
sou heas e n wind di ec ions domina es he low egime. A
diu nal land-lake wind ci cula ion a Nam Co si e was also
ecen ly con i med by he nume ical simula ions o Lu e al.
(2008).
Figu e 5gi es an example o he occu ence o FCCs
on 29 June 2007. Each 5-min alue, whe e he s abili y
pa ame e ,ζ,islowe han −1, is ma ked by g ay do ed
lines in Fig. 5a.I isob ious ha FCCs a e p esen du ing
he ime om 0625 o 0740 hou s local ime (in his s udy,
local ime co esponds o localsola ime=Beijing ime −2h)
in hemo ning.A his ime,a e sun ise, hesensible and
la en hea lux (Fig.5b)a eal eadyla ge enough,bu he
ic ion eloci y,u
*
(0.11ms
−1
), and heho izon al wind
speeda es ill e ysmall (Fig.5c), so ha FCCs a e
igge edacco ding o Eq.3.Thesmall alueso u
*
and he
ho izon al wind speedcanbe ela ed o hechange o he
wind di ec ion(Fig.5e) omsou heas o no hwes du ing
heonse o helakeb eeze.Thedownwa dsola adia ionin
Fig. 5d indica es ai wea he condi ions on his day,which
o ce hediu nalci cula ion sys em.Finally, heda a quali y
lagso u
*
, anging om 1(good da a quali y) o 5(lowda a
quali y) acco ding oRebmann e al.(2005), a edepic edin
Fig. 5 o hal -hou in e als. No e ha hequali y lagso
u
*
du ing heday imea egood ( lag1).Howe e ,du ing he
FCCs om 0630 o 0730 hou s, he lagsdeg ade o 3 due o
s a iona i y p oblems.
4.2.2 Gene a ion o FCCs due o he adap ion
o he land-lake wind ci cula ion sys em o su ace
hea ingdi e ences du ingcloud co e
The second ype o gene a ion o FCCs is closely ela ed o he
appea anceo cloudsdu ing heen i e day ime.Clouds
equen ly occu du ing hemonsoon pe iod a NamCosi e
and dec ease hedi ec sola adia ion which eaches he
su ace.Asa consequence, helakeb eeze be ween he Nam
Co Lakeand he g assland a Nam Co s a ion,which no mally
builds up in he day ime on undis u bed adia ion days(see
222 D. Zhou e al.
74 A
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Fig. 5d,e), is weakened o e en a e e salcan beobse ed.
The cloud shading leads oas ong and as d op o he
su ace empe a u e o e he g assland,while helake su ace
empe a u eonlyexpe iencesasmall dec easedue o hehigh
hea capaci y o wa e .Du ing hepe iod o weakening o
e e salo he ci cula ion sys em,ho izon alwind speeds and
shea a e educed, and buoyancy domina es hep oduc ion o
u bulence, husleading o heoccu ence o FCCs.I he
e e sal o he ci cula ionsys em(land b eeze)occu sdu ing
cloud shading,FCCscan also be igge eda he ime he
land b eeze shi sback again oalake b eeze sho lya e he
disappea anceo clouds.A hese imes, empe a u e g a-
dien s and wind speeds a e lowe edagain, buoyancy
domina eso e shea and FCCs occu .
Figu e 6depic sa ypicalcaseon 23 Augus 2007 wi h
se e alpe iodso FCCs ma ked by heg ay do edlines in
Fig. 6a.The la en hea lux gene allyexceeds hesensible
hea lux on ha day(Fig.6b). Thepe iodso FCCscoincide
wi h pe iodso small alues o he ic ion eloci y(Fig.6c).
Thedailycou se o hedownwa dsola adia ion(Fig.6d)
shows heappea ance o clouds in heday imewi h a
minimumo 174 Wm
−2
a 1200 hou s. A 1200 hou s, a
e e sal o he ci cula ion sys em is ob ious omFig.6e.
