BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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No. 11
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
I
Bay eu h A ican S udies Wo king Pape s
The “Bay eu h A ican S udies Wo king Pape s” epo on
ongoing p ojec s, he esul s o cu en esea ch and ma e s
ela ed o he ocus on A ican S udies a he Uni e si y o
Bay eu h. The e a e no speci ic equi emen s as o he language
o publica ion and he leng h o he a icles.
Con ibu ions o his se ies may be submi ed di ec ly o he
edi o s; hey can also be submi ed ia uni e si y lec u e s and
p o esso s o ia he Ins i u e o A ican S udies. Accep ance is
decided by he edi o s.
The “Bay eu h A ican S udies Wo king Pape s” is ch onicled on
he OPUS documen se e a he uni e si y lib a y:
An elec onic e sion o each olume is a ailable on he IAS
websi e:
h p://opus4.kob .de/opus4-
ubbay eu h/sol sea ch/index/sea ch/sea ch ype/se ies/id/6
Ins i u e o A ican S udies
Execu i e Di ec o : U e Fendle
Vice Di ec o : Ul ich Be ne
Add ess:
Uni e si ä Bay eu h
Ins i u e o A ican S udies
95440 Bay eu h
GERMANY
Phone: +49 (0)921 555161
Fax: +49 (0)921 555102
[email p o ec ed]
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
II
Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o
A ican S udies (BIGSAS)
Since he yea 2007, BIGSAS is pa o he compe i i e ‘Excellence
Ini ia i e’ by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG) and he
Ge man Council o Science and Humani ies (WR). The basic aims o
BIGSAS a e o b ing oge he excellen young A ican and non-
A ican schola s o wo k join ly in he ield o A ican S udies and o
o e a cen e o c ea i e and inno a i e PhD aining and esea ch.
On 15 June 2012, BIGSAS was one o he success ul DGF unded
‘Cen es o Excellence’ which we e g an ed suppo o he nex 5
yea s. BIGSAS has mo e han 100 junio ellows om 25 A ican,
Ame ican, Asian and Eu opean coun ies. BIGSAS builds on his
expe ience and o e s a mul i- and in e disciplina y esea ch
en i onmen based upon h ee clea ly de ined gene al Resea ch
A eas which a e:
A. Unce ain y, Inno a ion and Compe ing O de s in A ica
B. Knowledge, Communica ion and Communi ies in Mo ion
C. Nego ia ing Change: Discou ses, Poli ics and P ac ices o
De elopmen
The Resea ch A eas allow o challenging heo e ical s udies
sensi i e o eme ging basic p oblems; hey also ake in o accoun
p ac ical ques ions and p oblems o he A ican con inen . Thus, he
BIGSAS Resea ch A eas encompass basic, s a egic and applied
esea ch. BIGSAS also con ibu es o he c ea ion o an A ican
uni e si ies’ ne wo k. I b ings oge he A ican and Eu opean
ne wo ks and os e s pa ne ship no only be ween he Uni e si y o
Bay eu h and uni e si ies in A ica bu also be ween he uni e si ies
in A ica hemsel es. Six A ican Pa ne Uni e si ies, namely he
Uni e si y o Abomey-Cala i, Co onou (Benin), Moi-Uni e si y,
Eldo e (Kenya), Uni e si é Mohammed V-Agdal, Raba (Mo occo),
Uni e sidade Edua do Mondlane, Mapu o (Mozambique), he
Uni e si y o KwaZulu-Na al, Du ban (Sou h A ica), and Addis
Ababa Uni e si y (E hiopia) coope a e closely wi h BIGSAS in
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
III
ec ui men , selec ion, aining and men o ing o doc o al s uden s.
O he pa ne s a e he Uni e si ies o he A ica-Eu ope G oup o
In e disciplina y S udies, AEGIS.
PhD aining in BIGSAS is based on a ious s a egies which ensu e
a quali y in he ield o A ican S udies: mul i- and in e disciplina y
esea ch wi h a mul idisciplina y men o ship; specialis academic
aining wi h a c oss-disciplina ily ocus; clea ly s uc u ed Indi idual
Resea ch T aining Plans (IRTP). Also o high impo ance a e: he
o e o employmen -o ien ed ans e able skills, indi idual ca ee
planning, ea ly in eg a ion in o he in e na ional academic communi y,
sho e ime- o-deg ee wi h s uc u al and inancial encou agemen s
o speci ic suppo o emale Junio Fellows.
O e he pas 20 yea s Bay eu h has amassed conside able
expe ience in co-o dina ed esea ch p og ammes, in eg a ing a ious
disciplines in o a s imula ing esea ch in he ield o A ican S udies.
The Ins i u e o A ican S udies (IAS) p omo es 63 esea che s and
coo dina es A ican s udies a he Uni e si y o Bay eu h in 12
subjec g oups dis ibu ed o e i e o he six acul ies o he
uni e si y.
Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o A ican S udies
Dean: P o . D . Dymi Ib iszimow
Vice Dean: P o . D . Rüdige Seesemann
Vice Dean: P o . D . Ma in Doe enspeck
Add ess:
Uni e si ä Bay eu h
Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o A ican S udies
95440 Bay eu h
Phone: +49 (0)921 55 5101
Fax: +49 (0)921 55 5102
h p://www.bigsas.uni-bay eu h.de e-mail: big[email p o ec ed]
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
IV
BIGSASwo ks!
Wi h BIGSASwo ks! we aim a o e ing Junio Fellows a he
G adua e School o A ican S udies a pla o m o publishing
esea ch- ela ed a icles. This new online-jou nal p o ides an
excellen pla o m o ep esen ing and p omo ing he idea o
BIGSAS. I opens a space o showcasing on-going esea ch,
c ea ing anspa ency o he wo k ca ied ou by Junio Fellows and
p o iding a space o ying ou a icles and wo king join ly on hem
owa ds u he publica ion. Each issue ocuses on a ce ain hema ic
ield o heo e ical concep and Junio Fellows om any discipline a e
in i ed o submi pape s, enabling common in e es s beyond he
p ede e mined BIGSAS esea ch a eas o lou ish. A he same ime
BIGSASwo ks! o e s i s wo kg oup pa icipan s deepe insigh s in o
and p ac ical expe ience o wha i means o be an edi o . Las bu
no leas BIGSASwo ks! makes BIGSAS and i s esea ch(e s), (i.e.
us!), isible be o e ou heses a e published.
The name BIGSASwo ks! had a ious implica ions. Fi s and
o emos i is an abb e ia ion o ‘BIGSAS Wo king Pape s!’. Second,
i is mean o show he wo k o ou BIGSAS ‘wo ks g oups’, so
indeed i is he wo ks ha a e esul ing om a s uc u e like BIGSAS.
Thi d, aking ‘wo ks’ as a e b, i demons a es he wo k ha we as
BIGSAS Fellows ca y ou , wi h BIGSASwo ks! gua an eeing us a
isible ou pu in addi ion o ou heses.

BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
V
The edi o s o his issue
Gi um Ge achew Alemu has ea ned his B.A in Sociology and Social
An h opology and his Mas e ’s deg ee in De elopmen s udies om
Addis Ababa Uni e si y. Cu en ly, he is a PhD s uden a he
Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS),
Ge many. In his PhD esea ch he in e oga es he in e na ional
clima e change adap a ion agenda and he associa ed concep o
ulne abili y by zooming-in a he local le el and loca ing clima e
change adap a ion in b oade ‘social’ con ex in d y land pa s o
uppe Awash alley in E hiopia. Gi um’s esea ch ocuses on he
cons ella ion o de elopmen , en i onmen al go e nance, and local
li elihoods. Pa icula ly, he explo es how hese in e connec ions
in luence he cons i u ion o human-en i onmen up u es like
disas e s, clima e change, and hei a e ma h. In his esea ch Gi um
also a ge s applied audience in he sphe e o policy making by
unea hing he agency o local esou ce use s in pu suing no el
esponses and adap a ions o bo h disas e and clima e change.
Pe e Na h specializes in he ield o De elopmen S udies,
pa icula ly in academic and applied wo k on sus ainable
en i onmen and g ow h. He is cu en ly pu suing a doc o al deg ee
in de elopmen s udies a he Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e
School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS), Uni e si y o Bay eu h,
Ge many. In his doc o al disse a ion on Ghana, he explo es
en i onmen al go e nance egime syne gies, con lic s and
communi y en i onmen al esponsibili y. Be ween 1999 and 2007 he
s udied a he Uni e si y o Ghana (UG) and he Kwame Nk umah
Uni e si y o Science and Technology (KNUST), bo h in Ghana. He
had also been a P og ammes coo dina o a he F iede ich-Ebe -
S i ung om Oc obe 2008 o Ap il 2009.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
VI
Acknowledging e iewe s o his issue
The edi o s o his issue, on behal o all con ibu o s, exp ess
since es g a i ude o he i e Uni e si y p o esso s who e iewed he
con ibu ing pape s. In hei schedules, hey ound ime o ead and
o e aluable sugges ions on he pape s, which e en ually
culmina ed in he issue we ha e now. Indeed, o hose who a e no
membe s o he Uni e si y o Bay eu h, we a e especially hank ul.
We also owe P o esso D . Die e Neube o he Uni e si y o
Bay eu h app ecia ion o echecking he con en o he pape s, as
well as w i ing he o ewo d o his issue.
The i e e iewe s a e:
P o . D . Ku Beck Uni e si y o Bay eu h
P o . D . Jü gen Mülle Uni e si y o Bay eu h
D . Wol am Laube Uni e si y o Bonn
P o . D . Elisio Macamo Uni e si y o Basel
P o . D . Geo g Klu e Uni e si y o Bay eu h
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
VII
Fo ewo d
By P o . D . Die e Neube
A e he pos -de elopmen deba e o he 1990s (Escoba 1995;
Rahnema 1997) analysed he concep o de elopmen as a
cons uc ion imposed on he global Sou h o subo dina e i s people,
alking abou de elopmen seemed o be ou da ed. Especially in he
humani ies, pos -colonial s udies gained in e es . The new deba es
showed ha concep s ha we e o a long ime aken o g an ed
needed o be e isi ed om a c i ical pe spec i e. Bu despi e adical
decons uc ion o he concep o de elopmen , he no ion o
de elopmen is s ill ali e. This holds ue no only a he le el o he
de elopmen ins i u ions whose ins i u ional su i al is closely linked
o he p omises o de elopmen co-ope a ion, bu also a a local le el
whe e people claim hei igh o de elopmen . The in ellec ual
decons uc ion o de elopmen did no sol e he challenges o
su i al and change in e e yday li e. The e o e, he p esence o
ideas o de elopmen in he e e yday li e o he global Sou h canno
be igno ed. Agains he backg ound o he pos -de elopmen deba e
and he wo k o c i ics o de elopmen p ac ice (e.g. Mosse 2005;
Ro enbu g 2009), no ions o de elopmen and change canno be
aken as gi en, bu a e opics equi ing empi ical esea ch. P oduced
by de elopmen ins i u ions, no ions o de elopmen a e challenged
om an e e yday li e pe spec i e. The ensions and p ocesses o
nego ia ion be ween de elopmen and s a e ins i u ions on he one
hand, and people’s unde s andings and needs on he o he hand a e
he opic o his publica ion.
As he edi o s show in hei in oduc ion we should no
misunde s and hese ensions as ep esen ing a dicho omy be ween
he local and he global. The e m de elopmen i sel wi h i s local
in e p e a ion shows ha i is no possible o sepa a e local om
global p ocesses. They a e in e connec ed and he no ions o
de elopmen o which his publica ion e e s a e nego ia ed be ween
di e en global and local ac o s. This unde lines no only he agency
o he people in ol ed, bu also ha concep s used in he
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
VIII
nego ia ions, such as u ban imp o emen in a Sudanese shan y
own, economic de elopmen in Sou h A ica, o en i onmen
p o ec ion in Ghana, ha e been app op ia ed by he local
communi ies acco ding o hei own e ms. Wi h hei s udies o his
opic, he con ibu o s link up wi h ea lie s udies ca ied ou a he
Bay eu h Ins i u e o A ican S udies on local ac ion in he con ex o
globalisa ion (P obs /Spi le 2005; Loime e al. 2005) and make a
big s ep o wa d wi h hei empi ical analyses.
This ou h olume o BIGSASwo ks! ep esen s main ea u es o
BIGSAS in a ema kable way. The a icles unde line he
in e disciplina y app oach o BIGSAS and show ha s udies om
Social An h opology, Geog aphy, Media S udies, Poli ical Sciences
and Sociology sha e a common esea ch ocus and oge he p esen
a mul i-pe spec i e, comp ehensi e pic u e o he common opic. A
he same ime, he Junio Fellows, who come om all h ee BIGSAS
esea ch a eas,
1
documen in an imp essi e way ha he di e en
esea ch a eas a e deeply in e linked. In he esea ch a ea
“Knowledge, Communica ion and Communi ies in Mo ion”, he media
s udies pape (I ina Tu ne ), wi h i s ocus on new media, adds an
impo an new wis o he analysis o economic policy. The pape
g ounded in social an h opology (Mohamed A.G. Bakhi ), om he
esea ch a ea “Unce ain y, Inno a ion and Compe ing O de s in
A ica”, uses he no ion o compe ing o de s o analyse he
nego ia ion o change. And he pape s in he esea ch a ea
“Nego ia ing Change: Discou ses, Poli ics and P ac ices o
De elopmen ”, om geog aphy (Gi um Ge achew, Pe e Na h),
poli ical sciences (Felix B inkmann) and sociology (Julia Boge ),
e e o si ua ions o unce ain y and p ocesses o inno a ion. This
publica ion, de eloped and p esen ed by BIGSAS Junio Fellows,
demons a es he li ely und highly p oduc i e discussion in BIGSAS,
which anscends bo de s be ween disciplines and esea ch a eas.
Re e ences
Escoba , A. (1995) Encoun e ing De elopmen : he making and
unmaking o he hi d wo ld. P ince on, New Je sey: P ince on
Uni e si y P ess.
1
A) Unce ain y, Inno a ion and Compe ing O de s in A ica
B) Knowledge, Communica ion and Communi ies in Mo ion
C) Nego ia ing Change: Discou ses, Poli ics and P ac ices o De elopmen
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
5
en i onmen al p og ammes. Subsequen ly, many o hem become
impo an d i e s o change, p ima ily h ough ans e o new ideas
and knowledge o shaping en i onmen al policies and implemen ing
p og ammes a he local le el. Julia shows howe e ha hough he
e u ned expe s hold po en ials o con ibu e o en i onmen al policy
making and implemen a ion a he mic o, meso, and mac o le els in
Ghana, hey also ace challenges in lending hei skills o use, and o
ind hei ee in he local economy. The expe s ace inadequa e jobs
in he o mal sec o , poo emune a ion, poo wo king equipmen s,
and job oppo uni ies being blocked o mig an s by non-mig an s. To
o e come hese challenges, hey ne wo k and make use o
p og ammes such he Re u ning Expe P og amme (REP) and he
Rein eg a ionp og amme (RE) es ablished and implemen ed in
Ge many and Ghana o encou age ained expe s o e u n home o
congenial wo king condi ions.
Felix B inkmann adds o he u ili y o agency in nego ia ing be ween
na ional and local condi ions. His pape shows how small-scale
en ep eneu s manoeu e weak na ional ins i u ions o p omo e hei
ade. In a s udy in he Ki we coppe bel o Zambia, Felix inds ha
he economy o Zambia depends hea ily on coppe and he e o e
ola ile coppe p ices on he wo ld ma ke pose a challenge o he
Zambian economy. Coupled wi h weak a na ional ins i u ional
amewo k o hei business, local coppe deale s pu in place all
manne o in o mal and wha Felix sees as illegal ins i u ions o deal
wi h he e a ic p ices o coppe . In he Chisokone-Ma ke , he
second bigges ma ke in Zambia, cen al go e nmen al au ho i ies
ha e no been able o p o ide adequa e ins i u ional and logis ic
suppo o he SMEs o ope a e e ec i ely. In consequence, local
ma ke associa ion leade s wi h powe and in o ma ion ake
ad an age o he weak na ional ins i u ions o p omo e hei SMEs,
and assume con ol o all ac i i ies o he ma ke , managing i o sui
hei pe sonal and espec i e associa ional in e es s. Usually, he
less powe ul en ep eneu s a e he lose s. Felix sugges s in his
con ibu ion ha he kind o s a egies success ul SMEs employ o
o e come he challenges he e a ic coppe p ices pose o hei
businesses, in he ace o he weaknesses o he cen al s a e, a e
s ill o expend in u u e. How his expansion un olds o impac on
SMEs as well as on coppe p ices emain issues o u he esea ch.
Su ice i o say ha local en ep eneu s ha e been able o manage
he weaknesses o he s a e o p o ide conduci e condi ions o hei
own ade. Thus, Felix’s pape a i ms ha local people ha e hei
own ways o li e, and may d aw on global o ces o enhance hei
li elihoods.

BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
6
Re e ences
A ce, A. and N. Long (1992) ‘The dynamics o knowledge: In e aces
be ween bu eauc a s and peasan s’ in N. Long, and A. Long,
(eds), Ba le ields o knowledge. The in e locking o heo y and
p ac ice in social esea ch and de elopmen . London: Rou ldege.
Binsbe gen, W. an, R. an, Dijk, and J.B. Gewald (eds) (2004)
Si ua ing globali y: A ican agency in he app op ia ion o global
cul u e. Leiden, Bos on: B ill.
B uijn, M. E. de, R. an, Dijk, and J.B. Gewald, (eds) (2007) S eng h
beyond s uc u e: social and his o ical ajec o ies o agency in
A ica. Leiden: B ill.
Long, N (2001). De elopmen sociology: ac o pe spec i es. London,
New Yo k: Rou ledge.
G illo, R. D. and R. L. S i a (eds) (1997) Discou ses o
de elopmen : an h opological pe spec i es. Ox o d: Be g.
Maz ui, A. A. (2005) ‘The e-in en ion o A ica: Edwa d Said, V. Y.
Mudimbe, and beyond’, Resea ch in A ican Li e a u es 36(3):
68-82.
Mudimbe, V. Y. (1988) The in en ion o A ica: gnosis, philosophy,
and he o de o knowledge. Blooming on and Indianapolis:
Indiana Uni e si y P ess.
Ros ow W. W. (1971) Poli ics and he s ages o g ow h. Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
7
F om illegal squa e se lemen owa ds legal shan y owns:
nego ia ions o powe and esponsibili ies in Kha oum
shan y owns
Mohamed A.G. Bakhi
2
Abs ac
The a icle in ends o in es iga e how social se ices and
de elopmen p og ammes in shan y own a eas ha e been designed
and implemen ed in a e y speci ic way by he h ee ac o s in ol ed
(local people, NGOs and local go e nmen ). Also, i examines he
pe cep ions and ideologies behind he pa icula selec ion o social
se ices and who ac ually de e mines he p io i ies and akes on he
esponsibili ies in ol ed. The discussion in he pape uses Elba aka
shan y own (loca ed in he sou h-eas o Kha oum, he capi al o
Sudan) as an example o unco e his complica ed p ocess.
Keywo ds: shan y owns, local communi y, go e nmen , NGOs,
agency.
In oduc ion
Despi e i s ichness in esou ces, Sudan like many o he coun ies in
sub-Saha an A ica has wi nessed many yea s o poli ical ins abili y
and ci il wa s since i s independence in 1956. The coun y has also
su e ed om many o he p olonged p oblems like e hnic con lic s,
high a es o po e y, as popula ion displacemen , he unequal
dis ibu ion o social se ices, immense le els o immig a ion, many
kinds o en i onmen al disas e s and poo quali y o go e nmen
se ices (educa ion, heal hca e, as well as low achie emen s in
go e nmen ali y and ule o law).
Indeed abou 13.5 pe cen
3
o he o al popula ions o Sudan
cu en ly li e in he capi al Kha oum. Mig an s o he capi al ci y o
Kha oum come om all pa s o Sudan, due o i s concen a ion o
se ices and economic g ow h. The i s wa es o mig an s a i ed in
he capi al in he pe iod om1960-70. These we e economic
2
Mohamed A.G. Bakhi is an An h opologis and lec u e in he Depa men o
Sociology and Social An h opology, Uni e si y o Kha oum, Sudan. His main esea ch
in e es s a e iden i y change, u baniza ion, mino i y g oups and mig a ion. Cu en ly, he
is pu suing his PhD p ojec in he Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o A ican
S udies (BIGSAS). His hesis examines he iden i y cons uc ion and di e en li es yles
o he Elba aka shan y own communi y, which is shaped la gely by gene a ional
a ia ions, u al-u ban dispa i y, and cul u al di e ences be ween Kha oum ci y and
local people’s home a eas in sou h and wes e n Sudan.
3
S a is ical Yea Book o he Yea 2009, Cen al Bu eau o S a is ics, Republic o
Sudan.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
8
mig an s, and he majo i y o hem o igina ed om he no he n pa s
o he coun y, sea ching o employmen in he newly es ablished
comme cial and indus ial sec o s in he capi al. Mo eo e he
majo i y we e educa ed, as only 23 pe cen o all mig an s o
Kha oum aged 20-24 yea s in 1971 lacked any o m o educa ion
(Galal-aldin 1980). The majo i y chose o li e a he pe iphe y, o in
small illages nea he ci y’s bounda ies, un il hese we e g adually
swallowed up by he u ban a ea. Bu he s a is ics show ha a small
numbe also came om a eas in wes e n and sou he n Sudan
(be ween 5 and 8 pe cen ) o wo k as unskilled wo ke s, and hey
li ed nea he indus ial zones in illegal squa e se lemen s. La e on
he go e nmen , unde p essu e om local esiden s, e acua ed
hem and planned new, legal ou h-class se lemen s on he ou ski s
o he ci y. These o med he nuclei o he p esen shan y owns.
The second wa e o mig an s a i ed du ing 1980-2000, pushed by
he ci il wa in he sou h and e hnic con lic s in Da u , and d ough
and dese i ica ion in wes e n Sudan. Abou wo million people we e
displaced om hei o iginal a eas and eloca ed in he capi al ci y.
They li ed in di e en a eas, some on any acan land inside he ci y,
o he s p e e ed o se le a he pe iphe y o he ci y, nea old legal
shan y owns, bu he majo i y o hem inhabi ed squa e se lemen s.
One s udy es ima es he numbe o illegal squa e se lemen s in
Kha oum in 1991 as mo e han i y se lemen s, occupied by abou
1.5 million IDPs (Banaga 2001).
Agency and powe in shan y owns
In he shan y own a eas he e a e h ee agen s (i.e. local people,
go e nmen and NGOs) ac ing in he same sphe e. Al hough
ul ima ely hei ob ious pu pose is o se e he local people o
shan y owns and p o ide hem wi h he se ices and de elopmen
p og ammes hey equi e, each agen has i s own unique cha ac e
and speci ic ideology, which means ha hey ac di e en ly in o de
o achie e hei espec i e p io i ies. Fu he mo e, o be success ul
hey a e obliged o nego ia e and sha e hei powe and
esponsibili y. Mo eo e , each one o he h ee agen s has speci ic
cou se o his o ical de elopmen and esou ces; he e o e clashes
and dispu es a e likely o happen as unila e al successes and
achie emen s occu .
‘Agency’ in his pape s ands o he eedom o he con ingen ly
ac ing subjec o e and agains he cons ain s ha a e hough o
de i e om endu ing social s uc u es (Loyal and Ba y 2001).
Human beings ha e agency, i.e. hey ac independen ly o , and in
opposi ion o, s uc u al cons ain s, and hus a e able o e-cons uc
social s uc u e h ough hei eely chosen ac ions. This concep o
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an agen ies agency di ec ly o powe . An ‘ac ing agains he
cons ain s’ (Loyal and Ba y 2001) p e-supposes being able o
in e ene in you communi y, o o e ain om such in e en ion, wi h
he an icipa ed e ec o in luencing a speci ic p ocess o s a e o
a ai s. Ac ion depends la gely upon he capabili y o he
indi idual/g oup o ‘make a di e ence’ o a p e-exis ing s a e o
s uc u es o cou se o e en s. An agen ceases o be such i he/she
o hey lose he abili y o ‘make a di e ence’, i.e. exe cise some so
o powe .
Mike Da is’s book Plane o Slums is conside ed one o he mos
impo an e e ences in slum s udies. I e iewed he mos signi ican
app oaches and policies dealing wi h he h ee ac o s: slum
popula ion, go e nmen s, and he in e na ional dono s. He concludes
his book by asse ing ha ‘ he oo cause o u ban slumming seems
o lie no in u ban po e y bu in u ban weal h’ (Da is 2006). He s a s
wi h blaming he ole o he IMF and he Wo ld Bank in imposing
inancial egula ion upon he Thi d Wo ld coun ies, which led o
ag icul u al de egula ion and inancial discipline, which in u n pushed
huge numbe s o u al labou o u ban slums e en as ci ies ceased o
c ea e new jobs. He also blames he new app oach o he la e 1970s
and ea ly 1980s manda e ha he s a e depend upon in e na ional
dono s, hen, NGOs. This app oach in luenced by he ideas o he
English a chi ec John Tu ne , s essed a si es-and-se ices
p o ision o basic in as uc u e o help a ionalize and upg ade sel -
help housing. The pu pose was o make housing a o dable o low-
income households wi hou he paymen s o subsidies in con as o
he hea ily subsidised public-housing app oach, amids g ea
p opaganda abou ‘helping he poo help hemsel es’ (Da is 2006).
Howe e , Mike Da is c i icised his app oach as i pa es he way o
a wi hd awal o s a e and local go e nmen in e en ion and suppo
o slum dwelle s, and pu s hem a he isk o ma ke luc ua ions.
The au ho also c i icised he ecen app oach o He nando de So o
(Da is 2006), a Pe u ian businessman who became an expe in he
neo-libe alism app oach in he 1990s. De So o asse ed ha Thi d
Wo ld ci ies a e no so much in need o in es men and jobs as
su e ing om he sho age o p ope y igh s. The slum dwelle s, he
a gues, a e in ac weal hy, bu hey a e unable o access hei
weal h, because hey do no ha e imp o ed eal es a e in he
in o mal sec o , o could no u n eal es a e in o liquid capi al
because hey do no possess o mal p ope y i les. Ti ling, de So o
claims, would ins an ly c ea e massi e equi y wi h li le o no cos o
go e nmen . Pa o his new weal h, he sugges s, would supply
capi al o c edi -s a ed mic o-en ep eneu s o c ea e new jobs in
he slums, and shan y owns would hen become ‘ac es o diamonds’.
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Bu Mike Da is also made an impo an c i ique he e by poin ing o
he ac ha i ling accele a es social di e en ia ion in he slums and
does no hing o aid en e s, he ac ual majo i y o he poo in many
ci ies. I e en isks c ea ing a la ge unde class popula ion ha is
denied access o any o m o a o dable o accep able housing.
Finally, he c i icised he na ional eli es o c ea ing pa e ns o land
use and popula ion densi y which ecapi ula ed he olde logic o
colonial opp ession and acial dominance. He no iced ha h oughou
Thi d Wo ld ci ies, pos colonial eli es ha e inhe i ed and g eedily
ep oduced he physical oo p in s o seg ega ed colonial ci ies.
Despi e he he o ic o na ional libe a ion and social jus ice, na ional
eli es ha e agg essi ely adap ed he acial zoning o he colonial
pe iods o de end hei own class p i ileges and spa ial exclusi i y,
he poo u al popula ion eplacing he o me na i es o he colonies.
In gene al, he posi ion o local people in he shan y owns is a e y
c i ical one; hey a e he subjec s o he se ices and de elopmen ,
bu s ill an agen esponsible o p o iding hem. Indeed, his double
ole is some imes con using e en o local people hemsel es.
Con ibu ing o his is he exis ence o o he agen s also pa icipa ing
in his endea ou , sha ing in he decision-making and he alloca ion
o esou ces. Local people a e o en obliged o ac di e en ly in
speci ic si ua ions as decisions make s and p o ide s, when hey
depend on hei esou ces, in o he si ua ions as ecipien s and
dependen s, when he go e nmen o NGOs design and p o ide he
se ices and de elopmen al p ojec s in ques ion. In o de o
in es iga e he ela ions be ween he h ee agen s and he p o ision
o se ices and de elopmen p og ammes, i is necessa y o explo e
he s ages o de elopmen and change which ha e aken place in he
Elba aka shan y own in an his o ical o de .
The s age o squa e se lemen
The i s s age o Elba aka squa e se lemen ex ended om he la e
1970s un il he planning o he a ea in 1992. People li ed on he
basis o e hnic encla es; e e y e hnic g oup ha ing i s
neighbou hood uled by an e hnic g oup leade (sul an), some o
hem appoin ed by local people and app o ed by hei chie s in he
a eas o o igin, o he s appoin ed by hemsel es o only by hei close
ela i es.
4
I depended on whe he he sys em o he espec i e
e hnic g oup was cen alised (e.g.Shilluk) o segmen a y (e.g. Dinka).
A ha ime, ela ions be ween e hnic encla es we e cha ac e ised by
ensions and clashes, which we e sol ed pa ially a e he o ma ion
o a ibal leade s’ council. This council also deal wi h dispu es
4
In e iew wi h Sul an William, Elba aka shan y own, Kha oum, 15 Augus 2010.