F om 1100 o 1140 hou s, hesu ace skin empe a u e and
he ai empe a u e a 2mheigh a NamCos a ion
dec easesby 3.5Kand 0.8K, espec i ely,while heai
empe a u e abo e helake canbe assumed oshowonly
some smalland slow changes. As a consequence, helake
b eeze ci cula ionisweakened.Windscome om heNam
Co Lake (wes e n di ec ions)un il 1205 hou s, shi oaland
b eeze (eas e n,sou heas e n di ec ions)un il 1425 hou s,
and o a eback owind di ec ionscoming om helake
(no h,no hwes e n di ec ions)a e wa ds.Thesu ace skin
empe a u e and he ai empe a u e againinc ease by 11.1K
9%
6%
3%
WEST EAST
SOUTH
NORTH
0 − 2
2 − 4
4 − 6
6 − 16
N=4372
m s−1
(a)
12%
8%
4%
WEST EAST
SOUTH
NORTH
0 − 2
2 − 4
4 − 6
6 − 14
N=3836
m s−1
(b)
Fig. 4Wind s a is ics a Nam
Co s a ion du ing he en i e
measu emen pe iod adu ing
he day ime and bdu ing
he nigh
-2
-1
0
1
(-)
(a)
0
200
400
Hea lux (W m-2)
(b)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
u* (m s-1)
(c)
0
2
4
6
8
U (m s-1)
0
500
1000
Ds (W m-2)
(d)
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
0
90
180
270
360
Wind di ec ion ( )
Local ime
(e)
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
1
3
5
Quali y lag u* (-)
Local ime
( )
H
E
ζ
°
λ
Fig. 5Daily cou ses o a he
s abili y pa ame e ,b he sensi-
ble and la en hea lux (W m
−2
),
c he ic ion eloci y and he
ho izon al wind (m s
−1
), d he
downwa d sola adia ion
(W m
−2
), e he wind di ec ion,
and he quali y lags o he
ic ion eloci y on 29 June
2007. The pe iods o FCCs a e
indica ed by he g ay do ed
lines in each plo
The s udy o nea -g ound ee con ec ion condi ions a Nam Co 223
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and by 3.8K om1300 o 1440 hou s, espec i ely.Du ing
he e e salo helake b eeze o windscoming om heland
(1205 hou s)and du ing he epea ed onse o helakeb eeze
(1400–1500 hou s),FCCsa ede ec ed(see Fig.6a). These
FCCs a e igge ed by hepe iodso low wind speedsand u
*
(Fig.6c), whichcome along wi h he cessa ion and heonse
o helakeb eeze.Fu he mo e, he wope iodso FCCsa
0750 and 1015 hou scanalso be ela ed o cloud co e
pe iods(see Fig.6d)and oaweakening o hep e ailing
ci cula ionsys em.Thequali y lagso u
*
a eshownin
Fig. 6 .Du ing heFCCsa 0750 hou sand noon,da a
quali yispoo ( lag 3 and 5, espec i ely). A 0750 hou s,
he poo da a quali y can bea ibu ed o s a iona i y
p oblems,whilea noon,s a iona i y p oblems oge he wi h
badin eg al u bulence cha ac e is ics a e ound.Du ing he
o he pe iodso FCCs on his day,da a quali yis a he good
(mainly lags1and 2).
The second ype o gene a ion o FCCs is qui edi e en
o he i s ype, as he appea ance o clouds de e mines he
occu ence o FCCs du ing he day.Onsome days, FCCs
can be a ibu ed o bo h ypes o gene a ion.The
dis ibu ion o FCCs du ing he en i e measu emen pe iod
is add essed in Sec ion 4.4.
4.3 Impac o FCCs on nea -g ound bounda ylaye
condi ions
The impac o he FCCs on he bounda ylaye condi ions
nea hesu ace isin es iga ed wi h he help o he
measu emen s o he me eo ological owe .The esul s a e
exempla ily shown o 29 June 2007, al eady desc ibed in
Sec ion 4.2.Figu e 7shows he ho izon al wind speed, he
ai empe a u e, and he speci ic humidi y om 0530 o
0830 hou s in i e le elso he me eo ological owe as
well as he a e aged p o iles o hese quan i ies be o e,
du ing, and a e he pe iod o FCCs. Du ing he pe iod o
FCCs, as ong collapse o he ho izon al wind speed
(Fig. 7a)can be obse ed, and also, he e ical g adien o
he ho izon al wind speed dec eases compa ed o he ime
pe iods be o e and a e FCCs (Fig. 7b). The su ace skin
empe a u e showsaninc easing end (Fig. 7c). I is lowe
han he ai empe a u e un il 0650 hou s, bu exceeds i
om 0700 hou s onwa ds. F om 0650 o 0700 hou s, he ai
empe a u e is consis en wi h he su ace skin empe a u e.
Toge he wi h he e ical g adien o he ai empe a u e
which is nea lyze o du ingFCCs (Fig. 7d), his inding
poin s o as ong e ical mixing o he ai empe a u e
du ing his ime. The speci ic humidi y shows an
inc easing end du ing he FCCs (Fig.7e). Again, he
e ical g adien o speci ichumidi y (Fig.7 )issmall
du ing he FCCs, which implies ane ec i e anspo and
mixing o speci ic humidi y in o uppe pa so he ABL.
In summa y,i is ob ious ha FCCsha e animpac on
nea -g ound ABLmois u e and empe a u ep o iles.Hea ed
ai massesa eanima ed o ascend in con ec i e pulse-like
mo ions, which esul in e ically uni o m alues o he ai
empe a u e, humidi y,and hewind speed.Consequen ly,
nea -g ound ai mass cha ac e is icsa ee ec i ely ans-
-2
-1
0
1
(-)
(a) 0
100
200
300
Hea lux (W m-2)
(b)
0
0.5
1
u* (m s-1)
(c)
0
5
10
U (m s-1)
0
500
1000
Ds (W m-2)
(d)
Cloud
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
0
90
180
270
360
Wind di ec ion ( )
Local ime
(e)
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 00:00
1
3
5
Quali y lag u* (-)
Local ime
( )
H
E
ζ
°
λ
Fig. 6Daily cou ses o a he
s abili y pa ame e ,b he sensi-
ble and la en hea lux (W m
−2
),
c he ic ion eloci y and he
ho izon al wind (m s
−1
), d he
downwa d sola adia ion
(W m
−2
), e he wind di ec ion,
and he quali y lags o he
ic ion eloci y on 23 Augus
2007. The pe iods o FCCs a e
indica ed by he g ay do ed
lines in each plo
224 D. Zhou e al.
82 A
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.