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be ween indi iduals o di e en e hnic backg ounds. Se ices and
secu i y we e p o ided by he NGOs and he people hemsel es.
Heal h cen es, wa e wells and ood assis ance we e p o ided by
many in e na ional NGOs. Meanwhile, secu i y was o ganised by he
people hemsel es, albei in a a he chao ic way, which ga e he
a ea i s epu a ion o c iminali y. Ka un Kassala – he o me name
o he a ea – was associa ed wi h d ug dealing, illegal local alcohol
dis ibu ion, p os i u ion, and he . Tha migh ha e been one eason
o he eage ness o he local people o plan and legalise hei
se lemen . To make ma e s wo se, he go e nmen ook on a
des uc i e ole in he squa e se lemen , conside ing i an illegal
o m o se lemen , and indeed on se e al occasions des oying
whole a eas, in pu suing wha can be called i s ‘demolish-legalise’
policy. This policy always ended owa d legalising some se lemen s
by planning o upg ading hem, usually in emo e a eas, and owa d
demolishing he squa e se lemen s loca ed nea he cen e, o in
eal es a e a eas o high alue.
In 1988, he capi al Kha oum was inunda ed by loods and hea y
ains, causing he wholesale des uc ion o he shan y owns, since
hey we e cons uc ed o only mud and ca dboa d. As is usual unde
such disas e ci cums ances he poo e sec ions o socie y su e ed
mos . Such people ended o li e in mud houses and 82 pe cen
(Da ies and Walsh 1997) o he damaged and des oyed houses
we e buil using hese ma e ials. Those a ec ed mo ed o a nea by
new ma ke and ook shel e in i s emp y shops. Meanwhile he
go e nmen ep esen ed by he P ime Minis e e used o isi he
a ea,
5
unlike o he nea by legal shan y owns, because i was no
legally conside ed a pa o he ci y.
The s age o planning
Ini ial con ac be ween local people and he go e nmen was
es ablished du ing his phase, implying ecogni ion by he
go e nmen o shan y own se le s as pa o he capi al ci y. Local
people ag eed o pa icipa e e ec i ely in he planning measu es,
because hey had obse ed he bene i o planning in neighbou ing
a eas. This pa icipa ion included he selec ion o expe s (e ee ),
local indi iduals who helped he planning bu eauc a s di ec ly, and
local commi ees who con ibu ed by in o ming he whole communi y
abou he p ocedu e o legalising hei homes. In ac , he
bu eauc a ic p ocedu es o legalising land owne ship included
se e al s eps such as egis a ion, in es iga ion, p o iding
documen s, and paying he ees. I was e y complica ed o he
5
In e iew wi h Saymon Ushan Ding, in 21 Ma ch 2009, Elba aka.
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majo i y o people, bu i ep esen ed a i s s ep owa ds in eg a ing
hem in ci y li e, a s yle o li e cha ac e ised by placing mo e us in
‘pape wo k’ han ‘in o mal ( e bal) ag eemen s’.
P olonged nego ia ions ook place be ween local commi ees and he
go e nmen abou how many amilies had he igh o se le in he
a ea, and consequen ly abou he size o each house in he a ea.
Today di e ences s ill exis be ween he size o houses in he a ious
qua e s, o example, qua e No.2 has he smalles alloca ed space
pe house (217 m²) because he majo i y o inhabi an s we e om he
same e hnic g oup (Fu ). They wan ed as many people as possible o
se le oge he , and did no wan membe s o hei e hnic g oup o
dispe se o o he qua e s. As o he planning au ho i y, i was
ob ious ha hey we e conce ned mainly wi h e-s uc u ing he a ea
o be mo e o ganised physically, meaning ha in he nego ia ions
hey did no in e ene on he makeup o he popula ion o i s
dis ibu ion. Ins ead, hey le all hose issues in he hands o he local
commi ees and he people, which ga e he local popula ion a sense
o being pa icipan s, and local commi ees he eeling o being
decision make s a he han me ely ecipien s.
The s age o planning ex ended o abou wo yea s (1992-1994). I
included opening new s ee s, c ea ing new open spaces, e acua ing
‘non-eligible’ inhabi an s o ced o lea e, and e-loca ing o he eligible
se le s o new houses. All o hose hings happened wi h he
pa icipa ion o expe s and local commi ees oge he wi h planning
o icials. I was he i s eal in e ac ion be ween he wo agen s,
in e ac ion ha included nego ia ions and sha ing o esponsibili ies;
i was he i s ime he local people el ha hei collec i e agency
could make a di e ence.
Again he planning s age does ep esen he inclusion o shan y own
people in he o mal ci y bounda ies in o icial o legal e ms; howe e
i is clea ha he balance o powe emained in a ou o he
go e nmen . In e ec , planning ga e legali y o shan y own
se lemen s bu p ese ed he s a us quo hie a chy o he u ban
se ing. In ac , he planning s age ga e he low s a us o shan y own
se le s i s legi imacy and ins i u ional dimension.
The s age o planned se lemen
When he planning s age was o e , a new eali y began o eme ge.
The local commi ees became he o icial ep esen a i es o local
people, no only because o hei ole in planning, bu also in
p o iding he mos needed se ices such as wa e , elec ici y, e c.
Con e sely, he posi ion o ibal leade s was weakened; i was
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es ic ed only o pe sonal issues and e en his depended on he
acquiescence o he indi iduals.
The popula ion in Elba aka s ands a abou 38,580 people (Na ional
Census 2008), which ep esen s abou 75.5 pe cen o he o al
popula ion o Elba aka in 1993 acco ding o he Na ional Census
(1993). This decline is a di ec esul o he upg ading o he a ea in
1994. Howe e , shan y owns a e s ill he mos densely popula ed
a eas in he capi al ci y, la gely because he a e age house size in
hi d class a eas – he lowes g ade o he middle class a eas – is
abou 360-400 m². In addi ion, shan y owns gene ally accommoda e
mo e han one amily pe house as a esul o he low-income jobs
a ailable o inhabi an s.
The ole o he NGOs also diminished conside ably unde he
p essu e o he go e nmen , which accused NGOs o implemen ing
o eign agendas. This was la gely a p oduc o he A abic-Islamic
ideology o he go e nmen a e he Islamic mo emen pa y ook
powe in 1989. Rema kably, he i s ac ion ini ia ed by he
go e nmen a e planning was o change he name o he a ea o
‘Elba aka’,
6
an Islamic name deno ing clea ly he go e nmen ’s ision
o he a ea. People meanwhile es ablished mo e ela ions wi h o he
shan y owns, especially hei ‘co e a ea’; imp essi e pe manen
houses appea ed and shops packed wi h di e se goods. A huge
change came wi h he in oduc ion o elec ici y (2007). Al hough
be o e ha people used p i a e gene a o s o ligh ing a nigh , wi h
elec ici y connec ion, people had hei i s as e o a di e en u ban
li e wi h an eno mous a ay o elec onic de ices becoming
accessible.
All schools we e ans e ed in o he managemen o he go e nmen
(i.e. 10 schools), excep o one belonging o he Ca holic Chu ch.
Besides hese, a g owing numbe o p i a e schools sp ang up, un
by he educa ed young gene a ion. O he membe s o his young
gene a ion bo n and aised in he a ea s a ed o engage in luc a i e
economic ac i i ies inside and ou side he a ea, such as d i ing
ickshaws. Meanwhile, la ge numbe s o hei pee s we e wo king in
go e nmen ins i u ions in he lowe anks, in he police se ice and
he a my. The NGOs also con inued hei e o s in he ield o
heal hca e, as he e was no medical cen e in he a ea unded by he
go e nmen , while some NGOs suppo ed small de elopmen al
p og ammes h ough local pa ne s.
6
Holy blessing in A abic, gene ally used in eligious con ex s.
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Di e en pe cep ions o se ices and esponsibili ies
The h ee agen s di e in he manne and pu pose in which hey
p o ide se ices o he shan y own’s people. These di e ences a e
he esul o he di e se pe cep ions and unde s anding o he
cha ac e o local people and he na u e o he a ea. Meanwhile, local
people’s pe cep ion is hea ily in luenced by hei backg ounds and
ideology, speci ically by hei u al backg ound and u ban aspi a ions,
which shape hei pe cep ions and p io i ies owa d se ices. A he
same ime he go e nmen o icials ha e been mo i a ed by a
di e en pe cep ion, again a ising om hei middle class backg ound
and hei li ing in o he pa s o he ci y, so hei p io i ies di e ge
om hose o he o he wo agen s. NGOs’ conce ns a e mo i a ed
by hei wes e n expe iences o humani a ian wo ks, which in luences
hei designs and unding o se ices and de elopmen p ojec s.
The issue o go e nmen -local people ela ions in wo ldwide slums
was he ocus o an impo an epo w i en by one o he UN-
agencies. The Challenge o Slums: Global Repo on Human
Se lemen s 2003, ep esen s he i s global assessmen o slums by
an in e na ional NGO. The epo p o es ha slum dwelle s
inc eased subs an ially du ing he 1990s (UN 2003). I is u he
p ojec ed ha in he nex 30 yea s, he global numbe o slum
dwelle s will inc ease o abou 2 billion, while u ban popula ion in less
de eloped egions has inc eased by 36 pe cen in he las decade.
Adap ing an op imis ic a i ude, he epo p aises go e nmen al
app oaches o dealing wi h slums, desc ibing hem as a shi om
nega i e policies such as o ced e ic ion, neglec and in olun a y
ese lemen , o mo e posi i e policies such as sel -help and
upg ading, acili a ing and igh s-based policies. The epo
sugges ed ha in o mal se lemen s, whe e mos o he u ban poo in
de eloping coun ies li e, a e inc easingly seen by public decision-
make s as places o oppo uni y, as ‘slums o hope’ a he han
‘slums o despai ’. Fu he mo e, he epo s essed ha o encoun e
he challenge o slums, u ban de elopmen policies should add ess
he issue o li elihoods o slum dwelle s and u ban po e y in
gene al, hus going beyond adi ional app oaches ha ha e ended
o concen a e on imp o emen o housing, in as uc u e and
physical en i onmen al condi ions.
The epo also discussed app oaches o dealing wi h slums, and
conside ed ha slum upg ading is among he mos impo an
s a egies, ecei ing g ea e emphasis in ecen yea s, hough
upg ading is only one solu ion among se e al o he s. The ailu e o
pas slum upg ading and low-income housing de elopmen has, o a
la ge ex en , been a esul o inadequa e alloca ion o esou ces, he
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
21
Loyal, S. and B. Ba nes (2001) ‘Agency as a ed he ing in social
heo y’, Philosophy o he Social Sciences 31: 507-524.
Mange , L. O. (ed) (1987) Communal labou in he Sudan. Be gen:
Uni e si y o Be gen.
Njoh, A. J. (2009) ‘Ideology and public heal h elemen s o human
se lemen policies in sub-Saha an A ica’, Ci ies 26: 9-18.
Uni ed Na ions Human Se lemen s P og am (2003) The challenge o
slums: global epo on human se lemen . London: Ea hscan
Publica ions.

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Opposing he De elopmen al S a e online: how do Sou h
A icans make use o online pla o ms o challenge
go e nmen ’s mac oeconomic s a egies?
I ina Tu ne
10
Abs ac
The pe o mance o a na ion is measu ed by inancial indices like he
g oss na ional p oduc (GNP) and de elopmen s a is ics like he
Human De elopmen Index (HDI) aking dimensions like mo ali y
a e, s anda d o educa ion o income pe capi a in o accoun .
Whe he he de elopmen o hese igu es is posi i e o nega i e is
de e mined in compa ison o o he na ions. Howe e , well-being in
e ms o spi i uali y, social ela ionships, e hical alues e c. is no
conside ed. In global discou se (Fai clough 2006) i assumed ha
ma e ial weal h makes o happie people and he e o e economic
g ow h is he mos impo an ea u e o os e de elopmen . A
na ion’s o icial sel -assessmen and in e p e a ion o hese igu es is
collec i ely u e ed by poli icians channelled o he ou side wo ld
h ough he p esiden as he epi ome o o icial na ion’s
ep esen a ion. S a e-o - he-na ion speeches se e as a condensed
peak o a na ion’s sel -e alua ion. This mains eamed gene aliza ion
howe e , canno e lec he quali a i e o subjec i ely expe ienced
pe cep ion o changing li e o indi idual ci izens. The new social
media Facebook and Twi e as well as he possibili y o online
ci izens o pos hei commen s on blogs is a way o exp ession
de ia ing opinions om he collec i e oice o go e nmen . On he
example o Sou h A ica’s ecen his o y, his a icle con as s he
o icial go e nmen ’s e sion o de elopmen e iden in he-s a e- o -
he-na ion speeches wi h people’s eal-li e expe iences u e ed
online. A c i ical discou se analysis (Blommae 2006) o ou s a e-
o - he-na ion speeches by Sou h A ican p esiden Jacob Zuma
(2009-2012) compa ed o selec ed pos ings on Facebook, Twi e
10
D . des. I ina Tu ne is a quali ied A s Manage (Po sdam Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, Ge many) and holds a M.A. deg ee in Media Theo y and P ac ice om
he Uni e si y o Cape Town, Sou h A ica. In summe 2013, she inished he o-
be-published PhD p ojec on Poli ical Discou se in pos -apa heid Sou h A ica a
he Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS), Bay eu h
Uni e si y, Ge many. He esea ch in e es lies in in e disciplina y app oaches o
Cul u al S udies, Media S udies and Applied Linguis ics in explo ing ques ions o
communica ion p ac ices and language change in A ica. Besides ha ing wo ked in
Adminis a ion and Human Resou ces o he academic, public, and p i a e sec o
in Ge many and Sou h A ica, I ina is also an expe ienced u o o Media S udies
and cu en ly lec u es Media and P esen a ion skills a he chai o A ican
Language S udies a Bay eu h Uni e si y.
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and Newspape -Commen -Blogs, allows o an assessmen o he
gap be ween o icial he o ic and people’s eal li e expe iences.
Keywo ds: new media, con es a ions, de elopmen policy, Sou h
A ica.
Is Sou h A ican democ acy escaping o he in e ne ?
The annual S a e-o - he-Na ion-Add ess (SoNA)
11
deli e ed a he
Opening o Pa liamen holds a pi o al posi ion in communica ing he
Sou h A ican go e nmen ’s mac oeconomic agenda and poli ical
ision o he media and he public. The cu en SoNA discou se is
domina ed by ans o ming Sou h A ica in o a so-called
De elopmen al S a e ia he ision o he New G ow h Pa h (NGP),
which ies o ec i y he e e inc easing dispa i y be ween ich and
poo h ough s a egic s a e in e en ion in he economy. Al hough
he speech ep esen s he ‘S a e o he Na ion’ and speaks on behal
o i om a poli ical pe spec i e, he o icial go e nmen e sion does
no necessa ily e lec he pe cep ions and expe iences o indi idual
ci izens. The SoNA is adi ionally a sui able occasion o espond o
and challenge he o icial mains eamed e sion o he ‘S a e o he
Na ion’.
Compa ed o he apa heid e a, Sou h A icans seemingly enjoy g ea
eedoms – online and o line – in exp essing hei opinions and
di ec ing hei iews abou and owa ds go e nmen . Upon close
inspec ion, howe e , he coun y is cu en ly expe iencing a
p esidency ha appea s o open a enues o public pa icipa ion ia
social media and o he pla o ms,
12
while a he same ime legally
es ic ing he dissemina ion o in o ma ion,
13
supp essing eedom o
speech and some imes iolen ly ep essing opposi ional oices o
p o es e s (c . Duncan 20 Augus 2012; see also Van Rensbu g
2012: 96).
The possibili y o pos iews and commen s on New Media pla o ms
like blogs, social ne wo ks o in commen sec ions o online
newspape s opens ela i ely sa e ways o exchanging and
11
The Sou h A ican S a e-o - he-Na ion-Add ess (SoNA) is held by he P esiden a
he Opening o Pa liamen in Cape Town in Feb ua y each yea o a join si ing o
Pa liamen and ‘ma ks he o mal beginning o he pa liamen a y e m’ (Pa liamen o
RSA 2004: 97).
12
Fo ins ance, a p esiden ial ho line ecei ing se ice deli e y complain s (GCIS 2
May 2013).
13
Fo ins ance, he P o ec ion o In o ma ion Bill, also called ‘Sec ecy Bill’ enables
go e nmen o icials o classi y con en ious in o ma ion (see n.a. Mail & Gua dian
Online 14 June 2012; also R2K Campaign 18 Feb ua y 2013).
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exp essing de ia ing opinions om he collec i e oice o
go e nmen o ecipien s o news wi h con en p oduce s and pee -
audiences.
In an applica ion o C i ical Discou se Analysis (Blommae 2006),
his a icle con as s Sou h A ica’s o icial go e nmen e sion o he
De elopmen al S a e and i s ision b and he New G ow h Pa h wi h
people’s iews exp essed online. I seeks o ske ch answe s o he
cu en ly p essing ques ion o whe he social media ou le s a e used
poli ically by Sou h A icans in o de o challenge hegemonic no ions
o de elopmen and whe he online pla o ms can p o ide a ool o
main aining o e en expanding on he cu en le el o eedom o
exp ession in Sou h A ica.
A e ou lining he ela ionship be ween media use and democ acy
wi h a ocus on Sou h A ica, he Sou h A ican no ion o he
De elopmen al S a e is explo ed om a ious pe spec i es.
Examples om h ee di e en online o ma s esponding o he 2012
SoNA and he no ion o he De elopmen al S a e gi e insigh in o he
gap be ween o icial he o ic and people’s expe iences: i s ,
commen s o an online newspape a icle (Mail & Gua dian Online 9
Feb ua y 2012); second, h ee blogs and hei commen s on he
online pla o m Though leade (Gumede 9 July 2008; Saunde son-
Meye 11 Feb ua y 2012; Po gie e 12 June 2012); and hi d,
pos ings on he day o he SoNA on he P esiden ’s Facebook page
(The P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012).
Democ a isa ion and he New Media in Sou h A ica
As he Sou h A ica case p o es, democ a isa ion is no only he
ansi ion om an au ho i a ian o a democ a ic socie y, bu also
implies i s s abili y and sus ainabili y. Democ acy is sus ained by a
balance o o e s o he ule s and demands o he uled (Nisbe e al.
2012: 250). Ci izens’ demands a e exp essed h ough poli ical
pa icipa ion, e.g., elec ions and public exp essions in he p ess o
o he o ma s (ibid.). Campbell and Kwak a gue ha poli ical deba e
is he ‘ undamen al building block o pa icipa o y democ acy’
because h ough alk people o e come unce ain y, es ablish
cohe ence o hei pe cei ed eali y and il e ele an in o ma ion
(2001: 1007).
14
The Habe masian model o Delibe a ions in he
Public Sphe e, whe eby – simply pu – poli ical consensus is eached
h ough exchange o ideas in a space be ween he people and he
14
Also a gued by Ka z (1994); Pan, Shen, Paek, & Sun (2006) (in Campbell
& Kwak, 2011: 1007).
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s a e, lends i sel ideally as a me apho o he In e ne
15
(see e.g.,
Van Rensbu g 2012: 99).
Schola s a e o wo minds when i comes o he In e ne ’s posi i e
e ec on democ a isa ion and poli ical educa ion.
16
Some sugges he
In e ne has ‘a e y limi ed ole in p omo ing democ a ic ci izenship’
(Ha dy and Scheu ele, 2005: 73)
17
. An Ame ican based s udy by Hill
and Hughes ound ha mos cha oom deba es a e conce ned wi h
e en s and pe sonali ies a he han wi h poli ical issues and a e
domina ed by ‘no ma i e s a emen s ha equi e li le e iden ial
backing’ (1998: 118 in Ha dy and Scheu ele 2005: 75). Fu he mo e,
Ge gen (2008), Suns ein (2001) and Mu z (2002) eason ha use s
end o selec con en cohe en wi h hei wo ld iew and mee pee s
online who, in a ype o ‘echo chambe ’ (Suns ein 2001), esona e
exis ing poli ical opinions (in Campbell and Kwak 2001: 1010/1018).
O he s a gue ha a highe In e ne pene a ion inc eases indices o
democ acy (Bes and Wade 2009; G oshek 2009; Howa d 2009 in
Nisbe e al. 2012: 251).
Whe he u ilised o no , he In e ne po en ially p o ides ea u es
known o enhance he le el o democ a ic ci izenship like plu alism o
opinion and poli ical knowledge (Nisbe e al. 2012: 252). Especially
he possibili y o in e ac i e exchange o ideologies, news, agendas
and expe iences can os e democ a ic awa eness and poli ical
ac i a ion om ‘ he bo om up’ (Nisbe e al. 2012: 252; see also
Ha dy and Scheu ele 2005: 74 and Van Rensbu g 2012: 94).
In e pe sonal discussion, ei he online o o line,
18
mode a es he
poli ical inpu by he media, leads o di e en ial lea ning and mo e
s a egic in o ma ion ga he ing, and migh esul in indi idual ac ion
(Ha dy and Scheu ele 2005: 72/73/80). Ha dy and Scheu ele a gue
based on Habe mas (1962) ha poli ical decision making is no
15
Fo a de ailed elabo a ion on he ela ion be ween Habe mas’ heo y and he
In e ne , see Dalhbe g (2001), Heng e al. (2003).
16
Fo u he s udies on he e ec o he In e ne on democ a isa ion see G oshek
(2009); Howa d (2009); Mozo o (2011); Shi ky (2011) (ci ed by Nisbe e al.
2012: 249).
17
Ha dy & Scheu ele a gue ha eliabili y o online in o ma ion is mo e lawed
compa ed o adi ional media; exace ba ed by he ‘nonlinea na u e o his
medium’ and i s ‘ uzzy layou ’ making di e en ia ion be ween ha d and so news
mo e di icul (2005: 74/80). Nisbe e al. poin ou ha he ela ionship be ween
In e ne pene a ion and democ a isa ion depends on con ex ual ac o s (2012:
253).
18
Ha dy & Scheu ele ound ha in e ms o he mode a ing e ec h ough pee deba e
he e is no di e ence be ween online and o line, i.e., o ace- o- ace discussion
(2005: 72/73; 81).
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me ely a esul o accumula ing in o ma ion bu ha ‘ he delibe a i e
aspec is c i ical in his p ocess because i allows ci izens o weigh all
di e en iewpoin s and in eg a e hem in o hei inal
decision’(2005: 80).
19
Unlike mos o he a ailable schola ship,
20
Nisbe e al. also looked a
he e ec s o In e ne use on poli ical ac i i y in de eloping coun ies
and conclude ha ‘In e ne use may play a mo e meaning ul ole in
s eng hening and enhancing young democ acies h ough impac ing
ci izen a i udes a he han p omo ing ou igh democ a ic ansi ions
among au oc a ic egimes’ (2012: 261).
One o he ew s udies examining he e ec o he In e ne on
democ a iza ion in Sou h A ica is p o ided by Van Rensbu g (2012).
She a gues ha he In e ne holds g ea po en ial o A icans o
s eng hen hei igh o sel -de e mina ion a e decades o colonial
and pos -colonial supp ession (2012: 94 based on O and Rosse
1999: 137). Many in o ma ion se ices p o ided by he Sou h A ican
go e nmen in pa icula , e.g., Ma ic esul s, heal h in o ma ion,
ese a ion o bus icke s e c., a e a ailable online ia mobile phones
(Van Rensbu g 2012: 105). This sugges s ha in Sou h A ica, he
In e ne is highly impo an o sus aining democ acy as long as a
su icien amoun o people ha e access o i .
In e ne use in Sou h A ica
In e ne access in sub-Saha an A ica is g owing apidly and was ou
imes highe in 2009 han in 2005 (Nisbe e al. 2012: 254). The lion’s
sha e o access poin s is in Sou h A ica, whe e in 2007, 15 pe cen
o adul s had access o he In e ne ia compu e (Gillwald and
S o ck 2008: 26 in Van Rensbu g 2012: 95). By 2011, his numbe
had al eady climbed o 17 pe cen o he popula ion (Wo ld Wide
Wo x in Samie 4 June 2012). Access he eby e e s o owne ship and
p oximi y (K eu ze 2009: 18). The e a e no cu en numbe s o
In e ne access ia mobile phone in Sou h A ica bu de elopmen s
sugges ha his numbe is e en highe han access ia PC
21
and
apidly g owing especially among you hs ( an Rensbu g 2012: 95).
22
19
Kwak e al. (2005) ound ha people a e mo e likely o pa icipa e in an online deba e
when hey a e in a small g oup wi h like-minded discussan s (in Campbell & Kwak
2011: 1009).
20
Fo ins ance, Bimbe (2003); No is (2000), Xenos & Moy (2007) (in Nisbe e al.
2012: 252).
21
In his s udy o he In e ne /mobile phone habi s o 441 u ban you hs (g ade 11
lea ne s) om dep i ed a eas o Cape Town, K eu ze ound ha ’68 pe cen o
esponden s we e ound o use he In e ne on a mobile phone on a ypical day’; he
mos a ou ed websi e had been Google (2009: 53). The mos equen ly used media