(2013)
Ea ly-mo ning low ansi ion ina alleyinlow-moun ain e ain 3
campaign is o unde s and hein luence o heo og aphy o alow-moun ain angeon p ecip-
i a ion.Se e alsu ace lux measu emen s a ionswe eins alled h oughou he espec i e
egion du ing he campaign (Eigenmann e al., 2011;Kal ho e al., 2011).Inaddi ion,
g ound-basedSoda /RASS ins umen swe eins alled on someo heses a ions.Ou s udy
usesda a omoneo hesesi eswhe e a ull ene gy balance s a ion and aSoda /RASS
ope a edsimul aneously.Thesi eFußbachisloca edin heKinzig alley,whichisa ypical
low-moun ain alley o he egion wi hap onounced alleywind sys emde eloping on ai
wea he daysinsumme .
Inmic ome eo ological ieldexpe imen s he ene gy balance iso en no closed(e.g.
Oncleye al., 2007;Fokene al., 2010).Al hough many unce ain iesa e connec edwi h
hede e mina ion o he componen so he ene gy balance (Mah ,2010),s ong indica ions
exis ha he esidualoccu sdue o anspo by la ge-scale eddieso seconda yci cula ions
whicha eno cap u ed by he eddy-co a iance me hod (e.g.Maude and Foken,2006;Fo-
ken,2008;Fokene al., 2010,2011;S oy e al., 2013).As heseseconda yci cula ionsa e
mainlyassocia edwi h hebuoyancy lux, hepa i ioning o he esidualacco ding o he
buoyancy lux a ioapp oach,p oposed by Cha uchi ipane al.(2013),appea s o be app o-
p ia e oclose he ene gy balance.Thebuoyancy lux a ioapp oach pa i ions he esidual
acco ding o hebuoyancy lux a ioins ead o heusually usedBowen a io(Twine e al.,
2000).Thus,ala ge ac ion o he esidualwould be a ibu ed o hesensiblehea lux
wi h hebuoyancy lux a ioapp oach.Also heCOPS ene gy balance si eFußbach o his
s udy showsana e age esidualo 21%du ing he en i e ieldcampaign (see Eigenmann
e al., 2011).
The emainde o hisa icleiso ganizedas ollows.Sec ion2 desc ibes heda a and
heme hodsapplied,in pa icula henume icalmodeland i s se -ups.Sec ion3 p esen s
he esul sand hediscussion o hem.The conclusionsa egi eninSec .4.
2Me hodsand da a
2.1Obse a ionalda a
Theda ausedin his s udy we eob ained by obse a ionsconduc ed du ing heCOPS ex-
pe imen in helow-moun ain e ain o heKinzig alley.Tu bulence da awe emeasu eda
aheigh o 2mabo e he alleysu ace and ic ion eloci yu∗,sensiblehea QHand la en
hea QEwe e calcula edwi h he eddy-co a iance me hod (EC) (Fokene al., 2012).An
a e aging imeo 30minwasused o heEC.Con ibu ions o he luxeswi ha imescale
exceeding hese30mincanno be cap u ed.Thegeog aphical loca ion o hesi eFußbach
was48◦22′7.8′′ N,8◦1′21.2′′ E,178ma.s.l.( heposi ion isma kedinFig.3).Thelocal
imeisUTC+1 hou .De ailsabou hesi e and hemeasu emen se -up can be ound in
Me zge e al.(2007)and Eigenmann e al.(2009,2011).Close o he u bulence s a ion,a
Soda /RASS sys em measu ed e icalp o ileso wind componen sand i ual empe a u e.
Mo eo e , he emaining componen so he ene gy balance,ne adia ion Q∗
S,and soil hea
lux QG,we emeasu eda heECsi e.An o e iewo heda ap ocessing,quali ycon ol,
and lux cha ac e is icso he u bulen da a aswell as he calcula ion o he ene gy balance
isgi eninEigenmann e al.(2011).
Thes udy o Eigenmann e al.(2009)iden i ied 23 daysdu ing he h ee-mon hCOPS
campaign wi h ee con ec i e condi ionsbased on heECmeasu emen sin he ea ly-
mo ning hou s.F ee con ec i e condi ionswe eiden i ied by hes abili y pa ame e
ζ
=
zL−1 o
ζ
<−1,whe eLis heObukho leng h.Thesepe iodswe e cha ac e ized by low

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ho izon alwind due o he e e salo he alleywind sys em omdown- alleywinds o
up- alleywinds.Themean imeo heoccu ence o he ee con ec i esi ua ionson hese
23 daysis0815 UTCwi has anda d de ia ion o 1 hou .
The e icalwind speedwde i ed om heSoda obse a ionswasanalysed o he
iden i iedlow wind pe iods.In he emainde o he a icle hispe iod o low wind will
be e e ed oasp1and hesubsequen pe iod o up- alleywind will be e e ed oasp2.