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The social media communi y in Sou h A ica is cu en ly g owing
abou 300 pe cen a yea ; whe eby 80 pe cen o he people wi h
online access a e ac i e in social media (Shie E News Channel 9
Feb ua y 2012). Despi e his g ow h, o e 80 pe cen o Sou h
A icans a e le wi h no access o he In e ne . A s udy compa ing 28
democ a ic and non-democ a ic coun ies om A ica and Asia ound
ha he numbe o b oadband use s in Sou h A ica, which was
classi ied as a ee coun y, was low in compa ison (Nisbe e al.
2012: 262). This is due o he ex emely high cos o In e ne access
and he monopoly o he se ice p o ide Telkom (Van Rensbu g
2012: 104). K eu ze , howe e , poin s ou ha access igu es do no
speak abou he in ensi y and a ie ies o usage o New Media
23
and
ha ‘owne ship o access o a ce ain echnology is a poo p edic o ’
o socioeconomic de elopmen pe se (K eu ze 2009: 19). An
inc ease in access poin s does no au oma ically lead o bene icial
educa ional e ec s o he use s o aise ‘ci ic engagemen and
social capi al’ pe se (2009: 20).
The indi idual’s mo i a ion o engagemen is equally impo an , as
Van Rensbu g a gues (2012: 99 . based on Van Dijk 2005: 21).
Mo i a ion is de e mined by he esou ces a ailable o he indi idual;
i.e., ma e ial esou ces, so wa e and ha dwa e o ins ance, social
esou ces, i.e., agen s who suppo lea ning and using he In e ne ,
and cogni i e esou ces, i.e., a cul u ally and in ellec ually s imula ing
en i onmen o make use o he In e ne (Van Rensbu g 2012: 100).
Van Rensbu g s a es ha despi e he economic hu dle, socio-cul u al
ba ie s also play an impo an ole in p e en ing Sou h A icans o
engage wi h he In e ne : ‘Lea ne s’ and s uden s’ lack o inclina ion
owa ds ma hema ics, science subjec s and adi ional cul u al
p ac ices lead hem away om using echnology, a p oblem speci ic
o Sou h A ica (Le in, pe sonal communica ion, 1 Decembe 2010)’
(2012: 108). She u he a gues ha his dis o ion can only be
ec i ied by go e nmen (Van Rensbu g 2012: 108). The s a e
ype o he sample g oup had been TV (81 pe cen had wa ched TV ‘yes e day’);
whe eas web access ia mobile phone o PC sco ed 56 pe cen (used ‘yes e day’)
(K eu ze 2009: 65). A su p isingly la ge g oup o he young people had ead a
newspape he p e ious day (56 pe cen ) (K eu ze 2009: 65). 13 pe cen had ead
he news on he p e ious day on a mobile de ice, and 9 pe cen on a PC (K eu ze
2009: 67).
22
Fo a s udy on he poli ically ac i a ing e ec s o mobile-based communica ion see
Campbell & Kwak (2011).
23
‘One excep ion is he igu es p o ided by he ma ke ing esea ch company Nielsen
Online, some o which a e egula ly published by he Sou h A ican Online Publishe s
Associa ion (OPA)’(K eu ze 2009: 15).
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in e en ions p oposed by he De elopmen al S a e migh be a s ep
in he igh di ec ion.
The De elopmen al S a e as a model o Sou h A ica
The e e -inc easing i be ween ich and poo in Sou h A ica since
he disman ling o apa heid, has u ged he go e nmen o ed ess
hei mac o-economic ou look in inding a balance be ween economic
g ow h and de elopmen needs o he poo (Rei zes 2009: 13).
Ma quis (2009) desc ibes he simul aneous exis ence o h ee
compe ing no ions o de elopmen wi hin Sou h A ica in poli ics and
he media (see also Banda 2008). The mode nis ic app oach, which
is cen ed on he ‘me apho o g ow h’, sees de elopmen as a ‘linea
and i e e sible p ocess’ whe eby unde de eloped coun ies should
imi a e de eloped coun ies (Ma quis 2009: 18). This app oach
o eg ounds ‘quan i a i e di e ences’ and ames unde de elopmen
as a esul o esis ing e o ms and new echnologies (Ma quis 2009:
18). In Sou h A ica, he shi o he neo-libe al concep G ow h,
Employmen and Redis ibu ion (GEAR; in oduced in 1996) can be
seen as an embodimen o a mode nis ic mac oeconomic s a egy
(Ma quis 2009: 18).
The second no ion o de elopmen is he dependency pa adigm
which eme ged in he 1960s (Ma quis 2009: 20). This no ion ga e up
on he idea ha unde de elopmen is sel -in lic ed bu acknowledged
he in luence o ex e nal ac o s and he in e dependence among
de eloped and unde de eloped coun ies (Ma quis 2009: 20). The
p oposed solu ion o unde de elopmen was a delinking om he
wo ld economy (Ma quis 2009: 20). In Sou h A ica, his pa adigm
has been mos ly e lec ed h ough he Redis ibu ion and
De elopmen P og amme (RDP; in oduced in 1994), which was a
change om he mode nis ic economic policies o he apa heid
egime (Ma quis 2009: 21).
In he 1970s, a mul idimensional app oach eme ged emphasising
no ions o endogenous and pa icipa o y sel -de elopmen (Ma quis
2009: 21). Ma quis sees his app oach mani es ed in Sou h A ica,
h ough he Millennium De elopmen Goals (MDG)
24
which we e he
basis o he policies o he De elopmen al S a e (2009: 17 .). By he
end o Mbeki’s i s enu e in 2004, i became clea ha bo h pos -
apa heid mac o-economic s a egies, he RDP and GEAR, had no
24
The a ge s we e o be achie ed by 2015 bu emained unspeci ic; e.g. ‘ensu ing
en i onmen al sus ainabili y’ (Le in 2008 in Rei zes 2009: 13). Fo he only quan i iable
goal o ‘hal ing po e y’, a de ini ion o po e y was lacking in Sou h A ica (see Rei zes
2009: 16; Oos huizen 2008).
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p oduced he desi ed esul s
25
(Thompson 2001: 281). The no ion o
he De elopmen al S a e as a hi d al e na i e became p oli ic bu
ini ially s ill emained ague and unspeci ied (Rei zes 2009: 12).
In May 2005, in a speech o he Na ional Assembly P esiden Thabo
Mbeki p onounced he new ou look o he i s ime and called o a
‘s ong s a e’ and mo e poli ical in e en ion:
On his occasion, he e lec ed upon he decline o he
“Washing on Consensus’, he ideas which had se he
s age o he educ ion o he ole o he s a e in he
‘de elopmen hinking’ o global bodies such as he
In e na ional Mone a y Fund and he Wo ld Bank
since he 1980s’ (Sou hall 2006: xx).
The shi , as Daniel e al. poin ou , was less a esul o looking back
a he ANC’s socialis oo s, bu mo e ac i e benchma king wi h
compa able coun ies such as he de elopmen al capi alis Asian
Tige s like Taiwan, Sou h Ko ea o Singapo e (2005: xx iii in Sou hall
2006: x ii). The Asian-s yle os e ed s a e’s p o ec ion and incen i es
o selec ed companies and ades; his p o ec ionis policy me he
scep icism o he Wo ld T ade O ganisa ion (Na as 2011: 2).
Compa ed o he Tige S a es, Sou h A ica had a ew dis inc ly
di e en pa ame e s ha would challenge he implemen a ion o an
‘Asian s yle’ De elopmen al S a e: a de iciency in human esou ce
capaci y, igh -kni embedmen in a globalis p oduc ion sys em, a
high le el o democ acy and public in ol emen , a low le el o social
cohe ence, as well as gene ally less ‘ a ou able and his o ical
indus ial condi ions’ (Sou hall 2006: x ii/xxxii/xli .).
In 2006, as a i s s ep owa ds he new model, he Mbeki
adminis a ion commi ed o he Millennium De elopmen Goals
(MDG), which we e ansla ed in o measu able na ional a ge s on
se ice deli e y
26
(Le in 2008 in Rei zes 2009: 13). A e he ide-
u ning Polokwane
27
con e ence in 2007, he go e ning pa y issued
25
In 2008, he go e nmen admi ed in a e iew ha economic g ow h does no
ickle down o he poo o au oma ically esul s in an easily accessible labou
ma ke o unskilled wo ke s (Sou h A ican P esidency 2008: 103 in Rei zes
2009: 16/17).
26
By 2007: e adica ion o he ‘bucke sys em’; by 2008: po able wa e p o ision o
2.07 million households; by 2010: sani a ion p o ision o 3.7 million households; by
2012: elec ici y p o ision o 3.4. million households (Le in 2008, 54-55 in Rei zes
2009: 13).
27
A he ANC’s 52 h na ional con e ence in Polokwane in Decembe 2007, Thabo
Mbeki was publicly humilia ed and e en ually go unce emoniously unsea ed as he
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a mo e p ecise de ini ion on he De elopmen al S a e including he
ollowing ea u es:
 ‘(…) s a egic o ien a ion: an app oach p emised on people-
cen ed and people-d i en change, and sus ained
de elopmen based on high g ow h a es, es uc u ing o he
economy and socioeconomic inclusion.
 (…) capaci y o lead in he de ini ion o a common
na ional agenda and in mobilising all o socie y o ake pa in
i s implemen a ion. (…)
 (…) o ganisa ional capaci y: ensu ing ha i s [ he s a e’s]
s uc u es and sys ems acili a e ealisa ion o a se agenda.
(…)
 (…) echnical capaci y: he abili y o ansla e b oad
objec i es in o p og ammes and p ojec s (…). This depends
among o he s on he p ope aining, (…), and on acqui ing
and e aining skilled ‘pe sonnel’ (ANC July 2010. [bold in
o iginal]).
Along wi h his de ini ion, he ANC se i sel u he a ge s a
Polokwane; amongs he mo e speci ic ones we e he
implemen a ion o a comp ehensi e social secu i y sys em, educ ion
o ce ain illnesses and ma e nal dea hs, educ ion o iolen c ime
and oad acciden s, in ensi ying educa ion in ma hema ics and
na u al sciences, and expanding he na ion’s a isanship base
(Rei zes 2009: 12 .). Due o he ac ha he concep o he
De elopmen al S a e o Sou h A ica seems ague, discou se and
c i icism on he no ion is b oad. Sou hall desc ibes h ee c i ical iews
ep esen ed by he economic libe als, he Jacobins, and he
de elopmen alis s (2006: xxii .). The economic libe als
28
ea an
ideologically d i en ‘de elopmen alism’ ha plays in o he sel -
se ing in e es s o he ANC eli e and hence, hey call o a educ ion
in s a e con ol in o de o boos he economy (Sou hall 2006:
xxii .).
29
Economic libe als sha e hei conce n wi h he so-called Jacobins,
30
he second c i ical ac ion, namely ha la ge-scale s a e in e en ion
pa y’s p esiden and consequen ly p esiden o he coun y in a ou o his i al
Jacob Zuma (Tabane & Ludman 2009: 88).
28
The mos p ominen p oxy is opposi ion leade Tony Leon o he Democ a ic Alliance
(Sou hall 2006: xxii .).
29
Sou hall a gues his s ance esul s om ‘neoclassical economic hinking which
commends he minimal s a e as a p e equisi e o g ow h’ (Sou hall 2006: xxii .).
30
The e m Jacobins was coined by I umeleng Mahabane in Financial Mail ‘in echo o
he mos adical wing o he bou geoisie e olu iona ies in F ance a e 1789’ who
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ole-model bu he media chose o ocus on he nega i e and igno ed
posi i e aspec s (ibid.).
An equally c i ical s ance e ming he a icle ‘hos ile’ owa ds
go e nmen was aken by he pos e ‘Helene Pass oo s’.
41
Like
‘Ha is’, she exp essed he disappoin men in a newspape ‘ ha once
was a champion o democ acy’ (Commen sec ion. Mail & Gua dian
Online 9 Feb ua y 2012). ‘Pass oo s’ ook issue wi h he posi i e
ep esen a ion o Mbeki’s neo-libe al policies which exace ba ed he
gap be ween ich and poo in Sou h A ica (ibid.). She u he a gued,
B azil a he han China will be he ole model o Sou h A ica when
i comes o implemen ing he De elopmen al S a e and con es ed he
‘p econcei ed idea’ ha his necessa ily has o go hand in hand wi h
‘an au ho i a ian egime o succeed’; naming Sweden and F ance as
coun e -examples (ibid.).
‘An on an Nieke k’
42
a gued ha Sou h A ica was a om China’s
excellence wi h ega d o educa ion and he e o e lacked he capaci y
o p oduce sophis ica ed manu ac u ing o ec ui skilled people o
ci il se ice (Commen sec ion. Mail & Gua dian Online 9 Feb ua y
2012). He e u ed ‘E ic Sco ’s’ ep oach
43
o be ad oca ing a one-
pa y dic a o ship and oman icising China’s e sion o ep essi e
S a e Capi alism by ag eeing ha China was a dic a o ship bu
ei e a ing his opinion ha ‘ he u ban educa ion sys em in China is
p oducing he bes in he wo ld’ (ibid.). ‘Van Nieke k’ also de ended
his posi ion agains he c i icism by ‘Da id Ha is’, who named
Apple’s manual manu ac u ing in China as a coun e -example
agains he exclusi e applica ion o obo echnology (ibid.). He
a gued ha logis ics, design and managemen did indeed equi e a
high le el o know-how (ibid.).
This example showed ha he Mail & Gua dian Online edi o ial
managed o elici in o med and well- easoned esponse and deba e
om di e en angles. Some pos e s de ended China while o he s
said China was no an app op ia e compa ison o Sou h A ica a all.
The pos e s also engaged in di ec con ac wi h each o he . While he
commen a o s displayed sluggish spelling and we e quick o use
insul ing language, especially when di ec ly e e ing o each o he ,
hey appea ed o be om an educa ed backg ound poli ically si ua ed
41
Likely, his is he eal pe son Helene Pass oo s. She is a o me an i-apa heid
ac i is imp isoned du ing apa heid o he ac i i y in Umkhon o we Sizwe (Sou h
A ican His o y Online n.d.).
42
Likely, his is he eal pe son An on an Nieke k. He is P o esso o Philosophy a
he Uni e si y o S ellenbosch ( an Nieke k n.d.).
43
Fo his blogge , no iden i ica ion could be ound online.

BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
38
on he le and he e o e ep esen ed he ypical eade ship p o ile o
he Mail & Gua dian.
Example II: commen s on Though Leade blogs
Th ee exempla y blogs and hei commen a y on he In e ne
pla o m Though Leade (Gumede 9 July 2008; Saunde son-Meye
11 Feb ua y 2012; Po gie e 12 June 2012) ace he e ol emen o
he public no ion on he De elopmen al S a e on blogs.
Though Leade is a blogging space adminis e ed by he Mail &
Gua dian Online and p omo es i sel as an ‘edi o ial g oup blog’ wi h
he objec i e o ‘p o ide a pla o m’ o deba e among w i e s om
‘ a ious indus ies and poli ical spec ums’ and he oppo uni y o
eade s o commen (Mail & Gua dian Online 2013a). O e 100
blogge s om academia, jou nalism, and business as well as
Diaspo a Sou h A icans and some o ganisa ions like he A chbishop
Tu u Fellows who a e ad ised o ‘ y no o be simply a spokespe son
o [ hei espec i e] o ganisa ion o company’ a e egis e ed and
p esen ed wi h a pho og aph and sho p o ile desc ip ion (ibid.). The
si e is s uc u ed in o ca ego ies o Business, Equali y, Gende
Violence, Gene al, Li es yle, Media and Ma ke ing, News and
Poli ics, Pe spec i e, Spo s, and Tech (ibid.). W i e s a e asked o
w i e mainly in English (ibid.).
In 2008, Vusi Gumede
44
w o e on Though Leade abou his
con e ence pape
45
ha assessed he ex en o which Sou h A ica
ep esen s he De elopmen al S a e
46
(9 July 2008). The pape
‘ en a i ely concluded ha Sou h A ica indeed encapsula es mos o
he key ea u es’ bu ound ha Sou h A ica’s implemen a ion,
in luenced by Ama ya Sen’s app oach o de elopmen , was
ela i ely weak and ine ec i e; despi e he ela i e decline in po e y
(Gumede 9 July 2008). Acco ding o Gumede, E an’s concep o
‘embedded au onomy’ (1995), i.e., he ne wo king be ween
bu eauc a s and business, has no ye ully ma e ialised in Sou h
A ica (ibid.). Responses o he blog we e la gely posi i e, al hough
Gumede ailed o go in o de ails on key concep s o he policy
(Gumede 9 July 2008 Commen Sec ion).
44
P o . Gumede has wo ked o he Sou h A ican p esidency o 12 yea s and is now
wo king as an academic and w i e (WhosWho n.d.).
45
SA Human Sciences Resea ch Council (HSRC): Con e ence on he po en iali ies
o and challenges o cons uc ing a democ a ic de elopmen al s a e in Sou h
A ica; 4 o 6 June 2008; C adle o Humankind, Johannesbu g.
46
Robinson & Whi e (1998), Edigheji (2005), E ans (1995). No e e ence lis in blog
o ma . (Gumede 9 July 2008).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
39
Th ee yea s la e , blogge Elna i Po gie e
47
s ill iden i ied
implemen a ion backlogs (12 June 2012). Po gie e c i icised ha
al hough he De elopmen al S a e was p ominen ly amed in he
go e nmen ’s agenda in Zuma’s 2012 SoNA, i emained a label only
(ibid.). She a gued ha he main ea u e o he De elopmen al S a e,
as ealised by Japan o example, was a ‘s ong, eliable, p edic able
and skilled bu eauc acy’, which Sou h A ica lacked conside ably
(ibid.). Po gie e elabo a ed ha e icien bu eauc acy equi ed ‘a
sense o mission’ and ‘ igo ous s anda ds’ in he ec ui men p ocess
(ibid.). She ad oca ed o pe o mance-based ewa ding and long-
e m ca ee de elopmen (ibid.). All o his would esul in ‘a sense o
uni y and ‘co po a e cohe ence’ amongs bu eauc a s’ (ibid.).
In esponse o Po gie e , ‘TumiM#’ p o ided an expe ’s oice as a
p ac i ione ‘coming om he public sec o ’ in he blog’s commen
sec ion:
(…) I can assu e you ha he p oblem o deli e y is
abou mo e han jus skills and capaci y. (…) In he
ins i u ion I wo k o , he e ha e been COUNTLESS
sugges ions o implemen a ion, mos o which a e
sho down (…) because he e is no poli ical suppo
(…). When he e is poli ical will, (…) I belie e (…)
he e will be mo e oom o independen decision
making (…), and highe s anda ds o deli e y’
(Po gie e 12 June 2012 Commen Sec ion).
Vigo ously de ending go e nmen , ‘To olux#’ a gued ha
implemen a ion was lagging because business and he media we e
no ealising hei commi men o wo k oge he wi h he p esiden on
he De elopmen al S a e bu ‘ope a ing in isola ion o each o he and
holding on o old ideologies’(Po gie e 12 June 2012 Commen
Sec ion). He saw go e nmen ’s ole as he planning o ce se ing
a ge s whe eas business emained he esponsible ‘mo i e o ce’
ealising he plans (ibid.).
Blogge ‘The C ea o #’ disag eed wi h ‘To olux#’ and a gued he
implemen a ion o he De elopmen al S a e was o emos he
esponsibili y and capabili y o go e nmen bu he Zuma
adminis a ion was no using i s powe because i was ‘a ool o big
business’ who in u n we e ‘obsessed wi h an asies o p o i wi hou
in es men ’ and he e o e ‘un esponsi e o eal de elopmen al
needs’ (Po gie e 12 June 2012 Commen Sec ion).
47
MA S uden o Poli ical Science a he Uni e si y o S ellenbosch (Po gie e 12 June
2012).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
40
A blog by William Saunde son-Meye
48
ela ed di ec ly o he 2012
SoNA (11 Feb ua y 2012). The blogge ga e a p ac ical example o
go e nmen ’s implemen a ion o he De elopmen al S a e and
a gued his idea o iginally s emmed om he apa heid go e nmen :
To commi R300-billion o in as uc u al spending, he
equi alen o wo-and-a-hal Socce Wo ld Cups, is
bold indeed. These a e i s s eps o he
de elopmen al s a e ha P esiden Zuma admi es and
a ibu es o China, bu which in SA can in ac be
aced back o he massi e and success ul s a e
co po a ism o he ea ly Na ional Pa y yea s’ (ibid.).
Saunde son-Meye poin ed ou ha Zuma, keeping he in e na ional
in es o s in mind, ca e ully a oided ce ain sensi i e aspec s o he
s a egy: ‘He spoke abou he impo ance o mining bu ne e spoke
he wo d ‘na ionalisa ion’, he me e p ospec o which has cos
billions in in es men and sco es o housands o jobs’ (ibid.). The
blog in i ed 31 esponses. ‘jand 0#’ disag eed wi h Saunde son-
Meye on calling Zuma’s in es men s ‘bold’:
‘Now please explain o me how Zuma was ‘bold’ in spending
axpaye s’ money? (…) I would a gue on he con a y, ha he
was aking no isks – ha e e ybody knows spending on
in as uc u e is gene ally pe cei ed as a ‘home un’.(…) In my
opinion, a ‘bold’ Zuma would ha e ackled (say) co up ion
head on. Why is his bold? Well, because i may cos him
some suppo om al eady co up ed ANC cad es, ha ’s why’
(Commen sec ion. Saunde son-Meye 11 Feb ua y 2012).
Saunde son-Meye a gued in esponse ha long- e m in as uc u e
in es men was ‘bold’ indeed as i s bene i s do no immedia ely ‘show
in he s a is ics’ (ibid.).
Though leade blogs a ac ed he same ype o use p o ile like he
commen s on he Mail & Gua dian Online’s edi o ial. Howe e , he
blogs appea mo e like a cha - oom in i ing di ec deba e wi h he
w i e . Compa ed o he commen s o he online a icle, he blogging
o ma allows o a dynamic eye-le el con e sa ion and p og essing
c oss- alk wi h mul iple pa icipan s a he han s a ing an a e - he-
ac opinion o a s a ic a icle al eady published by an anonymous
de ached edi o .
48
Saunde son-Meye is a columnis w i ing also o The Weekend A gus, The Ci izen,
Weekend Wi ness, and Sunday Times (Mail & Gua dian Online 2013b).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
41
Example III: Facebook commen s on he P esidency’s page
The las example displays ye a di e en audience and o ma , iz.
Facebook. The Go e nmen ’s Communica ion and In o ma ion
Se ices (GCIS) has main ained a Facebook page since 23 Janua y
2008, called he p esidency in o de o ‘inc ease awa eness o
b anding ac i i ies and mobilize Sou h A icans and global
ambassado s o he Sou h A ican b and’ (GCIS 2011: 50).
49
The
p esidency’s Facebook page in i ed eal- ime di ec esponses; pa ly
while Zuma was p esen ing his speech (The P esidency 9 Feb ua y
2012). On 9 Feb ua y 2012, he day o he SoNA, Zuma’s PR s a
issued wo pos ings linking o a li e s eaming and a w i en e sion
o he speech which in i ed 35 and 151 commen s espec i ely (The
P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012).
50
Based on he p o ile pho os and names, he majo i y o
commen a o s seemed o be young (be ween 15 and 35 yea s) and
black. Facebook seems o howe e , appeal mo e s ongly o adul
p o essionals who wan o ne wo k and s ay in ouch wi h iends and
amily who migh be li ing elsewhe e a he han o you h aged 15-18
(see K eu ze 2009). Mos commen s seemed o ha e been pos ed
ia sma phones, since hey a e o en sho and in ypical ex
message lingo and coding.
51
This empo al and spa ial con inemen
also had an e ec on he quali y and complexi y o commen s.
English was he p edominan language on he Facebook page. Mos
commen a o s – pe haps in he illusion o di ec ly speaking o ‘ he
p esiden ’ on ‘his’ Facebook page – lauded he speech and
commen ed posi i ely (The P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012). A la ge
pa o he commen s and also in e -pos e s con e sa ions ocused
on he ac ha p esiden Zuma did no g ee in Zulu and Venda a
he opening o he speech (ibid.).
Howe e , some c i icism was also appa en . Jayd Naidoo b oke he
illusion o he ‘people’s p esiden ’ by i onically pos ing: ‘p esiden
mus be sha p, upda ing his acebook s a us while gi ing his speech’
(The P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012) and ea ned h ee ‘likes’ o
poin ing ou ha Facebook was used as a ma ke ing de ice. Tshidi
49
In addi ion o i s p esence on Facebook, he Sou h A ican go e nmen cu en ly
uns ou u he o icial social media accoun s: on Twi e : @SAP esiden and
@P esidencZA; on YouTube: P esidencyZA; as well as on Flick : p esidencysa (The
P esidency 5 June 2011). P esiden Zuma does no ha e an indi idual pe sonal
accoun (The P esidency 5 June 2011).
50
has only been possible o di e en ia e be ween commen s made om PCs o om
mobile phones since 2013.
51
Commen s a e quo ed e ba im.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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Mo eane accused he p esiden o lying and elec ion campaigning by
p omising he housing loans:
He is elling lies how is he going o gi e ppl ea ning
3500,00 a mon h a subsidy? (…) I dn hnk i will be
possi ble 4. Banks o inance hose ppl ea ning 3500
like me. Pu e lies m p ez, u only wn o sco e poli ical
soc s 4 nx e m’ (The P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012).
Tsholo elo Nkoane called he SoNA an uninspi ing ‘pa emen
speech’ which was mo e abou he pa y han abou he na ion (The
P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012). He poin ed ou ha Zuma did no
men ion ‘ hino poaching, he sec ecy bill no he immig a ion’ and
c i icised he cos ly campaign o enaming public places. Nkoane
concluded ha he con en o he speech ‘was how he ANC will
bene i om go e nmen in 2012’ (ibid.). The Facebook space did
allow people o e e o speci ic issues. Bongani Wakwa-Ma idili
complained ha go e nmen had disca ded ‘ he concep o Local
Economic De elopmen & ha o Small Town Regene a ion’ bu
ins ead concen a ed on he ci ies esul ing in a ‘skewed’
de elopmen eminiscen o apa heid s uc u es (The P esidency 9
Feb ua y 2012). Howe e , Wakwa-Ma idili exp essed explici
app ecia ion o he in es men in he egion o Wa e be g (The
P esidency 9 Feb ua y 2012).
People esponded in eal- ime when issues we e add essed ha
pe ained o hei li e. Amanda Ndumndum eac ed when Zuma
spoke abou a Housing Funding scheme ha would allow people o
ake a o dable loans: ‘M P esiden I'm in he police I hope u keep u
wo d ab he loans bcos I dn quali y o RDP house’ (The P esidency
9 Feb ua y 2012). Al hough Facebook seems o be mos ly accessed
ia mobile phone and he e o e only allows o ela i ely sho
s a emen s, i is used by a b oad poli ical public e lec ing a g ea
a ie y o opinion and does no ha e he eli is appeal o Mail &
Gua dian Online and Though Leade . As a esul , he deba es on
Facebook also lack he dep h and complexi y o he Mail &
Gua dian’s blog and online newspape o ma and gi e only
supe icial e e ence o he no ion o he De elopmen al S a e.
Ne e heless, Facebook also p o ides conc e e accoun s o he
ac ual consequences o go e nmen ’s policies o ci izens, while
Though Leade and Mail & Gua dian Online end o discuss he issue
in abs ac and heo e ical e ms.
Online opposing as a o m o eedom o speech
This a icle has shown a ange o online ac i i y in esponse o he
SoNA. Despi e he d as ic legal in ingemen s o F eedom o Speech

BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
43
Sou h A ica is cu en ly expe iencing
52
, he In e ne seems a sui able
and ye openly accessible ou le o public deba e and c i ique o
go e nmen . Sou h A icans indeed use he In e ne o exp ess hei
poli ical opinion and da e o challenge mains eam no ions and ac as
a complemen ing o ce o he adi ional media ames.
Ac i i y on social media in Sou h A ica is a an all- ime high and
con e sa ion is also poli ically mo i a ed. Acco ding o Sch eine ,
Sou h A icans do no see social media me ely as a li es yle ool bu
a e also ‘ eady o discuss policy issues’ online (E News Channel 9
Feb ua y 2012). Howe e , o complex issues like he e ol emen o
he De elopmen al S a e, spa ially es ic ed social media o ums like
Facebook a e no a sui able pla o m. They me ely allow o b ie ly
sha ing how policies a ec ed pe sonal expe ience o a ‘like’/‘dislike’
kind o s a emen . Howe e , his is no o disca d he possibili y o
Facebook becoming a mass mo emen ool as seen in he A ab
Sp ing should he need o a e uge pla o m become mo e p essing.
The mo e sophis ica ed and complex pla o ms like Though leade
allow o de ailed and in o med commen s wi h easonable and
di e en ia ed a gumen s pa ly in a ou , pa ly agains go e nmen .
The concep o he De elopmen al S a e seems s ill o be oo aguely
de ined by go e nmen o be challenged di ec ly. I s e ol emen is
cu en ly in p og ess.
Excep h ough policies ha keep he p o ision o b oadband access
una o dable o mos Sou h A icans, he In e ne in Sou h A ica is
no (ye ) es ic ed by go e nmen and g owing access o he In e ne
especially ia sma phones sugges s ha an inc ease in online
exp ession o poli ical opinion can be expec ed in u u e. This,
howe e , does no au oma ically imp o e he quali y o in o ma ion
a ailable o he public. Ne e heless, some s a e sec e s migh be
ha de o keep unde he lid, he mo e people pa icipa e in online
deba es. Fu u e esea ch in ha ield should sys ema ically examine
use p o iles and ace con en ious poli ical s o ies ha ha e un
‘ i al’ in o de o u he explo e he powe o he In e ne o poli ical
ac i a ion in Sou h A ica.
52
Cu en ly impeding p og ess is he “P o ec ion o In o ma ion Bill”, also called
“Sec ecy Bill”, which among o he eedom es ic ions enables e en p o incial
go e nmen o icials o classi y con en ious in o ma ion (see n.a. Mail & Gua dian
Online 14 June 2012). One o he mos con en ious issues in his bill is he
c iminalisa ion and punishmen o jou nalis s and whis leblowe s who e eal classi ied
and in o ma ion by poin ing ou co up ion and dubious p ac ices in go e nmen
(Williams 11 Ma ch 2013; see also R2K Campaign 18 Feb ua y 2013).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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2013.
n.a. (2012) ‘S a us upda e o he na ion: Zuma is lis ening’. Mail and
Gua dian Online o 5 Feb ua y 2012,
<h p://mg.co.za/a icle/2012-02-05-zuma-ge s-connec ed-wi h-
sa-ci izens>, accessed 11 May 2013.
n.a. (2012) ‘D eams o China s. local eali ies’. Mail and Gua dian
Online o 9 Feb ua y 2012, <h p://mg.co.za/a icle/2012-02-03-
d eams-o -china- s-local- eali ies/>, accessed 31 July 2012.
Na as, N. (2011) ‘The new g ow h pa h: game changing ision o
cop-ou ?’, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Science 107 (3/4),
<h p://www.scielo.o g.za/scielo.php?pid=S0>, accessed 11 May
2013.
Nisbe , E., E. S yche and K. Pea ce (2012) ‘In e ne use and
democ a ic demands: A mul ina ional, mul ile el model o in e ne
use and ci izen a i udes abou democ acy’, Jou nal o
Communica ions 62: 249-265.
Oos huizen, M. (2008) ‘Es ima ing po e y lines o Sou h A ica’,
Depa men o Social De elopmen [Go e nmen Pape ],
<h p://www.in o.go .za/ iew/DynamicAc ion?p0>, accessed 11
May 2013.
Pa liamen o he Republic o Sou h A ica (2004) ‘Na ional Assembly
Guide o P ocedu e’. C eda, Cape Town. [Go e nmen
Documen ], <h p://www.pa liamen .go .za/con en /GUIDE.pd >,
accessed 11 May 2013.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
53
Do maa’s economy is mainly u al, wi h c op cul i a ion, poul y,
o es y, and sand winning cons i u ing he main li elihood ac i i ies
(Do maa municipal assembly 2012). Due o ex ensi e cul i a ion and
ampan wild i es, la ge ac s o wha was o iginally o es land ha e
u ned in o ex ensi e a eas o elephan g ass and bush. Do maa
abounds in a numbe o na u al en i onmen al goods, some o which
a e only ecognised and exploi ed as esou ces. These include clay,
g a el, and sand deposi s, o es s, and wa e bodies. Mo eo e ,
he e a e some gold deposi s ha emain unexploi ed (Do maa
municipal assembly 2012). Use o hese esou ces is go e ned
concu en ly by a public en i onmen al egula o y egime and a
cus oma y communal p ope y igh s egime. These wo di e en
egimes complemen , con lic , and o e lap each o he in shaping
human use o hese esou ces.
Do maa’s deg ading na u al en i onmen
The Do maa municipal and Do maa eas dis ic s ha e we semi-
equa o ial clima es wi h a double maxima ain all egime, and a mean
annual ain all be ween 125 cm and 175 cm. The majo ege a ion
ypes a e he ese ed and o - ese e o es s, and bush, which a e
ex ensi ely clea ed in some a eas. Sjoe d and Voo hoe e (1990:
712) in oducing he Do maa in hei book on Do maa adi ional
he bal medicine no e ha he o iginal Do maa ege a ion o opical
ain o es has been la gely eplaced by cocoa- a ms and by ood
c op cul i a ion. The p o ec ed o es s include Mpameso (197.67
squa e kilome es), Pamu-Be ekum (116.80 squa e kilome es) and
Tain II (297.6 squa e kilome es) (DMA and DEDA 2012). These
o es ese es, as well as he o - ese es p o ide aluable imbe ,
lo a, and auna o he s a e and communi y people as sou ces o
e enue and ood. Timbe species include Teak (genus Tec ona
g andis), Wawa (T ipolichi on Scle oxylon), Odum (Milicia excelsa),
Sapele (Gu hag oph ama) and Mahogany (Khaya in e nesses)
(DMA 2012: 9; DEDA 2012: 28).
A la ge pa o he o - ese e o es s ha e been ex ensi ely
cul i a ed leading o an in asion o g assland and sandy soils. As
such he ege a ion in he wo dis ic s in la ge pa s is domina ed by
elephan g ass and a ew sho sca e ed ees wi h heigh s anging
be ween 15 m and 28 m high. As a esul o ex ensi e a ming
ac i i ies in he communi ies, hese ege a ion ypes as well as soils
a e h ea ened and he o es s, o ins ance, con inually change o
g assland. Associa ed wi h his change is inc easing de iciency o soil
nu ien s o ag icul u e. The h ea ex ensi e cul i a ion and i egula
logging pose o o es s has been a majo discou se p omo ing public
en i onmen al egula ion in Do maa o eplenish los o es s (see

BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
54
also Ghana en i onmen al policy 1995). Key en i onmen al conce ns
in he dis ic s include de o es a ion, indisc imina e sand/clay/g a el
winning,
54
pollu ion o wa e bodies ( e use dumps si ed close o
wa e bodies), pe sis en annual bush i es, illegal lumbe ing,
indisc imina e disposal o poul y was e, and excessi e use o ag o-
chemicals in a ming (DMA 2012: 34; DEDA 2012: 33). The e a e
indica ions ha hese en i onmen al conce ns eed he dominan
discou se o en i onmen al deg ada ion in s a e policies, which
ec ea e communi ies as p ima y causes o land deg ada ion and
o es los (see he Ghana en i onmen al policy 1995).
Me hodology
Empi ical da ase o his pape is d awn om wen y-six indi idual
quali a i e and i e g oup discussions in Do maa wi h mig an and
indigenous a me s, landowne s, o icials o he Do maa o es
se ices di ision, o icials a he Do maa municipal assembly, and he
Do maa cus oma y land sec e a ia . The discussions explo ed
pa icipan s’ pe cep ions, expe iences, and knowledge o he na u al
en i onmen and p ac ices owa ds i s p o ec ion. On he basis on a
social cons uc ionis pe spec i e, pa icipan s we e encou aged o
show how hei cus oms and social in e ac ions could possibly
con ibu e o hese pe cep ions, expe iences and knowledge hey
held. The whole se o da a ob ained om hese discussions is
howe e , pa o he au ho ’s doc o al s udy p og amme. In a ious
sec ions o he pape , hese empi ical da ase is p esen ed in
quo a ions o suppo he discussions. La gely, he uni o analysis is
he incen i e communi y people d aw om he combina ion o he
public en i onmen al egula o y egime and he Do maa cus oma y
p ope y igh s egime o hei ac ions on hei en i onmen . The
A las. i compu e assis ed da a analysis so wa e was used o code
and e ie e ele an da a segmen s.
Social cons uc ion o he en i onmen and i s p o ec ion: a
basis o he me hodology
Wi h he ocus on no ions o he en i onmen and how incen i es in
p ope y igh s egime mani es in human en i onmen al ac ions, he
pape is amed wi hin social cons uc ionis pe spec i es. Wi h his,
no ions o he na u al en i onmen and he incen i es o shape
beha iou s on he en i onmen a e cons uc s people gi e o hem.
Such cons uc s a e g ounded on cul u e and social ela ions. This
implies ha o assu e incen i es ha will enable use and p o ec ion o
he na u al en i onmen , i is impe a i e o unde s and he cul u e
54
Emphasis ou s
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
55
and social p ocesses o a socie y and how such cul u e and social
p ocesses in luence he ways landowne s and land use s cons uc
hese incen i es. This is he only way o public en i onmen al policy
o ensu e syne gy be ween egula ion and human ac ion.
In Do maa, cons uc s o he en i onmen and en i onmen al
incen i es a e socially bounded. In he con ex o his pape , he
communal cus oma y p ope y igh s egime cons i u es he cul u e
ha di ec s social ela ions wi h ega d o na u e. Thus, he
cus oma y p ope y igh s egime in luences incen i es in he public
en i onmen al egula o y egimes o p o ec he en i onmen .
Communi y people’s cons uc ion o he na u al en i onmen as a
esou ce and he incen i es ha enable hei use o such esou ces
depend no only on s a e-imposed no ions o wha a esou ce is, and
he incen i es o encou age human ac ions on he en i onmen in
ce ain pa icula ways. Ra he , communi y people’s cons uc ion o a
esou ce and en i onmen al incen i es a e shaped la gely also by
he in luences hei cus oma y p ope y igh s hold on hei daily li es.
Wha his means is ha public en i onmen al egula o y egimes,
based on con en ional no ions, can impose incen i es o shape
human ac ion on he en i onmen . Bu such incen i es will always be
ein e p e ed by people wi hin hei own no ions. T ees and o es s
may be conside ed esou ces only o he ex en ha some so o
alue is impu ed o hem by people hemsel es, bounded by hei
daily p ope y igh s egime.
The p ac ice o ee cul i a ion
The eak ee
Teak (genus Tec ona g andis) is a la ge deciduous ee o he amily
Ve benaceae. I is dominan in mixed ha dwood o es s, and one o
he mos aluable imbe s. I has small ag an whi e lowe s and
pape y lea es ha a e o en hai y on he lowe su ace (Fig. 2).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
56
The eak ee has a s aigh bu
o en bu essed s em (i.e.,
hickened a he base), a
sp eading c own, and ou -sided
b anchle s wi h la ge quad angula
pi h. The lea es a e opposi e o
some imes who led in young
specimens, abou 0.5 m (1.5 ee )
long and 23 cm (9 inches) wide. In
shape hey esemble hose o he
obacco plan , bu hei subs ance
is ha d and he su ace ough. The
b anches e mina e in many small
whi e lowe s in la ge, e ec , c oss-
b anched panicles.
Fig. 2: he eak ee
Sou ce: Pe e Na h, ield esea ch, Ma ch 2012.
Teak imbe is alued in wa m coun ies p incipally o i s
ex ao dina y du abili y. Teakwood is used as elec ic poles, ine
u ni u e, doo and window ames, wha es, b idges, lou e s,
loo ing, panelling, shipbuilding, among many o he pu poses. An
impo an p ope y o eak is i s ex emely good dimensional s abili y.
I is s ong, o medium weigh , and o a e age ha dness. Te mi es
ea he sapwood bu a ely a ack he hea wood; i is no , howe e ,
comple ely esis an o ma ine bo e s.
The s a e belie in eak: s a u o y suppo o eak cul i a ion in
Do maa
The cul i a ion o eak ees is one o he ins umen s he o es
se ices di ision p omo es o e o es deg aded a eas in and o s a e
p o ec ed o es s. Re o es a ion is one o he p og ammes h ough
which he s a e go e ns he en i onmen in Do maa, h ough he
Do maa o es se ices di ision. The e o es a ion p og amme wi h
i s associa ed plan ing o eak is suppo ed by he Na ional Fo es
Plan a ion De elopmen P og amme (NFPDP). The NFPDP is a
na ion-wide p og amme ha seeks o hal he ala ming a e o o es
deg ada ion in Ghana by p o iding echnical and logis ic suppo o
a me s o plan comme cial ees wi hin and ou side s a e p o ec ed
o es ese es.
55
55
<h p://www. cghana.com/>, accessed 20 Ap il 2013.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
57
In he p o ec ed o es ese es, a me s a e alloca ed plo s o
deg aded o es s o in e c op ees wi h ood c ops, a c opping
cul u e called he Modi ied Taungya Sys em (MTS). Bo h in and
ou side he o es ese es, eak is cul i a ed by indi iduals and
g oups o people on small plo s be ween one and en ac es, o on
plan a ions o o e one hec a e o land. Ou side he p o ec ed
ese es, eak is g own on p i a e plo s o land and plan a ions. Teak
a me s in he p o ec ed o es s sell hei ees o p i a e con ac o s
a go e nmen -con olled ma ke p ices. Those g owe s on p i a e
plo s howe e sell hei ees o p i a e indi iduals a p ices ag eed
be ween he a me and he buye .
Fo i s aluable na u e, eak p o ides inancial income o g owe s
when he ees a e ha es ed a e ma u ing be ween i een and
wen y- i e yea s. Depending on he age and size o he ee
ha es ed, a eak ee could e ch abou Gh₵04 (Ghana cedis, abou
2 eu o) and Gh₵20 (10 eu o). An o icial o he Do maa o es
se ices di ision exp esses he inancial bene i s om plan ing eak
as:
OA: Oh I hink i is bo h. You canno plan ees jus
o plan ing sake, no, I don’ hink i is wise o do ha .
You plan a plan a ion because you wan o make
some money. Howe e , his also helps sus ain he
en i onmen . I is he alue o he ees o he
en i onmen . People ha e ealised hey can make a
lo om eaks. A lo o people ea n good money om
he ees. We also educa e hem abou he
imp o emen s ha p o ec ing he en i onmen can
b ing o hem. Fo he people in Ko adaso, hey a e
doing e y well. They a e ha dwo king. And now, wi h
his modi ied Taungya sys em we ha e, you ag eed
wi h he people ha i you a m his place, he
pa amoun chie has go 15 pe cen sha e o he
p oceeds, he communi y has go 5 pe cen , I mean
he communi y in which you a e li ing, hen he
go e nmen has go 40 pe cen , and you – he one
plan ing he ee and aking ca e o i – ha e go 40
pe cen ..
< e >P41:D_FA_ID_Da_OA, assis an o es
o ice _do maa dis ic _01ma 2012. - 41:32 [(66:66)]
by pe e na h</ e >
56
56
Fo anonymi y, we only p o ide he ini ials o he discussion pa ne . The
quo a ion e e ence a he end o each quo e is in e p e ed wi h he ollowing
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
58
The Do maa o es se ices di ision is he decen alized agency o
he Fo es y commission o Ghana
57
o he Do maa o es dis ic .
The di ision is loca ed in Do maa Ahenk o, he capi al o he Do maa
municipal. I s ask is o o e see he managemen and p o ec ion o
o es and wildli e esou ces, as well as he managemen o
concessions o o - ese e lumbe ing in i s ca chmen a ea. The
ca chmen a ea comp ises ou poli ical adminis a i e dis ic s in he
B ong Aha o egion o Ghana. These a e Do maa municipal, Do maa
eas , Goaso, and B ekum dis ic s.
En i onmen al egimes and no ions in con lic
In he nex sec ions a e ins ances ha e eal con lic ing incen i es o
plan eak. In hese ins ances, i can be seen ha while he s a e
o es se ices di ision suppo s eak plan ing o mainly e o es
deg aded o es s and p o ide income h ough lumbe , communi y
people a e cons ained o plan he eak due o communal alues o
hei cus oma y p ope y igh s egime. I any o hem plan eak a
all, hey indeed do so o i s economic alue, bu his comes a a cos
o he communali y o land igh s. Plan ing eak b ings people in o
con lic due o communal owne ship o land, whe e an indi idual
canno pe pe ua e his o he use o land. Fo his eason, plan ing
eak has no been sus ained in Do maa ou side p i a e plo s. Though
ex ensi e land a eas unde communal owne ship a e deg aded
h ough ex ensi e cul i a ion and sand winning, only a ew pa ches o
land ou side s a e-p o ec ed o es s a e plan ed wi h eak.
example: < e >P41:D_FA_ID_Da_OA, assis an o es o ice _do maa
dis ic _01ma 2012. - 41:32 [(66:66)] by pe e na h</ e >.
“ e >” s ands o e e ence; “P41” means p ima y documen 41, ha is, discussion
ansc ip documen 41; “D” e e s o Do maa; “FA” s ands o o mal au ho i y; “ID”
s ands o indi idual discussion; “DA” e e s o Do maa ahenk o; “OA” is discussion
pa ne ’s ini ials; “assis an o es o ice _do maa dis ic ” is he o icial i le o he
discussion pa ne ; “01 ma 2012” is he da e on which he discussion was held;
“ ” is a compu e ile o ma ; “41: 32” e e s o 32 h quo a ion in ansc ip ion
documen 41; “[(66:66)]” means quo a ion begins and ends in pa ag aph 66 o he
documen ; “pe e na h” is he name o he esea che .
57
The Fo es y Commission o Ghana was es ablished by he Fo es y
Commission Ac , 1999 (Ac 571.) I is esponsible o he egula ion o u iliza ion o
o es and wildli e esou ces, he conse a ion and managemen o hose
esou ces and he coo dina ion o policies ela ed o hem. I embodies he a ious
public bodies and agencies ha we e indi idually implemen ing he unc ions o
p o ec ion, managemen , he egula ion o o es and wildli e esou ces. These
agencies cu en ly o m he di isions o he Commission:

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Teak plan ing and communali y o land igh s
Unde he Na ional Fo es Plan a ion De elopmen P og amme
(NFPDP), he s a e g an s loans and also p o ides seedlings ee o
cha ge o landowne s o plan eak ees on hei lands o e o es
deg aded lands. On he su ace o i , i is laudable ha he s a e
p o ides such echnical and logis ics suppo o indi iduals and
g oups who may no ha e been able o secu e his assis ance
hemsel es (D agun 1999). The Do maa o es se ices di ision sees
he inancial suppo unde he NFPDP as a signi ican boos o ee
plan ing:
OA: No, no, no he Fo es y commission bu he
Boa d chai o he o es plan a ion de elopmen und.
The und is pa o he commission and Nana is he
Boa d chai o he und. The und has con ibu ed a lo
o o es plan a ions he e, bo h on p i a e lands and in
ese ed o es s. Yes, he loan is accessible o
e e yone, inso a as you ha e land o plan on. Bu
when you mee he Osagye oe, he will ell you mo e
abou i . E en he mig an a me s a Ko adaso ha e
been asking o loans o cul i a e hei ees, and I
ha e old hem o send hei applica ion o Nana. So
e e yone can apply o i .
< e >P41: D_FA_ID_Da_OA, assis an o es
o ice _do maa dis ic _01ma 2012. - 41:28 [(29:29)]
by pe e na h</ e >
OB: Ya, he loan is o p i a e people who
a e...whe he you plan in he o - ese e o inside he
ese e. You can jus apply. Bu no mally hey gi e o
hose in he ese e... he amoun is maybe bigge as
compa ed o hose no in he ese e.
< e >P43: D_FA_ID_Da_OB, do maa o es y
o ice _06ap 2012. - 43:58 [(235:235)] by pe e
na h</ e >
Such s a e suppo is in line wi h he main a gumen s o he public
egula ion pa adigm in he en i onmen al go e nance deba e ha
s a e ins i u ions a e necessa y o in e ene and p o ide suppo o
egula e human en i onmen al ac ions because p i a e p ope y
igh s will ail o p o ec he en i onmen due o p i a e a ional aims
ha may go con a y o alues o socie y as a whole (Smi h 1997).
Howe e , in he Do maa municipal he cus oma y p ope y igh s
egime con lic s wi h he eak plan ing p og amme o he s a e. I
shows he di e gence o no ions abou he incen i es o eak
plan ing o p o ec he en i onmen be ween public en i onmen al
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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go e nance egimes and communi y people. Fo he public
egula o y egime, plan ing eak is based on he illusion o he s a e
o es se ices di ision ha indi iduals ha e absolu e con ol o e he
decisions hey ake on hei lands. In he p ope y igh s egime o
Do maa, his is ue only o he ex en ha while ali e, he cu en
cul i a o enjoys he usu uc . Inasmuch as he Do maa cus oma y
p ope y igh s egime is communal, he usu uc a y igh is
inde easible, inalienable (Da Rocha and Lodoh 1999: 5), and subjec
o he igh s o he land use ’s amily and he s a e o Do maa. The
cus oma y communal p ope y igh s egime only g an s usu uc a y
igh s o ci izens o Do maa by descen . Cus oma ily, all lands in
Do maa belong o he people o Do maa collec i ely; indi iduals hold
only use igh s, he usu uc .
To his end, suppo o plan ing eak o e o es so-called deg aded
a eas is a no ma i e obliga ion o land use imposed by he s a e no
only on he indi idual, bu also on he amily o which he indi idual
belongs, as well as on he Do maa s a e. I is no ma i e because i is
a a iance o he cus oma y p ope y igh s egime o he Do maa. I
is ex e nal, based on ideas o he s a e abou incen i es o plan eak
o people and o imp o ing en i onmen al condi ion. Such
no ma i e p og ammes o he s a e cons i u e a denial o he
communi y o he choice o de e mine how hey pu sue hei
li elihoods. I is a denial because in iew o he communal igh s in
land, when eak is plan ed on a piece o amily land o ins ance, i
cons ains he igh s o o he s o he use o ha same piece o land
o one gene a ion o mo e. The nex pa ag aph explains his u he .
The no ma i e obliga ion o plan eak may wo k o p o ec he
en i onmen . Aside he nega i e implica ions, plan ing eak ce ainly
p o ides ege a i e co e o eplenish deg aded land. None heless,
in iew o he communal p ope y igh s egime, plan ing eak may
dis up he li es o u u e gene a ions who ha e equal igh s o he
land as he cu en cul i a o does. The dis up ion esul s i u u e
gene a ions wish o use he land o a di e en pu pose o he han a
eak a m. The land on which one cul i a es now belongs o he
p esen cul i a o as well as o o he siblings, nephews, nieces,
cousins, and so on, li ing, dead, o ye unbo n. I is o say ha a
piece o land cul i a ed now belongs o an en i e ex ended amily.
The cu en cul i a o has a igh o e such land inasmuch as o he
membe s en i led o i ha e he same use igh s. Upon he dea h o
he cu en cul i a o , amily membe s can u n he exis ing a m in o
wha e e hey p e e , o hey can de elop i in an en i ely di e en
way. Bu his may no be easy in he case o a a m ull o eak ees.
Indeed, his comes close o wha Ande son and Leal (1991) epo on
ee ma ke en i onmen alis s’ app oach o en i onmen al
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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go e nance. They no e ha s a e in ol emen in en i onmen al
egula ion leads o disad an ages o p i a e en ep eneu s; ha is,
s a e subsidies o ce ain en i onmen -based ac i i ies o p o ec he
en i onmen may unde mine he p o i abili y o he en i onmen o
o he people in he same ac i i ies. In Do maa, he en ep eneu s a e
he o he amily membe s who ha e same use igh s o he land as
he cu en cul i a o . These ‘en ep eneu s’ who lose ou on hei
p o i s may u n o o he economic ac i i ies ha may no a ou he
en i onmen and a e less economic o hem. Fo example, membe s
o he amily who may no desi e o plan eak may u n o sand
winning on al eady deg aded land.
A usu uc a y igh o e a piece o land does no allow he use o
ake possession o he land in pe pe ui y. Bu his is wha plan ing
eak ees will mean. The eak ees ake be ween 15 and 25 yea s o
ma u e o ha es . Fo his pe iod, he eak a m canno be aken
away om he possession o he cu en cul i a o . In he ace o his
‘injunc ion by cul i a ion’ placed on he land agains o he holde s o
igh s in he land, a ea u e o he eak ee is ha a ew weeks a e
ha es , i will shoo om he unk and g ow in o ano he ee.
The e o e, gene a ions o a eak ee can con inue o g ow
con inually on he same piece o land o se e al decades. I he eak
ee e ec i ely main ains he land in he possession o he cu en
cul i a o , i me ely implies ha when a eak ee is ha es ed, bu
shoo s and g ows in o ano he gene a ion o ee, he cu en
cul i a o only ex ends his o he use igh s o e he land. In e ec ,
his only means denying o he po en ial use s he igh o use he
land he way hey see i .
Taking he communali y o he Do maa cus oma y p ope y igh s
egime in o conside a ion hen, i can be said ha eak will be plan ed
solely on p i a e plo s o land. S ic ly p i a e plo s o land can be
acqui ed h ough gi o lease. Howe e , many usu uc a y land igh s
holde s a e plan ing he ees on communal lands. Mos do his wi h
he hope ha hei own child en will inhe i hei igh s in he land
immedia ely a e hem. Ye , empi ical e idence in Do maa shows
ha his is no always he case. O he amily membe s o en lay claim
o he land in he e en o he dea h o he cu en cul i a o . Whe e
he e is eak on he a m, he igh o inhe i he a m is no easily
de e mined be ween he eak owne ’s immedia e amily and he
ex ended amily. Consequen ly, some in o man s epo ha plan ing
eak esul s in amily ensions in many ins ances.
Cul i a ion o eak o enew deg aded lands by i sel is no necessa y
unp oduc i e. Ins ead, i is impo an o no e ha by he communali y
o p ope y igh s, eak cul i a ion do no acc ue he same incen i e
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o all indi iduals o amilies o e ime. One canno ake decisions
o e land comple ely as an indi idual wi hou due e e ence o he
amily, clan, o he communi y. The en i onmen al ac ions o
indi iduals a e always judged by hei in luence on he amily and he
Do maa s a e as a whole. In he cus oma y p ope y igh s egime,
he cu en cul i a o only has use igh s, while i is he amily h ough
he communi y ha possesses he owne ship igh s. Thus, land
canno be ea ed as in indi idual comple e pe pe ual owne ship.
Compe i ion be ween eak ees and ood c ops
Ano he ins ance o con lic ing incen i es be ween he s a e and
communi y people in plan ing eak ees is he compe i ion o a able
land be ween eak ees and ood c ops. In Do maa, land unde eak
cul i a ion implies educed space o ood c ops cul i a ion. Findings
o his s udy indica e ha he compe i ion is he esul o land
immobili y in Do maa. Land is immobile o wo main easons. One,
he e is land sca ci y and i ually no land is uncul i a ed, lying idle
cu en ly and no planned o . T ac s o land can be seen
uncul i a ed, bu many appa en ly lie idle because owne s conside
hem oo deg aded o cul i a e, o owne s ha e o he plans o hem
o he han ood c op cul i a ion. Ou side he s a e p o ec ed o es s,
land is sca ce due o inc easing popula ion and inc easing di ision o
land wi hin he amily. Two, by some no m, Do maa people a ely
e e en ou ag icul u al land. Thus, ag icul u al land does no easily
mo e be ween di e en use s ou side he landowning amily.
Pe haps land has no been acan o a la ge ex en like in he cocoa
g owing a eas in he wes e n pa o Ghana, which ha e a ac ed
mig an s om o he pa s o he coun y and beyond since he mid-
20 h cen u y o acqui e la ge ac s o uncul i a ed ye e ile land (see
Alhassan and Manuh 2005; Benneh 1987; Aidoo 1989; 1996; Hill
1963).
Wi h land immobili y, landowne s ha e igh s o a piece o land o e
hei li e ime, and ha o hei p ogeny. On his same piece o land,
ood c ops and cash c ops may be g own. The e is no compe i ion
be ween c ops o space i di e en ypes o c ops will g ow well
oge he . This is no he case wi h he eak ee. A e be ween h ee
and i e yea s, ood c ops in e plan ed wi h he eak do no g ow well.
The canopy o he ees p e en s sunligh om e ec i ely eaching
he c ops unde nea h. Mo eo e , he land unde eak o e ime loses
i s soil s uc u e conduci e o ood c ops cul i a ion. Acco ding o
in o man s, loss o soil s uc u e esul s om cul i a ing eak because
he oo s o he eak ee sp ead ou shallowly jus benea h he op
soil, blocking ou o he c op oo s. A communi y elde lamen s:
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69
Benneh, G. (1987) ‘Land enu e and ag o o es y land use sys ems in
Ghana’, p oceedings o an in e na ional wo kshop on enu e
issues in ag o o es y, Nai obi, May 27-31, 1985, Uni e si y o
Wisconsin.
Da Rocha, B. J and C. H. K Lodoh (1999) Ghana land law and
con eyancing. Acc a: DR and L P in ing and Publishing Se ices.
Ande son, T. and D. Leal (1991) F ee ma ke en i onmen alism.
Boulde : Wes iew p ess.
Dobson, A. (2007) G een poli ical hough . London, New Yo k:
Rou ledge.
Do maa municipal assembly (2012) ‘Repo on municipal medium-
e m de elopmen plan sus ainabili y assessmen epo ’.
Do maa Ahenk o.
D agun, A. K. (1999) ‘En i onmen al ins i u ional design: can p ope y
igh s heo y help?’, Discussion pape s, Uni e si y o
Queensland.
Fai head, J. and M. Leach (2000) ‘Rep oducing locali y: A c i ical
explo a ion o he ela ionship be ween na u al sciences, social
sciences, and policy in Wes A ican ecological p oblems’ in V.
B och-Due, and R. A. Sch oede (eds), P oducing na u e and
po e y in A ica. S ockholm: No diska A ikains i u e .
Hill, P. (1963) The mig an cocoa- a me s o sou he n Ghana: A
s udy in u al capi alism. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y
P ess.
Li, T. M. (2007) ‘P ac ices o assemblage and communi y o es
managemen ’, Economy and Socie y 36 (2): 263-293.
Meadows, D., J. Rande s and W. Beh ens (2005) Limi s o g ow h:
he 30-yea upda e. London: Ea hscan.
Nsiah-Gyabaah, K. (1994) En i onmen al deg ada ion and
dese i ica ion in Ghana: A s udy o he Uppe Wes Region.
B ook ield: Ashga e.
Robbins P. (2000) ‘The p ac ical poli ics o knowing: s a e
en i onmen al knowledge and local poli ical economy’, Economic
Geog aphy 92 (2): 126-144.
Sekha , N. U. (2004) ‘Local e sus expe knowledge in o es
managemen in a semi-a id pa o India’, Land Deg ada ion and
De elopmen 15: 133-142.
Smi h, D. M. (1997) ‘Geog aphy and e hics: A mo al u n?’, P og ess
in human geog aphy 21: 583-590.

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Unde dale, A. (2008) ‘De e mining he causal signi icance o
ins i u ions: accomplishmen s and challenges’, in O. Young, R.
King, A. Leslie and H. Sch oede (eds), Ins i u ions and
en i onmen al change: p incipal indings, applica ions, and
esea ch on ie s. Camb idge, Massachuse s. London: The MIT
P ess.
Zambaka i, C. (2011) ‘A ican and he po e y in knowledge
p oduc ion’, <h p://pambazuka.o g/en/ca ego y/ ea u es/77655>,
accessed 10 Feb ua y 2013.
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The poli ics o esou ces, ulne abili y and pas o al p ac ices in
Uppe Awash Valley, E hiopia
Gi um Ge achew Alemu
59
Abs ac
In ligh o con inuing en i onmen al and social sou ces o changes,
Ka ayyu pas o alis s a e esponding in a ious ways. B oadly
speaking, hese esponses can be ca ego ised in o wo a eas:
esponses ha combine di e en no ms and ules o accessing
sca ce esou ces and di e si ica ion o li elihood ac i i ies. In his
pape I p esen new o ms o esou ce a angemen s as adap a ion
s a egies ha ha e esul ed ou o he socio-ecological and
demog aphic p essu e on Ka ayyu land. Howe e , his a icle does
no limi i sel only o hese ac o s, since he change in pas o al
li elihood p ac ices could no be a ibu ed o one ac o only.
Comp ehending he changing li elihood p ac ices should ake in o
accoun , pa allel o he demog aphic p essu e, o he in e ela ed
ac o s such as go e nmen policy in e en ions and hei impac on
pas o al land owne ship. This is also in line wi h he poli ical ecology
heo e ical amewo k ha emphasizes he need o he ecogni ion o
he poli ical, economic, his o ical, geog aphical and ecological
de e minan s o unde s and he changing pas o al li elihood
p ac ices.
Keywo ds: new p ac ices, pas o alis s, poli ical ecology, ulne abili y.
In oduc ion
The s uc u al ac o s and p ocesses shaping ulne abili y a e la gely
a p oduc o apid social change, d i en by dis an p ocesses. By
social change, I mean he b oad ange o ‘human’ ac o s ha a ec
local adap a ion, as opposed o biophysical ac o s in luencing
59
Gi um Ge achew Alemu has ea ned his B.A in Sociology and Social
An h opology and his Mas e ’s deg ee in De elopmen S udies om Addis Ababa
Uni e si y. Cu en ly, he is a PhD s uden a he Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e
School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS), Ge many. In his PhD esea ch he in e oga es
he in e na ional clima e change adap a ion agenda and he associa ed concep o
ulne abili y by zooming-in a he local le el and loca ing clima e change
adap a ion in b oade ‘social’ con ex in d y land pa s o uppe Awash alley in
E hiopia. Gi um’s esea ch ocuses on he cons ella ion o de elopmen ,
en i onmen al go e nance and local li elihoods. Pa icula ly, he explo es how
hese in e connec ions in luence he cons i u ion o human-en i onmen up u es
like disas e s, clima e change, and hei a e ma h. In his esea ch Gi um also
a ge s applied audience in he sphe e o policy making by unea hing he agency
o local esou ce use s in pu suing no el esponses and adap a ions o bo h
disas e and clima e change.
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exposu e. Social change hus encompasses social, cul u al,
economic, and poli ical ac o s and p ocesses. Any endea ou o
be e unde s and he ways in which local ac o s adap mus s a by
explo ing he dynamic social, poli ical, and demog aphic con ex o
ulne abili y. These dynamics ha e, I a gue, c i ical implica ions o
unde s anding con empo a y local adap a ions in he ace o clima ic
s ess.
Acco dingly, he majo sou ces o ulne abili y ha ha e in luenced,
in one way o ano he , he decision making and adap a ion
p ocesses o local ac o s in he semi-a id en i onmen o Uppe
Awash Valley a e explo ed. The da a p esen ed and analysed in his
pape was gene a ed using a ious sou ces. Seconda y sou ces o
in o ma ion such as go e nmen documen s conce ning he majo
ac i i ies in he Uppe Awash Valley we e consul ed. In addi ion,
p ima y da a we e ob ained h ough ocus g oup discussions and key
in o man in e iews wi h elde s, while a ious PRA ools such as
p oblem iden i ica ion and anking we e u ilised in ocus g oup
discussions.
The Ka ayyu pas o alis s in Uppe Awash alley ha e been
ulne able o a ious socio-poli ical and ecological o ces o e he
pas six o se en decades. Al hough g oups, indi iduals, and
communi ies may be ulne able o clima e change, ulne abili y is
indica i e o b oade social dynamics— hus ulne abili y is
p ocessual. This p ocess o ulne abili y was in mo ion du ing my
ield esea ch, and was mani es ed in he way he Ka ayyu
pas o alis s deploy a ious s a egies while in e ac ing wi h he
na u al en i onmen , pa icula ly wi h espec o he ecu en d ough
and he a ious ac o s ha a e ac i ely p esen in he locali y.
In o de o app oach he p oblem, I apply a poli ical ecology app oach
ha akes in o accoun gene al con ex s wi hin which bo h
en i onmen al p oblems and managemen issues a ise (Fo sy h
2003). Many au ho s (such as Bohle e al. 1994) ha e also de ined
poli ical ecology as a combina ion o poli ical economy and human
ecology app oaches o he in e ac ions be ween na u e and socie y.
Poli ical ecology a ies om he poli ical economy app oach since i
pu s emphasis on he en i onmen as an independen a iable ha
s uc u es social ela ions. In o he wo ds, he in luence o he
en i onmen on socie al change was ecognised in he poli ical
ecology app oach.
Na ional de elopmen -local ulne abili y nexus
Access o en i lemen s deno es he op ions ha indi iduals,
communi ies and social g oups ha e a ailable o hem o minimise
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he nega i e impac s o clima e change and ake ad an age o he
oppo uni ies. The enc oachmen o la ge-scale comme cial a ms
in o Ka ayyu e i o y has made pas o alis s suscep ible o ecu en
d ough and amine by dis up ing hei localised adap a ion s a egies
ha we e ailo ed owa ds mobili y o li es ock and people. The
poli ical ecology app oach accoun s o he close connec ion be ween
he expansion o de elopmen p og ammes in Awash Valley and he
ecu ence o d ough and amine in he egion. In o he wo ds, social
and poli ical sou ces o ulne abili y ela e o social de elopmen s
such as changes in he poli ical egime, including al e ed powe
ela ions a he egional and communal le el. Fo ins ance,
de elopmen policies may, a leas empo a ily, add o poli ical
unce ain ies a a ious le els, since hey may edis ibu e esou ces
and powe s be ween a ious ac o s. In a simila manne , mul iple,
simul aneous in e en ions by he s a e and o he g oups may cause
con usion and gene a e unan icipa ed ou comes.
In his ega d, en i lemen heo y shi s ou a en ion away om
clima ic o ces as an explana ion o amine (Downing 2003). Ra he
han app oaching amine and ood insecu i y as a p oduc o d ough
and c op/li elihood ailu e, Sen (1981) amed amine as a esul o
‘en i lemen ailu e’. The powe lessness o indi iduals o g oups o
access esou ces c ucial o coping wi h ex eme clima ic condi ions
such as d ough is a he cen e o en i lemen ailu e. F om his
pe spec i e, esou ce a ailabili y and he abili y o indi iduals o
mobilise hese esou ces a e cen al o an unde s anding o
ulne abili y (Adge 2006).
This is impo an in he con ex o he Ka ayyu pas o alis s in Uppe
Awash Valley o i highligh s he ac ha local-scale ulne abili y is
c ea ed by p ocesses which a e beyond he capaci y o he locals
and wi h dis an o ces such as shi s in policy. In his ega d,
ulne abili y o clima e change can also be conside ed wi hin he
amewo k o en i lemen s (Wa s and Bohle 1993; Bohle e al. 1994;
Adge and Kelly 1999). Acco ding o Bohle e al. (1994), he concep
o en i lemen s includes cul u al and in a- amilial en i lemen o
esou ces, as well as encompassing wide s uc u es o
empowe men by which hese en i lemen s a e secu ed and
con es ed. En i lemen s he e o e ex end beyond ma e ial and
economic measu es o well-being o encompass he mul i ude ways
in which esou ces necessa y o well-being a e accessed,
dis ibu ed, and con es ed o e space and ime (Kelly and Adge
2000). Access o en i lemen s deno es he op ions ha indi iduals,
households, communi ies and social g oups ha e a ailable o hem
o minimise he nega i e impac s o clima e change and ake
ad an age o he oppo uni ies.
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Comme cial a ms and he loss o pas o al spaces o adap a ion
In he 1960s, cha ing ou i s pa h h ough i e yea de elopmen
plans,
60
he mode nis go e nmen p e e ed o see he Awash Valley
in e ms o one o wo o i s esou ces and dis ega ded he es . This
esul ed in incalculable damage o he en i onmen and he well-
being o he many local communi ies in he alley. Fo ins ance,
hose in e es ed in he ‘ag icul u al de elopmen ’ o he alley only
ended o see he Awash Valley as no hing bu po en ial ag icul u al
land ha could gene a e o eign exchange and mo e he na ional
economy. The well-being o local communi ies and hei li es ock
we e no aken in o conside a ion. Because he Uppe Awash alley
is endowed wi h ag icul u al po en ial, bo h in e ms o na u al
esou ces and h ough i s p oximi y o local and in e na ional
ma ke s, he Ka ayyu land has a ac ed he go e nmen and
become a ‘bone o con en ion’ be ween he locals and he
‘in e en ionis ’ go e nmen (Ayalew 2001; Mülle -Mahn e al. 2010).
The loss o access o c i ical ‘spaces o adap a ion’ by he Ka ayyu
pas o alis s s a ed wi h he es ablishmen o he Me aha a Suga
Fac o y (MSF) unde an ag eemen be ween he Impe ial E hiopian
Go e nmen and Hendels-Ve eeniging Ams e dam (HVA) in 1967.
This ag eemen esul ed in he g adual alloca ion o 10,000 ha o
land o i iga ion pu poses on he o he side o Awash Ri e , aken
om he p ime d y season g azing a ea o he Ka ayyu pas o al
g oups. The mill, wi h a c ushing capaci y o 17,000 quin als o
suga cane, became ope a ional in 1969. The ac o y s a ed o
p oduce 1,700 quin als o suga pe day. This b ough he numbe o
suga ac o ies in he Awash Valley o h ee, namely, Wonji, Wonji-
Shoa and Me aha a, es ablished in 1954, 1960 and 1969,
espec i ely.
60
I is o be ecalled ha he Fi s Fi e Yea Plan, om 1957 o 1961, ga e p io i y
o in as uc u es, while he Second Fi e Yea Plan, om 1962 o 1967, allo ed
p ide o place o di ec ly p oduc i e unde akings, pa icula ly manu ac u ing
indus y, mining, elec ici y, e c. and he Thi d Fi e Yea Plan, 1968-1973,
in oduced a subs an ial shi o emphasis om he p eceding plans by placing high
p io i y on ag icul u e.