In o de omake heindi idualdayscompa able,eachSoda sampleo wwasno malized
wi h heDea do con ec i e eloci yw∗(Dea do ,1970).Themeasu emen heigh z
wasno malizedwi h heheigh o hebounda ylaye zi.Su ace buoyancy luxes o he
calcula ion o w∗we ede i ed om heECmeasu emen sand alueso ziwe ede e mined
by aseconda ymaximumin he e lec i i y p o ileso heSoda measu emen sasdesc ibed
inEigenmann e al.(2009)and sugges ed by Bey ich(1997).A e ha ,his og amso ww−1
∗
we e calcula ed o h ee cha ac e is icheigh so zz−1
i=0.25,0.50 and 0.75.
2.2Simula ions
2.2.1Nume icalModel
Thenume icalsimula ionswe e conduc ed by meanso hemul iscalegeophysical low
sol e EULAG (Smola kiewicz e al., 1997;P usa e al., 2008).EULAG sol es henon-
hyd os a ic,anelas ic equa ionso mo ion,he ew i eninanex ended pe u ba ional o m
(Smola kiewicz and Ma golin,1997):
∇·(
ρ
b )=0,(1)
D
D =−∇
π
′−g
Θ
′
Θ
b+M+D+F−
α
′,(2)
D
Θ
′
D =− ·∇
Θ
e+H−
βΘ
′.(3)
De
D =S(4)
These o anelas ic equa ions(1)-(4)desc ibes he anelas icmass con inui yequa ion (1),
he h ee componen so hemomen umequa ion (2),and he he modynamic equa ion (3),
espec i ely.The equa ion (4) o hesubg id-scale(SGS) u bulen kine ic ene gy (TKE)
ecomple es hesys emo equa ions.In(1)-(4), heope a o s∇and ∇·symbolize g adien
and di e gence,whileD/D =
∂
/
∂
+ ·∇is hema e ialde i a i e,and is hephysical
eloci y ec o .The ec o ep esen ing heg a i a ionalaccele a ion g=(0,0,−g)Toccu s
in hebuoyancy e mo Equ.(2).Thequan i ies
ρ
b(z)and
Θ
b(z) e e o hebasics a es,
p esc ibed hyd os a ic e e ence p o ilesusuallyemployedin he anelas ic app oxima ed
equa ions(Cla kand Fa ley,1984).
Inaddi ion o heho izon ally homogeneousbasics a e,amo egene alambien (en i-
onmen al)s a eisdeno ed by hesubsc ip e.The co esponding a iablesmay a yin he
ho izon aldi ec ionsand hey ha e osa is yEqu.(1)-(3);see P usa e al.(2008) o adis-
cussion o ambien s a e and i sbene i s.Thep imed a iables ′and
Θ
′appea ing inEqu.
(2)-(3)co espond o de ia ions om he en i onmen al a iables eand
Θ
e.Thequan i y
π
′in helinea ized p essu eg adien e minEqu.(2)deno esadensi y no malized p essu e
de ia ion.
The e msp opo ional o
α
and
β
deno ewa e abso bing de icesuseda heuppe
bounda y o he compu a ionaldomain.Thesou ce e msDand Hno explici lys a ed
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Ea ly-mo ning low ansi ion ina alleyinlow-moun ain e ain 5
inEqu.(2)and (3)symbolize he iscousdissipa ion o momen umand hedi usion o
hea , espec i ely.Fsymbolizesanaddi ional o cing o speci iedsimula ions,see below.
The o mula ion o heTKEp oduc ion and dissipa ion e mhiddeninSand he applied
pa ame e s ollow hedesc ip ion o So bjan(1996).
Thequan i yMdeno esme ic o cesdue o he cu ilinea i y o heunde lying phys-
icalsys em.In hep esen wo k,anon-o hogonal e ain- ollowing sys emo coo dina es
(x,y,z)=(x,y,H(z−h)/(H−h)) isusedwhichassumesamodeldep hHand ani egu-
la lowe bounda yh(x,y)(Gal-Chenand Some ille,1975;Smola kiewicz and Ma golin,
1993;Wediand Smola kiewicz,2004).The explici o mula ion o he ans o medsys em
o equa ionscan be ound inP usa and Smola kiewicz (2003)o ,mo e ecen ly,inK¨
uhnlein
e al.(2012).Insymbolic o m, he esul ing sys emo mo ion o hep ognos ic a iables
Ψ
=u, ,w,
Θ
,ecan bew i enasa lux- o mEule ianconse a ion law
∂
∂
(
ρ
∗
Ψ
)+∇·(
ρ
∗
Ψ
)=
ρ
∗F
Ψ
(5)
whe e
ρ
∗=
ρ
bG,wi hGas heJacobian o he ans o ma ion.A ini edi e ence app oxi-
ma ion o Equ.(5)is
Ψ
n+1=MPDATA
Ψ
n+0.5
∆
F
Ψ

n, n+1
2,
ρ
∗+0.5
∆
ρ
∗F
Ψ

n+1(6)
whe eMPDATA1s ands o henon-oscilla o y o wa d-in- ime(NFT)ad ec ion anspo
schemedesc ibedinSmola kiewicz and Ma golin(1998).The ellip ic equa ion o p essu e
is sol edi e a i elywi haK ylo -sub space sol e ,see Thomase al.(2003).Bo helemen s
a ein eg alpa o heEULAG and a e undamen al o hes abili y o he code and he
eliabili y o he esul s.
2.2.2 Simula ion s a egy
Among heb oad angeo applica ionsdocumen edinli e a u e,EULAG was success ully
applied oa mosphe icbounda y-laye lows(see Smola kiewicz e al., 2007;Pio owski
e al., 2009).Fo heques ionsin es iga edin hispape , hese -up waschosenin he ol-
lowing way.
Thenume icalsimula ionsa e conduc edinadomain o (Lx,Ly,H)=(7680m,7680m,
2430m)wi ha egula g idsize o
∆
x=
∆
y=
∆
z=30m.Fo asimula ion o 2.5h phys-
ical ime,30000 imes epswi h
∆
=0.3sa enecessa y.Theheigh h(x,y)o helowe
bounda yis aken om heASTERdigi al opog aphicda ase (NASALand P ocesses
Dis ibu edAc i eA chi eCen e NASALPDAAC,2001)ina30m×30m egula esolu-
ion.Inall simula ions shown he e he compu a ionaldomainispe iodicin heho izon al
di ec ions.Toenable hispe iodici y he opog aphy was smoo hly elaxedwi hina ame
a ound he ac ual egion o in e es .Due o he complex o og aphy and helowin e sion
laye heigh hewid h o he ame could be chosen o be300m.
Fo all simula ionsananelas icbasics a ewi habackg ound s a i ica ion N=0.01s−1
isusedacco ding oCla kand Fa ley(1984), esul ing inexponen ially dec easing
ρ
band
inc easing
Θ
b-p o iles.
Toin es iga e heguiding ques ionso his s udy, wo di e en simula ion se -upswe e
designed.Fi s ,idealizedsimula ionso ane ol ing con ec i ebounda ylaye (CBL)o e
la e ainh(x,y)=0we e conduc edand heya edeno ed by S,and,secondly, heCBL
1MPDATAs ands o Mul idimensionalPosi i e-De ini eAd ec ion T anspo Algo i hm
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Table1Se -ups o hesimula ionsin his s udy
name e ains a i ica ion zi,(m) wind o cing dx,(m)
belowzi
S1 la neu al800 o 20
S2 la – 0 o 20
R1complex neu al800 o 30
R2complex – 0 on (du ing p2)30
was simula ed o e ealis ic opog aphy h(x,y)and hesesimula ionsa edeno ed by R,see
Table1.
All simula ionswe eini ializedwi ha es ing luid,and wo di e en ambien po en ial
empe a u ep o iles
Θ
e(z)we e applied o dis inguish be weenanea lymixedlaye wi ha
capping in e sion laye a zi=800m(Simula ionsS1and R1)and as ablys a i iedambien
s a e co e ing hewholedep h o he compu a ionaldomain(simula ionsS2and R2):
Simula ionsS1and R1:
Θ
e=(
Θ
0 o h≤z<zi
Θ
01+N2
g(z−zi) o zi≤z≤H(7)
Simula ionsS2and R2:
Θ
e=
Θ
01+N2
gz o h≤z≤H(8)
Whi enoisewi hanampli udeo 0.001ms−1wasadded o heini ial e icalwind ieldin
o de oini ia e con ec i emo ions.Fo he ensemble unsanalysedinSec ion 3.2,eigh
independen ealiza ionswe esimula ed using hese -up R1.Fo hispu pose, he andom
gene a o was seeded di e en lya heini ial ime o each ealiza ion.Because he h ee
wind componen sa e ze o be o e adding henoise, he andomdis u bance is100%o he
absolu e alueo hewind ec o .Thisensu es ha he eigh ealiza ionsa es a is icallyin-
dependen .Thenume icalsimula ionswe e conduc ed o ad ya mosphe e.A hesu ace
asensiblehea lux QH=0.05Kms−1was speci iedinall uns.Thehomogeneoushea ing
can bejus i ied because lux di e encesbe ween di e en ypeso land su aces u ned ou
o benegligiblein heobse edea ly-mo ning si ua ions(see Eigenmann e al., 2011).The
e ec o o og aphicshading isno akenin oaccoun .O og aphically-induced lows( alley
winds,upslope lows,e c.)a e expec ed omainly domina e hep ope ieso heCBLin he
alleya his imeo heday.
Du ing henigh -day- ansi ion, he along- alleywindsa epa o amoun ain plainci -
cula ion be weenamoun ainmassi e and anadjacen plane,in ou case heBlackFo es and
heUppe RhineValley, espec i ely.Due o hesmall compu a ionaldomain, he e ec o
hismeso-scale ci cula ion on he lowin he alleyismodelled by anaddi ionaldynamical
o cing F=(0,− 0(z)
τ
−1,0) o heme idionalwind componen ,whe e
τ
= end − begis
hepe iod when he o cing isapplied.The e e ence p o ile o heho izon alwind speed
0(z)wasde i ed om heSoda obse a ions.In hesimula ion R2 he addi ional o cing
Fisapplied.Thepe iod om =0 o beg ep esen s heobse edlow wind pe iod p1.The
pe iod om beg o he end o hesimula ion ep esen s heup- alleywind pe iod p2.In he
emainde o he a icle wosimula ion imes e e ed oas 1 o a imeinp1and 2 o a
imeinp2a e chosenin o de ocompa edi e encesin hesimula ed pe iodsp1and p2.