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Fig. 1: he p oli e a ion o i iga ed a ms in he Awash Valley
Wi h he es ablishmen o MSF, he Ka ayyu pas o alis s los hei
d y season g azing a ea and wa e ing poin s along he Awash Ri e .
The pa icula ecological impo ance o he a ea on which he suga
plan a ion was es ablished was ha i was domina ed by Acacia
Nilo ica, Acacia Syal and Acacia To ilis, and all g asses.
Fu he mo e, i was he all ees ha g ew along he i e bank ha
used o gi e su icien p o ec ion agains he sun du ing he d y
season. On op o his, acco ding o my key in o man s, he a ea
used o ha bou mo e han en spi i ual si es along he i e which
we e o g ea impo ance o he Ka ayyu people.
In-mig a ion o non-locals o Ka ayyu land
Ano he impo an demog aphic ac o is he mo emen o non-locals
in o Ka ayyu e i o y, which has pu a lo o s ess on he limi ed
esou ces ha ha e been le a e enc oachmen by he la ge-scale
comme cial a ms and conse a ion measu es. Pa icula ly impo an
he e was he immig a ion o he I u, which inc eased in magni ude in
he 1950s and con inued h oughou he 1950s and 1960s as a esul
o wa wi h he Issa Somali o e esou ce use and owne ship in hei
ances al land.
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A e he mig a ion, some I u se led alone in illages like Ben i, and
o he s li ed oge he wi h he Basso Ka ayyu in Kobboo, Degha
Hedhu, Galcha, and Moogassa. The i s h ee a e loca ed in he
oo hills o Moun Fen alle, and he ou h nea he suga cane
plan a ion and he pa k. The ela ions be ween he newcome s and
he hos s we e good om he e y beginning, since he mig a ion
was conduc ed in ag eemen wi h he Ka ayyu. The iendship and
solida i y be ween he I u and Ka ayyu ha cha ac e ised he p e-
mig a ion pe iod we e u he s eng hened a e he mig a ion
h ough ma iage, ecip ocal exchange o s ocks and gi s,
coope a ion in he paymen o blood compensa ion in pa icula and
pas o al li e in gene al. D ough igge ed he mig a ion o he I u
only in 1984/85. O he wise, wha made he mig a ion o he I u o
his pe iod di e en om he p e ious ones was ha un il 1984/85, i
was only he pas o alis s who mig a ed o Fen alle. Bu his ime, he
absence o ain o wo consecu i e yea s and he subsequen
d ough and amine in wes Ha a ge also o ced he ag o-pas o alis
I u o mig a e o he Ka ayyu e i o y in Fen alle Wo eda.
Pas o al agency and new p ac ices
Pas o alis s ac i ely employ hei agency in o de o deal wi h he
s uc u al sou ces o ulne abili y. The ‘duali y’ be ween s uc u al
o ces o ulne abili y and pas o al agency leads o he o ma ion o
eme ging p ac ices h ough ac i e engagemen by he ac o s.
Consequen ly, a he han iewing ac o s as unin en ionally
esponding o s uc u al shi s in powe ela ions emana ing om
abo e, his esea ch akes se iously he no ion ha local esou ce
use s a e agen s in hei own igh . Howe e , his ‘ equi es a concep
o human agency ha is nei he de e mined by social s uc u e no
en i ely olun a is ic’ (Gezon 2006: 15). Ac o s, in his amewo k, a e
seen as socially posi ioned wi h sys ema ic and pa e ned a ini ies
and disposi ions (Rocheleau 1995), while a he same ime, seeking
hei own bene i , cons an ly engaged in nego ia ion and ‘ he wo k o
social change’ (Bailey 2001). Ac o s a e also si ua ed wi hin
di e en ial, ye dynamic, powe ma ices, whe e iden i ies such as
gende and e hnici y and o he collec i i ies ame s a egies and
shape social in e ac ion. Giddens (1979) also akes he concep o
agency and de ines i as ‘ he capabili y o an ac o o ac o he wise’.
In his sec ion I explo e how he Ka ayyu pas o al g oups ha e
managed o ac i ely balance hei adi ional li es ock-based
mechanisms o dealing wi h ulne abili y wi h cul i a ion in he
p ocess o in e ac ing wi h hei b oade en i onmen .
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Inc ease in a ming p ac ices and dis up ion o pas o al social
ela ions
As s a ed in he p e ious sec ion, o se e al decades he Ka ayyu
we e exclusi e pas o alis s de i ing hei sus enance om ea ing
li es ock. Ne e heless, wi hin he las six o se en decades, due o a
combina ion o b oade social as well as clima ic ac o s, he ole o
he pas o al way o li e based on li es ock p oduc ion as a sole
sou ce o li elihood has g adually declined. The main easons o his
we e he sh inkage o he esou ce base due o ex e nal in e en ions
and consequen en i onmen al deg ada ion, and he ecu en
d ough .
De elopmen in e en ions like hose o he comme cial a ms we e
no a ou able o pas o alis s in he alley, since his esul ed in he
aliena ion o he d y season g azing lands o he Ka ayyu
pas o alis s (Ayalew 2001; Mülle -Mahn e al. 2010). The Ka ayyu
case is u he agg a a ed by he I u mig a ion and he es ablishmen
o he Awash Na ional Pa k and he expansion o Lake Beseka.
These de elopmen s ha e led o inc eased ulne abili y o he
pas o al way o li e by educed access o esou ces ha a e c ucial in
suppo ing mobile s a egies. The loss o pas u e and he ecu en
d ough ha e esul ed in a sha p decline in he size o he li es ock
popula ion
61
and impo e ishmen o he Ka ayyu.
All hese p ocesses o ulne abili y ha e o ced he once ull- ime
pas o alis s o adap hemsel es lexibly o ag o-pas o alism in which
he he dsmen combine li es ock aising wi h a ming p ac ices as an
adap i e measu e. Thus, a supplemen a y non-pas o al ac i i y,
namely a ming, began o expand despi e unsui able clima ic
condi ions. Fa ming is also dic a ed by he need o supply he
inc easing popula ion wi h ood, which he li es ock sec o alone
canno achie e.
In he con ex o he Ka ayyu, cul i a ion is p ac ised in wo di e en
ways, namely, ain- ed and i iga ed (Ayalew 2001). Bo h
mechanisms o c op p oduc ion in Ka ayyu land ha e been used o
he pas h ee decades. The Ka ayyu hemsel es ha e no
de eloped an ag icul u al adi ion. Ag icul u e was in oduced o he
Ka ayyu a eas in he wake o he mig a ion o he ag o-pas o alis
I u. Acco ding o he Ka ayyu elde s, i was in oduced by he I u
mig an s, especially by hose ag o-pas o alis s who came o Fen alle
61
The mean numbe o li es ock pe household plumme ed om 59.4 TLU ( opical
li es ock uni ) in 1977 o 14.5 in 1997 (Tibebe 1997 ci ed in Ayalew 2001).
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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dis ic o he i s ime du ing he 1984/85 d ough due o he c op
ailu e in Wes Ha a ghe.
B inging new p inciples in: he p ac ice o encing communal
pas u e
Land in he Ka ayyu a ea has been handled in he pas by
cus oma y ins i u ions. Howe e , wi h he social sou ces o
ulne abili y, he ole o hese adi ional ins i u ions in he Ka ayyu
pas o al communi y has declined. Fo ins ance, an inc eased in lux o
non-local a me s om o he a eas, pa icula ly he I u g oups om
Wes Ha a eghe, has b ough abou new wo ld iews and esul ed in
he expansion o small scale cul i a ion in Ka ayyu e i o y h ough
p i a e enclosu e. As a esul , he handling o he na u al esou ce
base, mainly land, has also unde gone changes. In o he wo ds, wi h
he inc eased social sou ces o ulne abili y, Ka ayyu pas o alis s
ha e s a ed o pu in place mechanisms o handling he sca ce
esou ces, such as p i a e enclosu es, by using hei ‘pas o al
agency’. This means he well-o Ka ayyu he de s wi h la ge
numbe s o li es ock did no si back and wa ch while he communal
pas u e lands we e aken o e o a ming pu poses. Ra he , as
indi idual agen s hey in oduced he idea o enclosing he land o
g azing pu poses, ei he indi idually o in a g oup. Locally, land ha
is enclosed o p i a e a ming pu poses is called Qonna, while land
ha is enclosed o g azing pu poses is known as Kalloo. In o he
wo ds, he engagemen o he pas o alis s in coun e balancing he
enclosu e o land o p i a e a ming has led o he in oduc ion o
new p ac ices/s a egies among he Ka ayyu ha es ic open
access o communal pas u e. These we e in oduced among he
Ka ayyu a e he sh inkage o hei esou ce base due o he
a ious sou ces o ulne abili y, and ep esen an a emp o ac i ely
c ea e mechanisms o dealing wi h hese ulne abili ies. As such,
Kalloo is aimed a esol ing he p oblem o sho age o pas u e in he
seasons o Bi aa (au umn) and Bonna (win e ). Res ic ions we e
placed on a po ion o g azing land in hei pe manen illages by
ag eemen s made by he pas o alis s hemsel es h ough he illage
leade . This decision was announced o he Wo eda adminis a ion
so ha i would no be iola ed by anyone.
The po ion o g azing land on which es ic ions a e placed emains
allow un il i becomes accessible o all membe s o he illage in he
d y season by ano he decision o he illage leade s. Bu nowadays
he se e e sho age o land caused by he mig a ion o he I u
pas o alis s om Wes e n Ha a ghe o he Fen alle a ea, and he use
o mos o he we season g azing zone (onna ganna) o se lemen
pu poses and oppo unis ic a ming ha e esul ed in a ailu e o ind
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85
Sco , J. (1985) Weapons o he weak: e e yday o ms o esis ance.
New Ha en: Yale Uni e si y P ess.
Sen, A. (1981) Po e y and amines: an essay on en i lemen and
dep i a ion. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Wa s, M. J. and H. G. Bohle (1993) ‘The space o ulne abili y: he
causal s uc u e o hunge and amine’, P og ess in Human
Geog aphy, 17 (1): 43-67.
Zimme e , K. S. and T. J. Basse (2003) Poli ical ecology: an
in eg a i e app oach o geog aphy and en i onmen -
de elopmen s udies. New Yo k: Guil o d Publica ions.

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86
Ghanaian ‘g een-deg ee’ g adua es e u ning om Ge many and
hei impac on en i onmen al de elopmen in Ghana
Julia Boge
64
Abs ac
This pape deals wi h in e na ional s uden mig a ion o Ghanaians
and he no ion ha i has posi i e e ec s on he de elopmen o he
sou ce coun y. Ghanaians s udy in Ge many and specialise in
subjec s ela ed o he en i onmen and esou ce p o ec ion. Usually,
mig a ion s udies on highly skilled Sub-Saha an A icans deal wi h
ou -mig a ion. I is said ha his ou -mig a ion causes a pe manen
loss, a ‘b ain-d ain’. The cases p esen ed in his pape show he
con a y. They show ha mig an s who go ab oad in o de o pu sue
hei s udies a e likely o e u n and o con ibu e o he sus ainable
de elopmen in eme ging ields such as ecology. The p emise o his
posi i e no ion on he mig a ion-de elopmen nexus is ha he home
coun y’s o mal labou ma ke o e s employmen o g adua es who
e u n. In his case, e u ning g adua es can ein es hei enhanced
knowledge in Ghana’s labou ma ke . This knowledge ans e helps
e u ning g adua es impac socie y a di e en le els: hey implemen
en i onmen al policies (mic o-le el); hey build ins i u ional capaci ies
(meso-le el) and in luence policy-making p ocesses ha shape
en i onmen al go e nance (mac o-le el). By p esen ing empi ical
da a om ieldwo k in Ghana, his pape clea ly demons a es ha
e u ning g adua es om Ge many achie e he s onges impac a
he meso-le el in capaci y building. The analysis o quali a i e
in e iews shows ha his kind o ‘b ain-ci cula ion’ c ea es posi i e
e ec s and e u n mig a ion becomes a ‘b ain-gain’.
Keywo ds: mig a ion and de elopmen , e u n mig a ion, g een
economy, Ghana.
In oduc ion
Policy- ela ed esea ch and deba es a gue ha highly skilled
mig an s om economically unde eloped coun ies can os e
sus ainable de elopmen in hei coun ies o o igin i hey a e able o
apply hei knowledge. Howe e , he ci cums ances unde which hey
can con ibu e o hei home coun ies’ de elopmen a e s ill no
64
Julia Boge holds an M.A. in Social An h opology om Johannes Gu enbe g-
Uni e si y and is pu suing a PhD in De elopmen Sociology a he Bay eu h
In e na ional G adua e School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS). She is w i ing he PhD
hesis on he job-hun expe iences and p o essional ajec o ies o Came oonian
and Ghanaian g adua es who ha e s udied in Ge many and who ha e e u ned.
The p ojec is closely linked o he p ac ical wo k in he ield o ein eg a ion and
de elopmen a Wo ld Uni e si y Se ice (WUS) Ge many.
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87
clea . The gene al ques ion o how mig a ion in luences de elopmen
p ocesses has c ea ed a as esea ch ield labelled as he
“mig a ion and de elopmen -nexus” (Nybe g-So ensen e al. 2002;
Fais 2008; Nieswand 2011). Since he 1950s, one discussion h ead
led o con o e sial iewpoin s: his con o e sy conce ned he
impac o e u n mig a ion on de elopmen . Schola s ad oca ing he
posi i e no ion o e u n mig a ion pe cei ed highly skilled mig an s
as po en ial “agen s o change” who can con ibu e o de elopmen
upon hei olun a y e u n:
65
Acco ding o dominan iews o he 1950s and 1960s
in de elopmen heo y, e u n mig an s we e seen as
impo an agen s o change and inno a ion. I was
expec ed ha mig an s no only b ing back money, bu
also new ideas, knowledge, and en ep eneu ial
a i udes. In his way, mig an s we e expec ed o play
posi i e ole [sic!] in de elopmen and con ibu e o
he accele a ed spa ial di usion o mode niza ion in
de eloping coun ies (de Haas 2010: 5).
Howe e , his op imis ic iew on e u n mig a ion con ibu ing o
de elopmen seems no o apply equally o e e y egion in he wo ld.
Fo ins ance, whe eas e u n mig a ion has become a success o
many Asian coun ies, he opposi e seems o be he case o Sub-
Saha an A ican na ions. Only a ew o hei highly skilled wo k o ces
who go o e seas e e e u n, because he obs acles a e oo
mani old
66
and he isk o su e ing om ‘b ain-was e’ is oo high o
hem
67
. Thei in es men in highe educa ion is was ed because hey
canno ully apply wha hey ha e lea ned due o poli ical es ic ions
in hei home coun ies and because ca ee p ospec s in mos Sub-
65
Today, Eu opean and Uni ed S a es (U.S.) go e nmen s a e inc easingly u ilizing
hese es ima ed posi i e e ec s o olun a y e u n mig a ion. The g owing numbe o
policy documen s on his opic e lec s his inc ease in in e es (Black e al. 2004;
BAMF 2006; EMN 2007; Schneide and K eienb ink 2010; IOM 2010; Black e al.
2011; Ko ács e al. 2012).
66
Many A icans who ha e mig a ed ab oad ha e a s ong e u n-o ien ed he o ic bu
ul ima ely a e eluc an o e u n o hei coun ies o o igin. Tsagué (2009: 21) explains
he easons o his wi h he example o Came oon. Mos Came oonians ea e u ning
because hey expec o ha e di icul ies in he sca ce o mal labou ma ke . They also
know ha he endemic co up ion causes se ious p oblems in e e yday li e and ha
hey would lack he kind o in as uc u e hey enjoy ab oad (pe manen access o
elec ici y and wa e supply, heal hca e).
67
In pa icula , highly skilled A ican mig an s isk was ing hei b ains ei he ab oad o
in hei home coun ies. I hey emain ab oad, hey o en only access low-paid
employmen ( o he case o Kenyans ab oad see Oyele e 2007). In addi ion, hei
po en ial emains unused i hey e u n and ha e o wo k ou side hei ields o s udies.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
88
Saha an A ican coun ies a e a om being a ac i e. Despi e
p omising g ow h a es o many coun ies’ GDPs and hei
ex ao dina y weal h o na u al esou ces, go e nmen s ha e ailed o
ans o m his economic de elopmen in o income gene a ing decen
employmen c ea ion. Today, o mal labou ma ke s in mos Sub-
Saha an A ican coun ies s ill a e ex emely na ow:
Fo mal employmen is limi ed o abou 10 pe cen o
he labou o ce, wi h mos wo ke s eking ou a li ing
in su i alis -o ien ed ac i i ies in he smallholde o
subsis ence ag icul u al sec o and in he u ban
in o mal economy, bo h cha ac e ized by low
p oduc i i y, low incomes and low p o ec ion.
Mo eo e , li le p og ess has been made in shi ing he
eliance o A ican economic g ow h away om
ag icul u e and esou ce ex ac ion owa ds
manu ac u ing and o he mo e dynamic and
knowledge-in ensi e ac i i ies in he se ice sec o
(ILO 2007: 31).
Thus, highly skilled Sub-Saha an A icans a he see emig a ion as a
way ou o po e y and since he 1980s, many na ions ha e los hei
b igh es heads pe manen ly.
68
A ‘b ain-d ain’ occu s and he model
o agen - ela ed sel -help wi hin he mig a ion-de elopmen model
seems o ha e ailed o mee he high expec a ions. Ne e heless,
schola s such as Pa e son (2007; 2008) ha e a ision ha mo e
“s a egic” app oaches could make e u n mig a ion become a ool
ha s imula es a ‘b ain-ci cula ion’ in a e y speci ic knowledge ield
by which Sub-Saha an A ican na ions inally could become wo ld
leade s:
(…) A ican go e nmen s can encou age and acili a e
g adua es o enginee ing and li e science
unde g adua e p og ammes a home o seek g adua e
educa ion in hose ields in he Uni ed S a es and
o he Wes e n coun ies h oughou he nex decade
o be in a posi ion o help pionee and ea ly adop he
ecological economy possibly jus o e he ho izon. I
A icans we e o do his s a egically and success ully,
hey would be es ablishing sys ema ic b ain ci cula ion
simila o wha some Asian ansna ional g oups ha e
done a ound he digi al knowledge economy
(Pa e son 2007: 146).
68
Fo ins ance, in Ghana he la ge amoun o ou -mig a ion o highly skilled wo ke s
has c ea ed la ge gaps o ained pe sonnel in he heal h ca e sec o (Nyona o and
Do lo 2005).
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Though he aspec o knowledge- ans e as a ool o de elopmen is
no new, Pa e son men ions his knowledge- ans e wi hin an
impo an and inno a i e speci ic ield: ha o ecological p o ec ion.
Today, especially he poo es coun ies in he global Sou h su e he
mos om he nega i e side e ec s o indus ialisa ion in he global
No h. The e o e, a global agenda was s a ed o a leas limi hese
nega i e e ec s and a he same ime con inue wi h economic
g ow h: his agenda is also known as ‘g een economy’ (UNEP 2011).
By applying his agenda o a g een economy, Sub-Saha an A ican
go e nmen s will also ha e o shi owa ds explo ing he
oppo uni ies o enewable ene gies. This shi owa ds a echnology-
in ensi e economy will also inc ease he local labou ma ke ’s
demand o highly skilled wo k o ces. This speci ic demand, a gues
Pa e son (2011), could mo i a e highly skilled A icans in he
diaspo a o e u n and con ibu e o his speci ic de elopmen . Thei
ans e ed knowledge would lead o a simila apid de elopmen as
has been seen in many Asian coun ies, like India, China, Taiwan,
and Ko ea. These na ions ha e become on - unne s in speci ic
knowledge-based echnologies, like in o ma ion and communica ion
echnologies (ICTs), hanks o hei s uden s who i s wen ab oad
and hen e u ned wi h enhanced knowledge, which hey hen
ans e ed o hei home coun ies’ economies.
69
In his pape , I a gue ha his posi i e ision o olun a y e u n
mig a ion based on a pa adigm shi owa ds a mo e ecologically
economic de elopmen is al eady unde way. My a gumen a ion is
based on empi ical da a de i ing om quali a i e in e iews wi h
Ghanaians who g adua ed om en i onmen al p og ammes in
Ge many and e u ned o Ghana o wo k as employees. The analysis
shows ha in he case o Ghana wo impo an p emises apply: i s ,
he g adua es ha e a p o essional p o ile ocussing on en i onmen al
subjec s and second, Ghana en o ces en i onmen al ac i i ies on a
policy le el. Fo a be e unde s anding o he coun y case, he
pape i s in oduces he deba e on con empo a y e u n mig a ion o
Ghana. Nex , I ou line Ghana’s p omo ion o a g een economy. Then,
he cu en gene a ion o Ghanaian s uden s in Ge many and hei
ocus on ecological subjec s, he ‘g een-deg ees’, is po ayed.
The ea e , I p esen case s udies o e u ned Ghanaians and hei
knowledge ans e in o he Ghanaian labou ma ke . I show ha
Ghanaian g adua es apply hei en i onmen al knowledge on h ee
69
Saxenian (2005) p esen ed he case o Indian and Chinese so wa e de elope s who
had p e iously wo ked in Silicon Valley and hen e u ned o hei home coun ies’
economies. Simila ly, o he case o China, Zweig (2006) showed how Chinese
g adua es e u ned success ully a e hei s udies ab oad. Recen ly, Pham (2010)
in es iga ed he coun y case Vie nam and i s e u ning diaspo a.
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di e en le els: he mic o, meso and mac o-le els. Se e al ac o s
ha hinde hei knowledge ans e a e also p esen ed. Finally, I
e lec hese empi ical indings in ligh o he mig a ion and
de elopmen nexus. This summa y leads o he conclusion ha
e u n mig a ion in his speci ic knowledge ield has posi i e e ec s.
Howe e , i can only un old i s ull po en ial i go e nmen s and
especially people wo king o he go e nmen welcome he e u ned
mig an s and also implemen he u gen ly needed ecological
pa adigm shi .
S udies on e u n mig a ion o Ghana in he con ex o
de elopmen
Re u n mig a ion o Ghana has inc eased du ing he las decade.
70
Especially Ghanaians li ing in he global No h a e e u ning mo e
o en.
71
This e u n end p ima ily conce ns he young gene a ion o
highly skilled (Ana i e al. 2005: 206) who pu sue hei second
deg ee ou side Ghana. They a e in con as o hose mig an s in who
wen ab oad du ing he phase o he la ge-scale exodus in he 1980s
and who emained in hei hos coun ies (A hu 2008; Nieswand
2011). Today’s young Ghanaian mig an s li ing ab oad o wo king
age end o e u n due o he ac ha condi ions in hei home
coun y ha e imp o ed and hence, hey ind economic oppo uni ies
and poli ical eedom, which in gene al encou ages e u n mig a ion,
s a e Ana i and Jaga e (2005: 6).
72
In b ie , e u ning o Ghana has
become an a ac i e oppo uni y especially o he highly skilled:
70
IOM (Qua ey 2009: 58) p esen s an o e iew on he di e en es ima ions ha ange
be ween 1 million o 3 million Ghanaians li ing ab oad (o e seas and on he A ican
con inen ).
71
The p opo ion o Ghanaians among pe sons who a i ed in Ghana s eadily
inc eased om 18.6 o 34.6 pe cen du ing he pe iod om 2000 o 2007 (Qua ey
2009: 13).
72
Fi s , Ghana’s economy and poli ical s abili y has imp o ed (Elische 2009). Second,
he ecen s a o o -sho e oil and gas exploi a ion has aised high hopes o u he
economic g ow h (B eisinge e al. 2009; Egyi 2012). Thi d, he Ghanaian go e nmen
explici ly o e ed incen i es o he diaspo a o e u n and o con ibu e o Ghana’s
de elopmen (Kleis 2011: 10). One o he main e en s was he Ghanaian Home
Coming Summi launched by he go e nmen o he New Pa io ic Pa y (NPP) in 2001.
I was he i s con e ence o Ghanaians li ing ab oad (Manuh and Asan e 2005: 298).
The summi appealed o hose li ing ab oad o e u n and o in es in hei home
coun y. They we e p omised adequa e in es men oppo uni ies and ha hey could
bene i om dual ci izenship (Qua ey 2009: 16; Adepoju 2008: 36). Howe e , in he
mids o he la es economic c ises, la e p esiden A ah Mills was eluc an o
encou age diaspo as o e u n because his would ha e c ea ed high p essu e on he
o mal labou ma ke (CNN 2009).