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Ea ly-mo ning low ansi ion ina alleyinlow-moun ain e ain 7
p1p2
QH (−Qs* − QG)
−1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
(a)
p1p2
QE (−Qs* − QG)
−1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
(b)
p1p2
(QH+QE) (−Qs* − QG)
−1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
(c)
Fig.1Ba plo so hemean o he luxeso QH(a),QE(b)and hesumo bo h(c)no malizedwi h he
a ailable ene gy −Q∗
S−QGdu ing helow wind speed pe iod p1and he i s 2 hou so p2.A e age alues
o he23 selec ed daysa heFußbachsi e a egi en o bo h pe iods.Alsoshowna e he95%con idence
in e alswhichindica esigni ican di e encesin hemean alues o (a)and (c).
3Resul sand Discussion
3.1Modi ica ion o he ene gy balance by he alleywind
Toanalyse he e ec o he alleywind on he ene gy balance o heEC lux measu emen s,
heselec ed pe iodsp1and p2a e analysedsepa a ely.Figu e1shows hemean o he luxes
QHand QEand hesumo bo h no malizedwi h he a ailable ene gy −Q∗
S−QGdu ing he
low wind speed pe iod p1and he i s 2 hou so p2.Thisin e alwaschosenin o de o
make heda abasiso bo h pe iodscompa able.Aclosedene gy balance means ha he
a io o hesumo he u bulen luxesQH+QEand he a ailable ene gy −Q∗
S−QGisequal
o one.Al oge he , he ene gy balance isclosedinp1,whileinp2a esidualo 16%occu s
on a e age(see Fig.1c).Thela e alueisclose o he a e age esidualo 21% ound du ing
he en i eCOPS campaign a his si e(see Eigenmann e al., 2011).
Rega ding Fig.1a and b, he ela i e lux con ibu ionsmissing in pe iod p2compa ed
o pe iod p1ha e exac ly hep opo ionso hebuoyancy lux a io.Thebuoyancy lux a-
iowould dis ibu e abou 85%o he esidual oQHand 15% oQE o a ypicalBowen
a io o abou 0.45 in heobse edea ly-mo ning si ua ions.As such,Fig.1suppo s he
applica ion o hebuoyancy lux a ioapp oach(see Cha uchi ipane al., 2013) o he co -
ec ion o he ene gy balance.Themissing lux componen sin pe iod p2a e assumed o be
anspo edwi hin buoyancy-d i enseconda yci cula ionsno cap u ed by heECmeasu e-
men s(e.g.Foken,2008).The ans e o hemissing ene gy in o heseconda yci cula ion
mainly happensa signi ican su ace he e ogenei ieswhichcan be ound o e complex e -
ain.Ad ec ion-domina ed p ocesses(also no cap u ed by heEC)p obablylead o he
anspo o hemissing ene gy o hesehe e ogenei ies.Aswind speeds anishin pe iod
p1,no ene gy is ans e edin oseconda yci cula ionsand he ene gy balance isclosed.
Howe e , he along- alleywind in pe iod p2leads omissing ad ec i e lux componen s
and hus o heobse ed esidual in hispe iod.
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ww*
−1
p obabili y densi y
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Soda p1
LES upd augh a eas
LES all poin s
zzi
−1 = 0.25
(a)
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
ww*
−1
p obabili y densi y
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Soda p1
LES upd augh a eas
LES all poin s
zzi
−1 = 0.50
(b)
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
ww*
−1
p obabili y densi y
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Soda p1
LES upd augh a eas
LES all poin s
zzi
−1 = 0.75
(c)
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Fig.2P obabili y densi ieso heno malized e icalwind speedww−1
∗ o h ee heigh s(zz−1
i=
0.25,0.5,0.75).His og ams a ede i ed omSoda obse a ionsa heFußbachsi edu ing helow wind
speed pe iodsp1on he23 selec ed days,while cu esa ede i ed om hesimula ion S2.Thedo edcu e
shows hep obabili y densi y unc ion (pd ) o all poin sin heho izon alplane, hedashedcu eshows he
pd o he condi ionallysampled upd augh a easonly.
The inding discussedabo e alsosuppo s he choice o a cons an hea lux o cing o
he ansien simula ion R2(see Sec .2.2).Thesame ela i e o cing by QHisachie ed
o bo h pe iodsp1and p2by adding ( o simpli ica ion)100%o he esidual oQH.In
hisway, he o cing o pe iod p1canalso beused o pe iod p2.Mo eo e ,no signi ican
ela i e lux di e enceso QEexis in bo h pe iods(see Fig.1b).Thus, o heques ions
add essedin his s udy,i appea s o be app op ia e oconcen a eon d ymodel uns.
3.2Cohe en s uc u esin he alleyimposed by su ounding o og aphy
In o de oin es iga e he ea ly-mo ning CBLe olu ion inside he alley,Soda da a om
hemo ning pe iod p1o heselec ed dayswe e chosen oc ea e hehis og amso he
no malized e icalwind ww−1
∗(see Fig.2).Theobse ed dis ibu ionso his s udy de ia e
s ongly omp obabili y densi y unc ions(pd s)obse ed o e la ,homogeneousen i on-
men sas epo ed by many s udies(e.g.Dea do and Willis,1985;S ull,1988).In hese

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Ea ly-mo ning low ansi ion ina alleyinlow-moun ain e ain 9
0 2 4 6
x (km)
0
2
4
6
y (km)
-0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 -0.05 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Fig.3Ensemble and ime mean o he e icalwind speedinms−1a 300ma.s.l. o simula ion R1(colou -
coded).Blacksolidlinesma k heo og aphy ins epso 50m. G eycon ou sma kin e sec ion wi h he
o og aphy.The ed ame ep esen s hesec ion o he alleyshowninFig.5.Theposi ion o heSoda is
indica ed by heblackci cle.
s udies hepd sa e igh -skewedand showanega i emaximum.Especiallyin helowe pa
o hebounda ylaye (zz−1
i=0.25) hemaximumo heobse ed dis ibu ion a Fußbach
si eis shi ed owa dsweak posi i e aluesins ead o heweak nega i e aluesknown om
li e a u e.Also heobse ed his og amis a less skeweda hisheigh .To ind he cause
o hisbeha iou ,idealizedsimula ionso aCBLa e ca ied ou (Simula ion S1and S2,
desc ibedinSec .2.2).
To gaincon idence in hesimula ions hewell known pd so he e icalwind ina
con ec i ebounda ylaye a e calcula ed o hesimula ed da ao se -up S1.Ve y good
ag eemen wi h hepublished aluesis ound (no shown).Mo eo e , hesimula ion esul s
show hewell-knownspokepa e nso cohe en con ec i emo ion known omnume ous
nume icals udies(e.g.Schmid and Schumann,1989).Theda a om hesimula ion o
se -up S2is hen used oc ea e hepd s o aCBLwi h g owing mixedlaye ,see Fig.2
(si ua ion mo e close o obse a ion pe iod p1).In his se -up,spokepa e nse ol ein he
simula ed bounda ylaye ha g owsligh lyinsize as hein e sion laye heigh g owsin
ime.Acondi ionalsampling isapplied o ob ain hepd so he cohe en upd augh a eas.
The esul ing pd s esemble hep ope ieso hehis og ams om heSoda da a(see
Fig.2).Themaximumand heskewness o hepd so he condi ionallysampled upd augh
a easma chwell wi h hoseo hehis og amso heobse a ionalda a o all heigh s.Only
he absolu enumbe so hep obabili y densi y do no ullyma ch.Apossible explana ion
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o hisis ha heSoda ins umen a e ageso e a ce ain olume,so ha hep obabili y
densi y o aluesa ound ze o ge sinc eased.Thise ec becomesla ge wi h heigh .
Wein e p e hese indingsas ollows:I iswell known ha cohe en con ec i emo ions
e ol einaCBLwhich emain quasi-s a iona yinspace and ime(see e.g.S ull,1988).This
means ha heloca ion whe e a possibleSoda ins umen isloca edwill emain unde an
upd augh o adownd augh a ea o along ime.Asa consequence,i is e ylikely ha
aSoda measu emen will cap u eonly hes a is icalp ope ieso apa o he eloci y
spec um.The ac ha he esul omFig.2s ems oma composi eo e 23 pe iodswi h
simila o e all condi ions sugges s hehypo hesis ha heSoda ins umen wasp e e en-
iallyloca eda an upd augh egion.
To e i y hishypo hesis,anensembleo eigh la ge-eddy simula ionswasca ied ou
wi h ealis ic opog aphy a helowe bounda y(simula ion R1)and di e en ini ialnoise
seeding o w(see Sec .2.2.2).Figu e3shows he ensemble and imemean o he e ical
wind speeda 300ma.s.l.(app oxima ely 130mabo e he alley loo ).Al hough we ap-
plied bo ha empo almeanand anensemblemean o hesimula ed da a,cohe en pa e ns
o heCBL low ieldinside he alley emain.Thismean low ield hasala ge ampli ude
hani sanalogue omsimula ionso e la e ain.Wein e p e his inding as ollows:The
su ounding idgesimpose cohe en con ec i emo ions o he alley lowa speci icloca-
ionsdu ing he ea ly-mo ning p1pe iods.Thei posi ions ela i e o he idgespe sis in
con as o he changing loca ionso he cohe en s uc u esin he la CBLsimula ion.The
posi ion o heobse a ionalsi eisma ked by ablackci cleinFig.3and shows ha hesi e
isloca edinan upd augh egion.