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As hese ansna ional mig an s e u n home, i is
a gued ha hey can acili a e he ans e o he
c i ical inancial and human capi al he de eloping
wo ld needs. Thus high skill mig a ion is a i al pa o
ha game, a join en u e om which bo h sou ce and
ecei ing coun ies and e en he mig an s hemsel es
ha e he po en ial o gain, hus c ea ing a ‘ iple win’
si ua ion o he bene i o e e yone and o
de elopmen and po e y educ ion (Awumbila 2008:
57).
The inc ease o his e u n end and he ques ion how hese
ansna ional mig a ion lows con ibu e o Ghana’s de elopmen also
a ac ed scien is s’ a en ion. One o he la ge p ojec s ha was
ca ied ou o in es iga e his ield o e u n mig a ion o Ghana was
he ‘T ansna ional Mig a ion, Re u n and De elopmen in Wes A ica’
(T ans ede)
73
p ojec unded by he UK Depa men o In e na ional
De elopmen h ough i s Globalisa ion and Po e y p og ammes.
Thanks o his p ojec , a numbe o s udies in es iga ed mig a ion
om and o Ghana. Many o hese s udies had a compa a i e design
and compa ed he si ua ion o Ghanaian e u n mig an s o ha o
Cô e d’I oi ian (Black e al. 2003a; Tiemoko 2003a; Tiemoko 2003b;
Tiemoko 2005; Black and Cas aldo 2009, Ammassa i 2009).
The majo i y o hese s udies iden i ied en ep eneu s as p ime
agen s o change ha ing o emos an economic impac upon e u n.
They con ibu e o he de elopmen o hei coun ies by in es ing
hei sa ings in in as uc u e and by s a ing hei businesses, which
in u n c ea es job oppo uni ies o he popula ion. In e es ingly, only
a mino i y o empi ical s udies ha e ouched on he ole o employees
and hei mo e in angible and social con ibu ions o de elopmen
upon e u n (Ma in 2005; Taylo 2009; Bochmann e al. 2008; Oli ie
2011). This is su p ising, because he majo i y o e u ning mig an s
om Ge many o Ghana ul ima ely become employees (c . Tiemoko
2005: 193). They lack su icien inancial capi al. Achie ing his
inancial capi al is o en di icul , especially o o eign s uden s in
Ge many. This has o do wi h he Ge man language ba ie ; wi h he
pa icula egula ions o labou law and wi h he bu eauc a ic hu dles
73
T ans ede is a collabo a i e e o by he Sussex Cen e o Mig a ion Resea ch
(SCMR) a he Uni e si y o Sussex, he Ecole Na ionale Supé ieu e de S a is ique e
d’Economie Appliquée (ENSEA), Abidjan, Cô e d’I oi e and he Ins i u e o Social,
S a is ical and Economic Resea ch (ISSER) a he Uni e si y o Ghana.
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ha s uden s ha e o clea o ob ain an o icial wo k pe mi a e
g adua ion.
74
Due o hese obs acles, s uden mig an s lack un e e ed access o
hei hos coun y’s o mal labou ma ke and o en end up in low-paid
jobs. In consequence, his leads o a de alua ion o hei educa ion
and deg ees (Elwe and Elwe 2011). Thus, e y ew s uden s in
Ge many accumula e enough sa ings o se up hei business upon
e u n. The e o e, i seems qui e na u al ha mos Ghanaians who
e u n as g adua es om Ge many seek o employmen
oppo uni ies a i s .
75
Being employees ins ead o employe s, hese
e u ned g adua es can become d i e s o change, oo. Fo ins ance,
Ammassa i (2009) concludes in he empi ical s udy ‘ he mos
impo an con ibu ions epo ed by e u nees we e hose in he
wo kplace. This consis ed o he in oduc ion o new knowledge, skills
and ideas and execu ion o some c i ical changes and e o ms’
(2009: 292). To unde line he indings she p esen s p ac ical
examples o employees ‘in he ields o esea ch and eaching,
adminis a ion and audi , ma ke ing and human esou ces, banking
and b oke age, en i onmen and o es y, elecommunica ions and
in o ma ion echnology’ (2009: 263-264). Ammassa i poin s ou ha
“change ini ia i es in he wo kplace mos ly hinge on whe he
e u nees ha e enough esponsibili y, au ho i y and powe and
enough ime o ge es ablished in such op posi ions” (2009: 293).
76
In addi ion, A hu (2008) speci ies his impac -le el app oach. He
inds ha e u ned g adua es ha e mos impac on de elopmen
74
Rega ding s uden mig a ion, ini ially o eign s uden s in Ge many could wo k 90
days annually. A e g adua ion, hey had o depa immedia ely (DAAD 2012: 2). The
Ge man go e nmen has eased his legal egula ion since 2005. Today, g adua es
may apply o a isa a e hei s udies ha allows hem o sea ch o wo k o 18
mon hs. Ne e heless, e y ew o eign g adua es use his oppo uni y. The easons o
his a e ha hey simply do no know o his egula ion, canno speak Ge man luen ly
enough o secu e quali ied jobs, o ha e p oblems inding an adequa e wo kplace
(Sykes and Chaoimh 2012: 51).
75
E idence o his assump ion is gi en by he ac ha he in e iews o he p esen
s udy men ioned, ha hey would ha e p e e ed o s a hei business, bu lacked
capi al. A e ha ing wo ked o some ime and accumula ed su icien amoun s o
inancial esou ces, some o he in e iewed mig an s had become sel -employed.
76
A e y p ominen example in he ield o medical ca e is Ghana’s ‘hea man’: P o .
Kwabena F impong-Boa eng, he ounde o he Ca dio Cen e o he Ko le Bu
Teaching Hospi al in Acc a, who wen o Ge many in 1978 o s udy ca dio ho acic
su ge y and who e u ned in 1992. In 2006, he wen in o poli ics. Recen ly, A ican
s uden s in Ohio, Uni ed S a es elec ed him as “A ican he o” (Tsika a 2012). P o .
F impong-Boa eng p omo es he use o ‘g een’ iendly uels in Ghana, p oducing bio-
diesel on a small scale in he p ocess o un ehicles (Sey 2010).
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issues on he mic o-le el, whe eas he posi i e e ec s on he
na ional, he mac o-le el, a e ‘ye o be el ’:
‘Though hey a e u ilizing hei human capi al skills
(acqui ed ab oad wo king in di e se capaci ies as
enginee s, pha macis s, doc o s, and business
en ep eneu s), he collec i e impac o hese
con ibu ions a he na ional le el has ye o ha e any
signi ican measu able impac on he socie y a -la ge
[sic]’ (A hu 2008: 155).
Bo h posi ions, Ammassa i’s and A hu ’s, con i m ha e u ning
mig an s can s imula e de elopmen p ocesses as employees. As
such, hey can in oduce inno a ions on di e en le els. Howe e ,
one has o see i he g adua es’ p o iles i he pa icula labou
ma ke demand. Because, as Awumbila (2008: 58) co ec ly s a es,
he e u ning mig an s ‘a e unlikely o be he key ac o in he
de elopmen o hei homeland, bu hey can play signi ican oles
(…) and can be playing a complemen a y ole a he han he key
ole in ans o ming an economies’. Howe e , his kind o
complemen a y de elopmen in is only possible i he g adua es ind
wo k a all. In his ega ds, he ecen gene a ion o Ghanaians who
s udied in Ge many and e u ned does qui e well. Thei educa ional
p o ile ma ches he eme ging ‘g een economy’s’ demand and hence
hey land jobs in he ield o en i onmen al p o ec ion and enewable
ene gies. In addi ion, o acili a e hei e u n inancially, he Ge man
go e nmen e en uns speci ic ein eg a ion p og ammes, which in
pa icula ha e he goal o con ibu e o de elopmen p ocesses.
77
77
In Ge many, he wo majo p og ammes a e he Re u ning Expe P og amme (REP)
and he Rein eg a ionp og amme (RE). The REP al eady exis s since he 1980ies.
Today, i is un on behal o he Cen e o In e na ional Mig a ion and De elopmen
(CIM). CIM is a coope a ion be ween he Ge man In e na ional Coope a ion (GIZ)
GmbH and he In e na ional Job Placemen Se ice (ZAV) o he Ge man Fede al
Employmen Agency (BA). Ano he long- e m pa ne in he REP is he Wo ld
Uni e si y Se ice (WUS e.V.). WUS, an associa ion wo king on he human igh o
educa ion in Ge many since 1950, designed he pa o he wo kplace equipmen
subsidy in he 1990ies. WUS ca ies ou his pa on behal o CIM (Laase 2007: 345).
See o mo e in o ma ion abou he p og amme and i s combinable pa s:
www. e u ning-expe .de and www.wusge many.de. The P o es an Associa ion
Chu ch De elopmen Se ice (EED) ca ies ou he RE-P og amme, which ocuses on
job-placing g adua es in ci il socie y o ganisa ions (see Se egnani and Schuh 2010:
6). Fo mo e de ail please ead he homepage: www.b o - ue -die-wel .de.
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Towa ds sus ainable de elopmen in Ghana
Since independence, Ghana’s go e nmen has g adually in eg a ed
aspec s o en i onmen al p o ec ion in o i s de elopmen policies.
78
In
2012, sho ly a e Rio+20, Ghana mains eamed he concep o a
‘g een economy’ (UNEP 2011) in o na ional de elopmen as an
impo an ool o each he Millennium De elopmen Goals (MDGs)
(GNA 2012). This o icial s ep is an impo an signal. I shows ha
p o ec ion o he en i onmen has become an u gen global ask and
ha Ghana’s go e nmen has accep ed he challenge o igh o a
be e en i onmen . Howe e , i has aken a long ime o his
concep o each his le el o awa eness. In 1972, he Uni ed Na ions
(UN) globally launched he concep o sus ainable de elopmen .
79
78
Ghana’s de elopmen agenda a e independence in 1957 a i s mainly a ge ed
economic g ow h. The i s go e nmen al s a egy was he Economic Reco e y
P og amme (ERP) in 1983. I was pa o he S uc u al Adjus men P og ammes
(SAPs) suppo ed by he Wo ld Bank (WB) and he In e na ional Mone a y Fund (IMF).
Whe eas his p og amme s abilised economic g ow h, i soon c ea ed se e e
en i onmen al p oblems caused by o e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces and pollu ion.
In 1994 he e o e, as a long- e m app oach, Ghana’s Vision 2020 was p omo ed o
a ge Ghana’s de elopmen in he pe iod om 1996-2000. This ision me ely ocussed
economic s abili y and i unde ep esen ed he en i onmen . Mo eo e , he Po e y
Reduc ion S a egy (GPRS I) was launched in 2001. This s a egy a ge ed
de elopmen p ojec s du ing he pe iod 2003-2005. I ollowed he concep o he
Agenda 21 and was in line wi h Na ional S a egies o Sus ainable De elopmen
(NSSD). Whe eas GPRS I ocused mainly on po e y educ ion, he ollowing s a egy,
he G ow h and Po e y Reduc ion S a egy (GPRS II), emphasised g ow h-inducing
policies. This s a egy was launched in 2006 and implemen ed in he pe iod om 2006-
2010. I in eg a ed all h ee pilla s o sus ainable de elopmen in Ghana (economic,
social, and en i onmen al de elopmen ) o he i s ime. S a egic En i onmen al
Assessmen s (SEAs) we e in ol ed and hus en i onmen al componen s
mains eamed in sec o s a egies o he GPRS II (Rai 2008). Finally, he Ghana
Sha ed G ow h and De elopmen Agenda (GSGDA) succeeded he GPRS II in 2010.
79
The global call o en i onmen al p o ec ion s a ed in 1972, when he UN o ganised
he i s con e ence on en i onmen and de elopmen , he UN Con e ence on Human
En i onmen (UNCHE) in S ockholm, Sweden. In 1983, he UN se up he Wo ld
Commission on En i onmen and De elopmen , headed by G o Ha lem B und land, a
o me P ime Minis e o No way. Fou yea s la e , in 1987, he Commission published
a epo , ‘Ou common u u e’, synonymously called he ‘B und land Repo ’. This
epo ecommended c ea ing syne gies be ween economy and ecology and called on
go e nmen s o ake esponsibili y o en i onmen al damage and o moni o he
policies ha cause he damage. Wha ollowed was he UN Con e ence on
En i onmen and De elopmen (UNCED) in he B azilian ci y o Rio de Janei o in 1992.
This con e ence was he Ea h Summi o Rio 92. One o i s main esul s was he inal
epo , he AGENDA 21. This epo was also desc ibed as a bluep in o sound
de elopmen in o he 21s Cen u y. Abou en yea s la e , in 2002, a e iew con e ence
was held in Johannesbu g, Sou h A ica o e alua e gains made since AGENDA 21,
and in 2012 Rio+20 discussed cu en achie emen s. This la es con e ence s ongly
p omo ed he g een economy concep (Awuku Apaw 2012).
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classic ci ic enginee ing. Bo h men and women had limi ed o mal
wo k expe ience. As i s -deg ee g adua es, hey had al eady
comple ed hei Na ional Se ice
93
in Ghana o had wo ked in
empo a y p ojec s. Rega ding hei subjec s in Ge many, hey
concen a ed (Fig. 1) on ‘g een-deg ee’ p og ammes.
Fig. 1: subjec s o s udies o in e iewed Ghanaian g adua es
The subjec s which Ghanaians in he sample p e e ed mos we e
gene al esou ce managemen (31 pe cen ) and hyd o enginee ing
(28 pe cen ), ollowed by 14 pe cen who concen a ed on o es y
in opics and sub opics. Only 7 pe cen en olled o he classic
domain o enginee ing, ag icul u e, and de elopmen managemen .
One pe son (3 pe cen ) g adua ed om sciences (chemis y) and
one (3 pe cen ) om in o ma ion echnology (IT). I is now o in e es
o ind ou how hese g adua es applied hei expe ise in hei
occupa ions upon hei e u n o Ghana.
93
A mili a y dec ee (N. R. C. D 208) es ablished he Ghana Na ional Se ice Scheme
in 1973. I had he manda e o mobilise and deploy Ghanaian ci izens aged 18 yea s
and abo e. Since 1982, he du a ion o se ice was ex ended om one o wo yea s.
The scheme, since i s incep ion, has become he ins i u ional op ion o Ghanaian
you h, especially e ia y educa ion g adua es, o exe cise hei ci ic esponsibili y
owa ds he s a e (GNSS 2011).

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En i onmen al knowledge ans e s
As indica ed ea lie , educa ional mig an s can con ibu e o hei
coun ies’ de elopmen i hei p o iles ma ch he labou ma ke
demand in speci ic ields o expe ise. As p e iously ci ed,
Ammassa i and A hu a gue ha he impac o hei knowledge
ans e s ongly depends on he le el a which mig an s ans e his
knowledge. I will now in es iga e whe he his a gumen also applies
o he example o he in e iewed mig an s, who g adua ed and ha e
e u ned om Ge many. Rega ding hei occupa ion, all secu ed
o mal employmen in he e ia y sec o , he se ices.
94
Wi hin he
se ices sec o hey wo k in di e en indus ies (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: employing indus ies o in e iewed e u ning Ghanaians
The majo i y o 34 pe cen inds employmen in local consul ancy
i ms (including non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions (NGOs)). Two equal
pa s (28 pe cen ) wo k in highe educa ion and in he public se ice.
Only h ee (10 pe cen ) s a hei ca ee in in e na ional
94
In 2010, he con ibu ions o he h ee economic sec o s o he Ghanaian GDP we e
ag icul u e (25.6 pe cen ), indus y (25.9 pe cen ), and se ices (48.5 pe cen ) (GSS
2012: 5).
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o ganisa ions.
95
Now, I will show how he esponden s ans e hei
en i onmen al knowledge on h ee le els (Fig. 3).
96
Fig. 3: le els o occupa ional knowledge ans e
The igu e shows h ee le els and hei impac sphe es: i s , a he
mic o-le el, he in e iewees implemen hei knowledge ha
posi i ely a ec s li e in u al communi ies. Second, a he meso-le el,
he g adua es a e building in-coun y capaci ies, he eby
s eng hening he coun y’s ins i u ions ha will p o i on a long e m
om his measu e. Thi d and inally, g adua es a he mac o-le el a e
di ec ly in ol ed in designing en i onmen al policies and hus ha e
an impac on socie y a la ge.
Implemen ing wa e and sani a ion policies
Ghanaians who g adua e om he ields o hyd o enginee ing a e
expe s on sani a ion, wa e , and was ewa e managemen . Thei
expe ise p ecisely mee s he demands o many local consul ancies
ha ca y ou cu en go e nmen al policies (GPRSII) o imp o e
access o sa e wa e and sani a ion in u al and u ban a eas. Today,
hese local consul ancies and NGOs a e impo an playe s in he
wa e and sani a ion sec o (Yi enya-Tawiah and Tweneboah Lawson
2012). In consequence, hey o e employmen o he e u ning
g adua es. A mas e ’s deg ee holde o Wa e Resou ces
95
Consequen ly, I only chose examples om he i s h ee employmen ca ego ies:
go e nmen , highe educa ion, and consul ancies.
96
These le els o cou se may o e lap: lec u e s a uni e si ies also implemen
go e nmen cu icula on en i onmen al p o ec ion; wo ke s in consul ancies also
c ea e awa eness in u al communi ies when hey implemen new echnologies.
Remembe ing he ac ha he in e iewed Ghanaians p ima ily s udied he wo
subjec s hyd o and esou ce enginee ing (see ig. 1), he ollowing examples
concen a e on cases ha show how hei knowledge was applied in hese wo
indus ies.
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Enginee ing and Managemen (WAREM) om he Uni e si y o
S u ga , M . L., desc ibes
97
his wo k in he communi ies:
Fo one yea we ha e o be wi h he communi y. We
go he e o check he acili y whe he i is he way we
wan i o un, we look a he es , also check he
quali y o he wa e ; look a he acili y whe he i is
s able and we do ecommenda ion o one yea . We
call some hing de ec i e liabili y ha is i some hing
goes w ong acco ding o he cons uc ion, he
con ac o would ha e o do i a his own cos . I will
also go he e o eco d any acili y which is no good,
come back w i e a le e o him ha his one is no
good, go and change i and he will go and do i a his
own cos . A e one yea when e e y hing is okay he
hands o e e e y hing and I also lea e.
L’s wo k in he communi ies is ime-consuming and in ense. He
ca ies ou many echnical s eps and ac s di ec ly a he
implemen a ion le el. His asks include easibili y s udies (“check he
acili y”), wa e quali y es s (‘check he quali y o he wa e ’) and
moni o ing o he cons uc ion (‘look a he acili y whe he i is
s able’). The esul s o L’s wo k a e e y angible. I makes li e o
local communi y popula ion easie and heal hie . They ha e less
p oblems accessing clean po able wa e , which educes imp o es
hei li e quali y:
Like, whe e I wen o om Monday, you pass h ough
illages, and you see a lo o hem [people] ca ying
wa e om s eams. I money is a ailable all his
[ hese, J.B.] people should be gi en bo eholes wi h
wa e (…) bu he e is no money, so he people a e
le o e ch om hose s eams any hing (…) when I
design, we do cons uc ion, he i s ime you open he
ap, hey ge wa e , hey s a shou ing: ‘eeehh’. A
leas you ha e sol ed some p oblem. Since I came I
ha e done qui e a lo , I ha e done abou 10 designs
and e e ybody is ge ing wa e ou o i (…)
Somebody helped us somewhe e and we a e also
helping.
This quo e shows how L’s echnical expe ise enables him o “design”
and o do “cons uc ions” in he b oad ield o hyd o enginee ing.
Wo king in an employing s uc u e ha is empowe ed o implemen
97
All in e iews a e anonymous and ex ac s a e om ansc ibed in e iews. To
acili a e eading, I ha e sligh ly modi ied he spelling o he spoken language.
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go e nmen al policies on sani a ion, he inally is able o imp o e he
li ing condi ions o many communi y membe s. He hus has an
impac on de elopmen p ocesses on he mic o-le el.
En i onmen al awa eness and capaci y building
Today, Ghana’s go e nmen is calling o mo e awa eness in socie y
conce ning en i onmen al issues and seeking o build in-coun y
capaci ies. G adua es who s udied ‘g een-deg ee’ p og ammes in
Ge many and la e mul iply hei knowledge in ins i u ions o highe
educa ion, uni e si ies and poly echnics, con ibu e owa ds his
demand. Thei p o essional in eg a ion in his sec o is likely because
ca ee s in he educa ional segmen a e a ac i e. ‘A uni e si y
posi ion’ as Neube (2008: 100) ou lines, ‘has a good epu a ion and
o e s good chances o consul ancy wo k o add o he sala y’ and
migh e en become a ‘s epping s one’ o op jobs in he go e nmen
o in in e na ional o ganisa ions. In addi ion, he demand o quali ied
lec u e s in Ghana is high. The coun y aces an immense sho age
o quali ied academic s a , seconda y school eache s and
esea che s due o he as ou mig a ion o he highly skilled (Manuh
e al. 2005). The e o e, g adua es wi h a deg ee om ab oad can ill
his gap pe ec ly well. Such is he case o M . U., a mas e ’s deg ee
holde om he Uni e si y o S u ga in he ield o Was e Wa e
Managemen . A e his e u n, U. i s s a s o wo k in a
go e nmen al consul ancy and a e wo yea s, he applies a a
poly echnic. F om sc a ch, he gains he posi ion o Head o
Depa men in a poly echnic. When I ask him du ing he in e iew
wha he hough was he mos impo an quali ica ion o do he job as
a head o depa men , U. men ions he deg ee in he i s place:
Yeah he quali ica ion I go om S u ga o cou se i
has been e y help ul because o be a lec u e in a
e ia y ins i u ion he minimum is a mas e ’s le el and
i you ha e a BSc. in a poly echnic you can be an
ins uc o bu you condi ions o se ice a e no good.
Ge ing he mas e ’s deg ee had posi ioned me in a
be e place. In ac , he e we e o he people who had
been in he depa men be o e I came. Bu because
hey didn’ ha e hei mas e ’s e en hough hey had a
lo o expe ience in e ms o “on he job” aining, hey
a e now in he backg ound and I jus came and I was
made he HEAD o Depa men (…) i is because o
he quali ica ion, yes.
Despi e his lack o eaching expe ience, he deg ee i sel posi ioned
U. p o essionally ‘in a be e place’. As a head o depa men , he is
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also in ol ed in he es ablishmen o a new mas e ’s deg ee
p og amme on was e managemen :
The e a e some o he cou ses you can’ ge hem
he e (…) he e is no ins i u ion in Ghana ha handles
was e managemen and K-Poly is now ying o wo k
on i . We a e de eloping a cu iculum, ou dean wen
o Holland wi h he ec o , and hey wen o (…) he
Technical Uni e si y o Hambu g-Ha bu g (HH) who is
in o his was e managemen / om S u ga we ha e
he was e managemen aspec (…) So o such a
cou se like his we need o ain people a he MSc
le el; he e is no any ai deg ee; we don’ ha e
echnology, we don’ ha e i . MSc – we don’ ha e i
bu each cou se is un in Ge many, wa e esou ces
(...) so o such cou ses i you don’ a el ou side hen
you can’ ha e i and i you don’ ha e i he e is no
chance he e is no way Ghana will ha e any
educa ion in ha line.
I shows ha U. is supposed o build up a cu iculum based on he
aw model o he cou ses he ook in Ge many. Finally, he esul s o
his knowledge ans e ha e an impac a an ins i u ional (meso-)
le el. This is because as soon as he cu icula a e designed, many
mo e s uden s gain educa ion up o mas e ’s le el. This new s udy
p og amme will de ini ely gene a e mo e in-coun y expe s and
p e en u he ou mig a ion o young s uden s. Wha is mo e, i
‘g een-deg ee’ g adua es e u n and become lec u e s in highe
educa ion, hey become ole models. They no only each bu also
ul il socie al commi men s a an ins i u ional (meso-) le el, which
c ea es b oade awa eness o he en i onmen . This is because he
highe educa ion ins i u es in mos A ican coun ies a e obliged o
“p o e [ hei , J.B.] use ulness h ough de elopmen ac i i ies e en
wi hou a esea ch componen ” (Neube 2008: 98). M . B., a
g adua e om he BTU Co bus En i onmen al Resou ce
Managemen (ERM) p og amme, desc ibes he impac o his
addi ional socie al commi men o en i onmen al capaci y building:
When I came home, because o he expe ience in
Ge many, I ealised ha he si ua ion was e y bad
(…) And ha is why I es ablished wi h some o he
colleagues/we s a ed a clean-up se ice.
98
We
98
Today, he scope o his o me ly locally ac ing clean up se ice has become mo e
global and p o essionalised. The membe s success ully egis e ed as an NGO,
de eloped u he links o hei o me Ge man p o esso s and e u ned g adua es in