3.3Ve ical anspo in he ea ly-mo ning alleya mosphe e
Spec alanalysiso heECmeasu emen sin he alleyshowedaninc easeo spec alpowe
wi hin u bulen scaleso a ewminu esdu ing helow wind speed pe iod p1in hemo ning
(see Eigenmann e al., 2009).These imescalescould be ela ed o hep esence o la ge
cohe en e icals uc u es(e.g.plumeso upd augh s)wi haspa ialex en in heo de
o hebounda y-laye heigh ,whicha eknown o be esponsible o hemajo i y o he
anspo wi hin heCBL(see e.g.S ull,1988;Chand a e al., 2010).Theoccu ence o
hese u bulen scalesin heg ound-basedECda aindica es ha du ing hepe iod p1,ai
e yclose o heg ound isable o be anspo ed upwa ds e ye icien ly by non-local
la ge-eddy anspo p ocesses.The ee con ec i e condi ionsde ec edsimul aneously by
heECmeasu emen salsosuppo hese indings.By heonse o heup- alleywind hese
u bulen scalesdisappea om heda aindica ing ha he u bulen anspo o nea -g ound
ai becameless e ec i e.The e ec i e e ical anspo in pe iod p1isimpo an because
ai massesclose o he alley bo oma ehumid,ha eacha ac e is ic chemicalcomposi ion,
and may possibly bepollu ed.The e ec o he ee con ec i e eleaseo su ace laye
ai masses om he alley bo omon ozonemeasu emen sa amoun ain- op s a ion was
ecen ly epo ed by Maye e al.(2008).
Du ing hese ee con ec i esi ua ionsin pe iod p1, heSoda /RASS obse eds ong
e icalupd augh sin o hes ablys a i ied alleya mosphe e.Fo illus a ion,Fig.4shows
o COPS IOP15b,i.e.13 Augus 2007, hemo ning e olu ion o e icalwind and i -
ualpo en ial empe a u e.In helowe panelo Fig.4 heobse ed e icalwind is shown
om0500 o 1300 UTC.Thepe iod o lowho izon alwind speedin hemo ning isma ked
by e icaldashedlines.The imeso hep o ilesplo edinFig.4a-da eindica edin he
lowe panel.A ime(a) hes ables a i ica ion is shownsho lya e sun ise.In(b) he
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50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
heigh a.g.l. (m)
(a)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(b)
i ual po en ial empe a u e (°C)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(c)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19 21 23 25
(d)
60
140
220
300
380
460
540
620
700
heigh a.g.l. (m)
ime (UTC)
(a) (b) (c) (d) Ve ical wind speed (ms−1)
>0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
−0.1
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
<−0.8
0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Fig.4Uppe panel(a-d):P o ileso he i ualpo en ial empe a u eobse ed by heSoda /RASS in he
mo ning hou so COPS IOP15b (13 Augus 2007).The imeso hep o ilesa ema kedin helowe panel.
Lowe panel( omEigenmann e al., 2009,modi ied):Ve icalwind speedsincolou measu ed by heSo-
da /RASS om0500-1300 UTC.Theblack dashed e ical linesindica e hepe iod o anishing ho izon al
wind speeds.
p o ileis ep esen a i e o ape iod o s ong cohe en e icalupd augh s.Nea ly neu al
s a i ica ion below160mabo e he alley loo wasobse edin hispe iod.A weaks able
s a i ica ion abo e160mcan beseenwhile he co esponding e icalwind speeds emain
posi i e.Thes ong upd augh pe iod isin e up ed by ape iod o weake e icalwinds.
Thep o ilein(c)shows ha du ing his sho in e up ion heo iginals ables a i ica ion
eco e s.A e hisin e up ion he e icalwind isagain posi i e and hep o ilein(d)
showsaneu alo sligh ly uns ablep o ile.In heligh o hep e iousanalysis, hisindi id-
ualsceneisin e p e edas ollows:The con ec ion o ganizes,in luenced by heo og aphy,
inaway ha heupd augh and downd augh a eas emain quasi-s a iona ya hei spa ial
loca ion (see Fig.3).TheimmobileSoda /RASS ins umen obse ed hisquasi-s a iona y
upd augh a ea o ape iod o app oxima ely woand ahal hou s(0800 un il 1030 UTC).
Thispe iod isin e up ed by asho pe iod o weake windsa a ound 0920UTC,when
hequasi-s a iona y upd augh a ea sligh lymo esou o he iewo heSoda /RASS in-
s umen ,so ha hep ope ieso ana ached downd augh a ea a e also obse ed.In his
sho pe iod,i can beseen ha hes a i ica ion o he alleya mosphe eou sideo he
upd augh sis s ill s able(Fig.4c).
To be e unde s and hes a eo hebounda ylaye inwhich heseobse a ionswe e
made, he ansien simula ion R2(see Sec .2.2)wasca ied ou and analysed.InFig.5,
snapsho so he ield o he e icalwind speeda eshown o wo heigh sand o he ime
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Fig.5Ins an aneous si ua ionsa he ime 1in hesimula edlow wind pe iod p1(a and b)and o he ime 2
in hesimula ed up- alleywind pe iod p2(c and d)o hesimula ion R2.Ve icalwind componen winms−1
iscolou -coded.The c oss sec ionsa eplaceda 210m(a and c)and 300ma.s.l.(band d), espec i ely.The
a ea shown he eisma ked by he ed ame inFig.3.
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100 E
RKLÄRUNG
E klä ung
Hie mi e klä e ich, dass ich die A bei selbs ändig e ass und keine ande en als die
on mi angegebenen Quellen und Hil smi el benu z habe.
Fe ne e klä e ich, dass ich ande wei ig mi ode ohne E olg nich e such habe, diese
Disse a ion einzu eichen. Ich habe keine gleicha ige Dok o p ü ung an eine ande en
Hochschule endgül ig nich bes anden.
Bay eu h, den ____________________ ____________________
Ra ael Eigenmann