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o ganised he s uden s, wen o he hospi als and
ma ke a eas, and plan ed ees. We also made
educa ional campaigns o educa e people on how o
clean he en i onmen . We o ganised o ums, made
some p esen a ions and because o my eaching oles
we we e no able o do i mo e equen ly. This is one
hing ha I ha e done o his pa icula egion [in he
Uppe Wes ] I had o de elop hese b ochu es
because I hink we had o mo e o wa d and ad e ise
in he schools so ha people will come (…) And I hink
ha is my social esponsibili y help he na ion o mo e
o wa ds.
Wha is in e es ing is ha he ac ions owa ds awa eness c ea ion
a e no pa o his lec u ing du ies. B. mus ca y hem ou in his
spa e ime. S ill, using his o mal ole as a lec u e enables him o
each a b oad audience: his s uden s, his colleagues, and people a
he hospi als and he ma ke s. This is de ini ely a mo e signi ican
ield o in luence han in con as o hose who simply impa hei
knowledge o an indi idual (e.g. o hei own child en). These
examples show ha he knowledge ans e o e u ning g adua es
om Ge many who wo k as lec u e s in highe educa ion builds
capaci ies in Ghana’s ins i u ions. They ac as mul iplie s in passing
on hei speci ic knowledge a he (meso-) le el.
In luencing en i onmen al policies
The in e iewees wo king in he public se ice a e ambi alen abou
hei impac oppo uni ies. A e y high le el o knowledge ans e
desc ibes a esou ces enginee om he Uni e si y o Ka ls uhe, Ms.
A. A. who s a s wo king as a esea ch assis an a he Minis y o
En i onmen . The e she is esponsible o a sec ion ha ad ises he
minis e on en i onmen al coope a ion:
I will gi e you a ypical example like a le e om he
Ge man go e nmen wan ing o es ablish ECOWAS
clima ic change esea ch desk. The le e came and
hen no mally wha hey will do (…) he minis e will
w i e le e s ‘le us go s aigh o hem’ so I will w i e a
minu e o hem (…) I w o e a memo o he depu y
minis e saying ha OK, eading wha hey wan o
es ablish, I hink he Cen e o Scien i ic and
Indus ial Resea ch (CSIR) can hos his because hey
ha e esea ch scien is s on clima ic change. I has
Uganda and Nige ia. The NGO “Clean A ica” is online a
h p://www.cleana ica.o g/clean/.
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hi een ins i u es so hey can gi e enough people o
do hese hings so he p ojec should be and he
ag ees. Wha happens is, i he ag ees wi h my
sugges ion, I go ahead and w i e a le e o he
Ge man go e nmen . Bu I don’ sign. He will sign bu
I w i e a le e .
In his example, A. explains how much in luence she has in he
backg ound (‘he will sign bu I w i e a le e ’), due o he expe
knowledge. She is e en in a posi ion o ac i ely shape in e na ional
coope a ion on clima e change (‘es ablish ECOWAS clima ic change
esea ch desk’). He ca ee , she explains, is he esul o a cou se
she comple ed in Ge many:
And mo e also ano he hing why hey chose me (…)
is he cou se I did in Ge many (…) I is o policy
make s, you know. I is o decision make s (…) And
when I came he e, i was also whe e I ha e o be om
he e. I make decisions.
Ano he case ha shows how g adua es wi h g een-deg ees apply
hei knowledge a he mac o-le el is he case o ano he BTU
Co bus g adua e, M . M. He s udied En i onmen al Resou ce
Managemen (ERM) and w o e his mas e ’s hesis on en i onmen al
axa ion. This hesis p o ided a model o Ghanaian u u e axa ion
schemes a he Ghanaian In e nal Re enue Se ice:
And hen i happened ha I had o do my mas e ’s
hesis and I con ac ed my boss a IRS [In e nal
Re enue Se ice, JB.] and he said (...) we ha e his
p oblem in Ghana how o ax en i onmen al
esou ces. So when I say en i onmen al esou ces
mine als o ins ance gold, bauxi e, manganese and
diamond, imbe and all ha (…) look a he Ge man
ax sys em and hen how I can apply i o Ghana (...).
My supe iso helped me o s udy he ax sys em,
especially in he a ea o en i onmen al esou ces. So I
did ha and hen I used ha as a model. I you look a
my hesis, Ge many is a model o wha I did, So I
looked a wha Ge many has done and did a simila
hing. I hen b ough i back o hem and hey we e so
exci ed because hey ha e no had ha hing done
be o e.
The example o M. shows ha his specialisa ion i s he demand in a
niche. By ans e ing his expe ise and adap ing he Ge man model
o en i onmen al axa ion o i Ghana’s con ex , he e en in luences
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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he go e nmen ’s budge .
99
In bo h cases, he p o iles o he
in e iewees ma ch he conc e e demand o he go e nmen al
ins i u ion and – which mus no be aken o g an ed – hei supe io s
welcome hem bo h. The e o e, hey bo h a e in a posi ion o
in luence he decision-making p ocess on en i onmen al policies.
Thei knowledge ans e will ha e an impac o socie y a he
mac o-le el. Howe e , as I men ioned ea lie in his sec ion, o he
g adua es ace cons ain s and challenges ha hinde hem
ad ancing hei en i onmen al knowledge.
Cons ain s on en i onmen al knowledge ans e
Whe eas he p e ious examples o academics who s udied in
Ge many and e u ned o Ghana sugges ha e e yone inds a job
easily and can adop wha she o he lea ned ab oad, undoub edly,
eali y p oo s di e en . No all g adua es who s udy in Ge many a e
in a posi ion o become ‘agen s o change’. This, because many ha e
o ace se ious challenges upon hei e u n, which complica e and
some imes e en o ally block hei knowledge ans e . Rega ding he
in e iews, as well as aking e idence om p e ious s udies on he
opic o e u n mig a ion o Ghana, I iden i ied ou main obs acles:
i s , inding wo k in he o mal sec o ; second, ecei ing adequa e
paymen ; hi d, ha ing he igh equipmen o wo k and ou h, being
welcomed by employees and supe io s.
Sea ching o a job a e g adua ion has become al eady a di icul
ansi ion p ocess o academics who can sea ch in amilia
su oundings. Howe e , i becomes e en mo e di icul i one mo es
o ano he coun y i s . Than i is a double ansi ional p ocess and
equi es pa ience
100
as Ms. C. explains:
I is no easy wi h he job sea ch in Ghana (.) bu i
you ha e he pa ience because some hing I ealise
ha mos people a e jus a yea o us a ion hey
lea e o he US. Some people e en go back o
Ge many, UK. BUT ha ’s one di e ence, i you ha e
99
The design o his axa ion model would c ea e a new sou ce o income o he
Ghanaian go e nmen . I is an ‘economic ins umen ’ (EI). Economic ins umen s like
his equi e en i ies ha cause en i onmen al damage o pay axes. This conce ns
o eign-based mining companies. Launching his ype o axa ion model in Ghana
gene a es budge a y income and a he same ime encou ages o eign companies o
capi alise on esou ces using en i onmen ally iendly echnologies (Komba 2009: 26).
100
Especially hose who s a ed in s a e uni e si ies complained ha he ec ui men
p ocedu es we e oo ime-consuming. The sho es ime om i s in e iew o being on
he pay oll was six mon hs. In ano he case, i e en ook almos wo yea s un il he
in e iewee ecei ed his i s sala y.
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he pa ience and wai . A leas you ind some hing in
Ghana, no ma e wha . You will ind some hing o do.
And no only some hing. I you ha e he pa ience, you
will eally land you sel on a good job. Bu you know
when we come he us a ion is he e. You wanna
wo k you wanna wo k and wi hin h ee ou i e
mon hs no hing comes. Because you had he
oppo uni y o go ou side ge ing a isa o ano he
coun y is no di icul . Bu you will s ill come back and
whe e a e you going o s a om? I is be e you s ay
in and HOOK you sel somewhe e.
As M s. C. who s udied Fo es Ecosys em Managemen a he
Uni e si y o F eising men ions, i some imes is so us a ing o
e u n and o sea ch o wo k unsuccess ul in Ghana, ha some
people a e emp ed o lea e he coun y again. Wha makes i so
di icul o access he local labou ma ke is wo k expe ience? Mos
employe s equi e h ee o i e yea s o quali ied expe ience. The
expe D . Bih, who has insigh s on he opic om his o me
expe ience as a job counsello o e u ning g adua es
101
he e o e
sugges s ha o o e come he issue o wo k expe ience one mus be
p epa ed o ake up lowe posi ions/lowe -paying jobs (2008: 12).
The di icul ies in inding a well-paid job ha e e en inc eased since
2008 because o he inancial c isis. Since hen, inding well-paid
employmen in he o mal segmen o Ghana’s labou ma ke soon
a e e u n has become e en mo e challenging e en o hose who
ha e a ma ching p o ile, con i ms D . V. who did comple e he
doc o a e in chemis y in B emen:
As o he o he inancial c isis i is no imp o ing i is
e en ge ing wo s , hmmm, hings a e no - you know
he way hey SHOULD be (…) you ha e o adjus
you sel and combine e e y hing ha is i - ha is wha
SCARES a lo o hese young people. Ei he hey do
no come back o hey come and hey go BACK. Tha
is he p oblem. Because i I look a mysel I compa e i
and I y o change i you see ha in Eu o i is no hing
- i is i ually no hing - i I would be wo king in Eu o I
would ha e been ea ning MORE han THIS (…) I
eally don’ wan o compa e because i doesn’ make
101
Since 1994, job counsello s who also s udied in Ge many ha e assis ed esh
e u ns in inding jobs in he o mal segmen . The i s job counsello s wo ked in he
con ex o a mig an sel -o ganisa ion, he “Rückkeh e o ice” (Ma in, 2005: 240). The
o ganisa ion enamed i sel he Ghanaian Ge man Alumni-Ne wo k (GGAN) (Boge
2010). Today, he counsello wo ks as pa o he Ge man In e na ional Coope a ion
o ice (GIZ) in Acc a.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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<h p://da a.wo ldbank.o g/news/2010-GNI-income-
classi ica ions>, accessed 04 Oc obe 2012.
Wi zel, A. (2000) ‘The p oblem-cen e ed in e iew’, Fo um Quali a i e
Social Resea ch 1 (1): A icle 22.
YEN and IYF (2009) P i a e Sec o Demand o You h Labou in
Ghana and Senegal: Ghana and Senegal s udy indings.
Washing on DC: YEN, You h Employmen Ne wo k; IYF,
In e na ional You h Founda ion.
Yi enya-Tawiah, D. and E. T. Lawson (2012) ‘Ci il socie y is pa ing
he way owa ds be e sani a ion in Ghana’, D+C 9: 327-329.
Zweig, D. (2006) ‘Lea ning o compe e: China’s e o s o encou age
a “ e e se b ain d ain”’ in C. Kup sch and E. Pang (eds),
Compe ing o global alen . Wee Kim Wee Cen e. Gene a:
In e na ional Ins i u e o Labou S udies (ILO).

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Kleinhändle au dem Chisokone-Ma k in Ki we/Sambia – iele
He aus o de ungen, k ea i e Lösungen
Felix B inkmann
102
Abs ac
Übe Kleinhandel in A ika und dessen He aus o de ungen exis ie
be ei s eine Vielzahl an Li e a u . Imme wiede wi d dabei au die
schwie ige Lage on Kleinhändle n in wi scha liche wie pe sonale
Hinsich e wiesen. Häu ig he sch Kapi almangel, hohe
Konku enzd uck in einem kompe i i en Um eld sowie wenig bis
keine Regulie ung des wi scha lichen Rahmens. Diese Fak o en
gel en eben alls ü Kleinhändle au dem Chisokone-Ma k in
Ki we/Sambia. Die Wi scha Sambias basie im Wesen lichen au
Kup e abbau- und Expo , dessen Zen um Ki we is . In kaum einem
ande en Land A ikas spü en Kleinhändle die Auswi kungen eines
ola ilen Rohs o p eises so d as isch wie in Sambia. In Zei en
nied ige Kup e p eise au dem Wel ma k sink die Kau k a de
ö lichen Be ölke ung. Bei s eigendem Kup e p eis s ell sich nu
eine eilweise Ve besse ung de wi scha lichen Si ua ion he .
He o ge u en du ch A bei slosigkei , möch en iele Sambiane an
dem wi scha lichen Au schwung eilhaben und e ö nen zusä zliche
Ma k s ände, was zu einem Übe angebo üh .
103
De Chisokone-
Ma k is de zwei g öß e seine A in Sambia und is nie o iziell als
solche egis ie wo den. Meh e e Ak eu e konku ie en um Ein luss
und Mach . Das gese zlich ü die Ve wal ung zus ändige Ki we Ci y
Coucil (KCC) is sei Jah en nich im S ande eine angemessene
Ve wal ung zu gewäh leis en. In diese Lücke sind
Händle o ganisa ionen ge e en, die quasi als
Subs i u i ma k e wal ungen agie en und ebenso wie das KCC den
Chisokone-Ma k als Einnahmequelle nu zen. Zwischen diesen
Ak eu en he sch je nach Oppo uni ä Konku enz ode
Koope a ion, was das wi scha liche Handeln ü Kleinhändle
zusä zlich e schwe und kaum planba mach . Diese A ikel zeig ,
welche be ieblichen und pe sonalen S a egien Kleinhändle
102
Felix B inkmann is an Economis and Poli ical Scien is , and holds a Mas e ’s
deg ee holde in ‘Cul u e and Socie y o A ica’. His cu en esea ch is abou
business s a egies o SME’s a he Chisokone-Ma ke in Ki we/Zambia. This
p ojec conside s also he unusual ins i u ional ame o he Chisokone-Ma ke ,
which is he second la ges one in Zambia and u he mo e p edominan ly illegal.
Since 2010 Felix B inkmann is a ilia ed o he Bay eu h In e na ional G adua e
School o A ican S udies (BIGSAS) and conduc ed du ing his ime se e al ield
esea ched in Zambia and Tanzania.
103
Die Anzahl de Händle au dem Chisokone.Ma k ha sich innhe halb on 3 Jah en
on ca. 10.000 au 15.000 Händle e höh .
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anwenden, um in diesem wi scha lich wie ins i u ionell
ungewöhnlichen Um eld bes ehen zu können. Dabei geh die
Da legung übe klassische be iebswi scha liche Sich weisen
hinaus und widme sich ebenso dem No men- und We esys em de
Kleinhändle , welches ein en scheidende Fak o im ö lichen
Ma k aublau is . De A ikel a bei e E olgs ak o en ü eine
güns ige ökonomische En wicklung de Kleinhändle he aus und
hema isie ebenso die G enzen ökonomisch a ionalen Handelns im
sambianischen Kon ex . Die An o de ungen de wi scha lichen
En wicklung zwingen die Kleinhändle , ein hohes Maß an Flexibili ä
und in o melle Koope a ion einzugehen.
S ichwö e : die Kleinhändle n, Kup e abbau- und Expo ,
be ieblichen und pe sonalen S a egien, de Chisokone-Ma k ,
Sambia.
Übe Kleinhandel in A ika und dessen He aus o de ungen exis ie
be ei s eine Vielzahl an Li e a u .
104
Imme wiede wi d dabei au die
schwie ige Lage on Kleinhändle n in wi scha liche wie pe sonale
Hinsich e wiesen.
105
Häu ig he sch Kapi almangel, hohe
Konku enzd uck in einem kompe i i en Um eld sowie wenig bis
keine Regulie ung des wi scha lichen Rahmens. Diese Fak o en
gel en eben alls ü Kleinhändle au dem Chisokone-Ma k in Ki we,
Sambia.
Diese A ikel zeig , welche S a egien und Ne zwe ke Kleinhändle
anwenden, um in einem wi scha lich wie ins i u ionell
ungewöhnlichen Um eld bes ehen zu können. Dabei geh die
Da legung übe klassische be iebswi scha liche Sich weisen
hinaus. Zudem e olgen eine genaue Besch eibung und ein Blick au
das ins i u ionelle Um eld, in dem die Kleinhändle agie en müssen.
De A ikel a bei e E olgs ak o en ü eine güns ige ökonomische
En wicklung de Kleinhändle he aus und hema isie ebenso die
G enzen ökonomisch a ionalen Handelns im sambianischen
Kon ex . Die An o de ungen de wi scha lichen En wicklung
zwingen die Kleinhändle , ein hohes Maß an Flexibili ä und
in o melle Koope a ion einzugehen.
Die Wi scha Sambias basie im Wesen lichen au Kup e abbau-
und Expo , dessen Zen um Ki we is .
106
In kaum einem ande en
Land A ikas spü en Kleinhändle die Auswi kungen eines ola ilen
Rohs o p eises so d as isch wie in Sambia. In Zei en nied ige
104
Vgl. bspw. Ha mann 1994/ Banda, C., Mu ula, S., G an , B. 2004.
105
Vgl. Liedholm/Mead 1988, S. 13.
106
Vgl. Siachoono 2003.
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Kup e p eise au dem Wel ma k sink die Kau k a de ö lichen
Be ölke ung. Dies wa besonde s wäh end de Wi scha s- und
Finanzk ise in den Jah en 2008 bis 2009 zu beobach en. Bei
s eigendem Kup e p eis s ell sich nu eilweise eine Ve besse ung
de wi scha lichen Si ua ion ein. Von hohe A bei slosigkei
be o en, möch en iele Sambiane am wi scha lichen Au schwung
sei 2010 eilhaben und e ö nen zusä zliche Ma k s ände, was zu
einem Übe angebo üh .
107
De Chisokone-Ma k is de zwei g öß e
seine A in Sambia und is nie o iziell als solche egis ie wo den.
Meh e e Ak eu e konku ie en um Ein luss und Mach . Das
gese zlich ü die Ve wal ung zus ändige Ki we Ci y Council (KCC) is
sei Jah en nich im S ande, eine angemessene Ve wal ung zu
gewäh leis en. In diese Lücke sind Händle o ganisa ionen ge e en,
die quasi als Subs i u i ma k e wal ungen agie en und ebenso wie
das KCC den Chisokone-Ma k als Einnahmequelle nu zen.
Zwischen diesen Ak eu en he sch je nach Oppo uni ä Konku enz
ode Koope a ion, was das wi scha liche Handeln ü Kleinhändle
zusä zlich e schwe und kaum planba mach .
Haup g und ü das ungenügende wi scha liche Um eld ü
Kleinhändle au dem Chisokone-Ma k is die bis heu e nich
olls ändig geklä e F age, we le z endlich die Ma k e wal ung
inneha . Das angesp ochene KCC kann bis zum heu igen Zei punk
keine angemessene Ve wal ung des Ma k es gewäh leis en, da es
un e ch onischem Pe sonalmangel und Un e inanzie ung leide .
Dabei spiel auch die En s ehung des Ma k es eine wesen liche
Rolle. De Chisokone-Ma k en s and in Ki we in den 1950e Jah en
und wa u sp ünglich ü den Handel mi Lebensmi eln bes imm .
Dabei soll e de Ma k insbesonde e de weißen Be ölke ung zu
Gu e kommen, da e on de ö lichen Kolonial e wal ung ins allie
wu de. Im Ve lau de Lossagung und de Unabhängigkei Sambias
im Jah 1964 ände e sich auch die S uk u des Chisokone-Ma k es,
da e nun on allen Be ölke ungsschich en genu z we den konn e.
Du ch seine zen ale Lage nahe dem S ad zen um e eu e sich de
Ma k zunehmende Belieb hei , wu de abe nie als solche o iziell
egis ie ; o z s e igen Wachs ums. Im Zuge de
Minenp i a isie ung e uh de Chisokone-Ma k eine Neu- und
Umges al ung. He o ge u en du ch Massenen lassungen und hohe
A bei slosigkei wichen zunehmend o malige Minena bei e in den
in o mellen Sek o aus und be ä ig en sich als Händle . Au dem
Chisokone-Ma k wuchs du ch die zunehmende Händle anzahl das
Wa enagebo und dessen Viel al asan . Dabei dehn e sich das
107
Die Anzahl de Händle au dem Chisokone-Ma k ha sich innhe halb on 3
Jah en on ca. 10.000 au 15.000 Händle e höh .
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Ma k geschehen auch ö lich aus. Aus o ansch ei endem
Wachs um und dem nie geklä em ech lichen S a us des Chisokone-
Ma k es en s anden die bis heu e dem Ma k immanen en P obleme.
Du ch den illegalen S a us ühl e sich das KCC an angs nich ü die
Ve wal ung zus ändig und lei e e dami de unkon ollie en
Ausb ei ung und den p ekä en Ve häl nissen Vo schub. In diese
Ve wal ungslücke s ießen An ang de 1990e Jah e dann so
genann e Ma ke Boa ds, die den Ma k in Eigen egie e wal en
soll en. Rela i asch zeig e sich, dass diese O gane au g und de
zahl eichen di e gie enden In e essen seine Mi gliede nich in de
Lage wa , im Sinne eine angemessenen Ve wal ung des Chisokone-
Ma k es zu handeln. Folge hie on wa die G ündung de
Ma k o ganisa ion ZANAMA (Zambia Na ional Ma ke ee s
Associa ion) im Jah 1999,
108
die sich zu Au gabe mach e, die
In e essen de Händle gegenübe s aa lichen Ins i u ionen sowie
ande en In e essensg uppen zu e e en. Ob seine G öße und
zen alen Lage wu de de Chisokone-Ma k neben dem Ci y Ma ke
in Lusaka seh bald zu einem Haup ope a ionszen um de
O ganisa ion. Du ch die unbe iedigenden Adminis a ions e suche
des KCC s ieg ZANAMA ab dem Jah 2000 zu eine Quasi-
Ma k e wal ung au und e d äng e das KCC als
Haup e wal ungso gan. Alle dings ha e sich bis zu G ündung on
ZANAMA be ei s eine desola e In as uk u en wickel . ZANAMA
e wal e e also den Mangel, a sächliche Ve besse ungen de
Ma k s uk u en konn e die Handelso ganisa ion nie ealisie en.
Auße dem wu de de Chisokone-Ma k zum Poli ikum. En gegen
ih e Kons i u ion handel e ZANAMA keineswegs poli isch neu al,
sonde n agie e als In e essen e e e de damals he schenden
Pa ei MMD (Mo emen o Mul ipa y Democ acy). Diese
Einsei igkei schlug sich im Ma k geschehen in Chisokone niede .
Du ch die poli ische Rückendeckung gelang es ZANAMA in
zunehmenden Maße, den Chisokone-Ma k zu behe schen und die
Ve wal ung as komple zu übe nehmen. Alle dings p o i ie en on
de Ve wal ungsübe nahme lediglich Händle , die poli isch dem MMD
nahes anden. Ande e Händle , die de Opposi ion gewogen wa en
ode auch neu al agie en, wu den zum Teil sys ema isch un e
D uck gese z und ih Wi scha en e schwe .
Es häu en sich Skandale und Kompe enzübe sch ei ungen, wie
beispielsweise das e heben on illegalen S eue n au
„G oßhandelswa e“. Des Wei e en ging ZANAMA soga so wei , in
einigen Ma k sek ionen Zwangsabgaben einzu o de n und bei
Nich en ich ung Wa en de be o enen Händle zu kon iszie en und
108
Vgl. Moelle -La sson 2009, S. 33 – S. 34.
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Ein P oblem ü die Kleinhändle is , dass sowohl die T ennung on
be ieblichem und p i a em Kapi al als auch die T ennung zwischen
amiliä en und geschä lichen Ve häl nissen schwe äll . O können
be ieblich sinn olle und a ionale S a egien au g und des sozialen
E wa ungen nich umgese z we den. E olg eiche e Händle
e suchen, dem mi de G ündung eine o iziellen Fi ma en gegen
zu wi ken. Diese ha ih en Si z dann zwa au einem illegalen Ma k ,
wi d abe dennoch on de PACRA (Pa en s and Companies
Regis a ion Agency) akzep ie und om sambianischen
S eue egis e e ass . Diese Sch i is abe nu seh wenigen
o behal en. E ha abe ganz en scheidende Vo eile. Ohne ein
Fi menkon o is es nahezu unmöglich, an einen K edi zu
ma k üblichen Zinsen zu gelangen. G undsä zlich sind Banken nu
be ei , einen K edi zu gewäh en, wenn de Bewe be sich im
o mellen Sek o beweg und seine inanzielle Si ua ion anspa en
da leg . Händle , die im in o mellen Sek o agie en (wie es die ganz
übe wiegende Zahl an Kleinhändle n au dem Chisokone-Ma k u ),
müssen sich an eine de ielen Mik ok edi -Banken in Ki we wenden.
Alle dings sind de en Zinsen eno m, da das Aus all isiko du ch die
unsiche e ech liche wie ins i u ionelle Lage au dem Chisokone-
Ma k seh hoch is . We es alle dings scha , eine Fi ma zu g ünden
und an ma k übliche K edi e zu gelangen, is in de Lage, sein
Geschä zügig auszubauen und den hoch luk a i en Wa eneinkau
im benachba en Ausland zu ä igen.
Imme meh komm es au dem Chisokone-Ma k zu eine Spal ung
de Händle . Ci ca 20 P ozen de Händle können die
besch iebenen Fak o en umse zen und so e olg eich au dem Ma k
ope ie en. Du ch ih e Finanzk a , K edi wü digkei und
nachge ag es Wa enangebo en e nen sie sich zusehends on de
Meh zahl de Kleinhändle , de en Geschä smodell am Rande des
Exis enzminimums angie . Gleichwohl is ein g oße Kapi als ock
kein Ga an ü eine e olg eiche Un e nehmung. Diese E ah ung
muss en e liche im Zuge de globalen Finanzk ise en lassene
Minena bei e machen, die sich ab 2008/2009 als Händle au dem
Chisokone-Ma k e such en. Ohne E ah ung im Be eich des
Handels is es schwie ig, ge ade die k i ische An angsphase eine
Un e nehmung zu übe s ehen. Haup g und ü das iel ache
Schei e n wa eine e ehl e P eispoli ik. Die ehemaligen
Minena bei e e such en, mi Kamp p eisen konku enz ähig zu
we den, ih e Un e nehmung missglück e abe dann asch au g und
eine asan schmelzenden Kapi aldecke und eine e ehl en
So imen spoli ik.
Abe auch das Geschä smodell de bis heu e e olg eichen Händle
is isikobeha e . Dabei d oh Ge ah on auße halb. Du ch die

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lasche Regulie ung kann im G unde jede ein Geschä au dem
Chisokone-Ma k e ö nen – auch ausländische Händle . Die hohen
Gewinnspannen haben sich bis nach Tansania he umgesp ochen;
imme meh Händle aus Tansania e ö nen nun Geschä e und
machen den al eingesessenen Händle n aus Ki we Konku enz. De
Ä ge un e den Händle n da übe is g oß und p o ek ionis ische
S immen, die eine Ve bannung ausländische Händle o de n,
we den imme lau e . Eben alls ü Schwie igkei en könn e die zu
lässig gehandhab e P axis de ehlenden T ennung zwischen G oß-
und Kleinhandel au dem Chisokone-Ma k sein. Zwa machen sich
Händle eine solche Zwi e s ellung ökonomisch zu Nu zen, sie bi g
abe auch Risiken. Diese kommen on Sei en de chinesischen
G oßhändle , die bis o ku zem ausschließlich als
Bescha ungsop ion de sambianischen Händle wah genommen
wu den. Mi le weile g ei en die chinesischen Händle ganz di ek in
den End e b auche ma k ein und e ö nen Geschä e au dem
Chisokone-Ma k . Au g und ih es Bescha ungs o eils können sie
Wa en konku enzlos güns ig e äuße n. Das Image de Chinesen in
Sambia und insbesonde e im Kup e gü el kann alle dings nu als
ausgesp ochen nega i bezeichne we den. Hie zu haben e liche
Skandale in chinesischen Fi men und Be gbauun e nehmen
beige agen.
114
M . Mo ya, de Vo si zende de Händle e einigung
ZATMA, sag e in einem In e iew, angesp ochen au die chinesische
P äsenz in Ki we: „ he wo s in es o s we e e had“.
115
Diese
Imagep oblem e suchen chinesische Händle du ch die Ans ellung
on Sambiane n zu umgehen, die dem Geschä au dem Chisokone-
Ma k einen lokalen Ans ich geben sollen. Kla is , dass sich eine
de a ige P axis schnell he umsp ich und allgemein bekann is ,
welches Geschä on Chinesen ge üh wi d. Es bleib also
abzuwa en, wie sich de Ein luss de ausländischen Händle aus
Tansania und China auswi ken wi d. Viel wi d auch da on abhängen,
in wie wei es das KCC scha en wi d, in den nächs en Jah en eine
unk ionie ende Adminis a ion au zubauen und den Ma k ablau in
ge egel e Bahnen zu lenken.
Ein ganz ande e Fak o wi d sein, wann das e s e Shopping-Cen e
in Ki we e ö ne . Dann we den die bis heu e e olg eichen Händle
e ns ha e Konku enz e hal en. Kaum jemand wi d eiwillig den
Chisokone-Ma k mi seine kundenun eundlichen In as uk u , den
Unbequemlichkei en und den chao ischen Wa enda bie ungen einem
geo dne en, saube en und dem Zei geis en sp echenden Konsumo
o ziehen. Soll e es so wei kommen, können sich Händle as
114
Vgl. Raine 2009, S. 138 – S. 139.
115
Vgl. A chi Felix B inkmann, In e iews 2012 Ki we, M . Mo ya am 23. Mai 2012.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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ausschließlich übe den P eis posi ionie en und es bes eh die
Ge ah , dass sich de schon je z s a indende, zum Teil uinöse,
P eiswe bewe b o se z . Es is nu noch eine F age de Zei , bis
das besag e Einkau szen um e ich e wi d. Unmi elba neben dem
F eedom Pa k is be ei s eine Fläche hie ü ausgewiesen, die nu
knapp einen Kilome e om Chisokone-Ma k en e n lieg .
Nich ohne G und haben sich die ganz übe wiegend seh
e olg eichen Elek onikhändle am Rand des Ma k es pla zie , um
so auch kla sich ba eine Abg enzung zum es lichen
Ma k geschehen zu scha en. Diese Be eich wi d be ei s als eine
sepa a e Ma k sek ion om KCC e wal e . Auch in diesem Falle ha
das KCC nich p oak i gehandel , sonde n seine
Ve wal ungss uk u den eellen En wicklungen anpassen müssen.
Mi le weile is de zwei g öß e Ma k Sambias in einem de a
schlech en Zus and, dass Händle wie Kunden die momen ane
Si ua ion als nich meh agba ansehen. Dabei is das
G undp oblem, dass alle e wal enden Ins i u ionen den Ma k nich
als Handelspla o m e s ehen und e ablie en wollen, sonde n als
Einnahmequelle. De jah elange Mach kamp au dem Ma k und die
Dominanz on ZANAMA haben S uk u en gescha en, die imme
noch nachwi ken. Bis heu e e such ZATMA, wiede an Ein luss zu
gewinnen und is in zähen Ve handlungen mi dem KCC, wie die
„Rollen e eilung“ in den nächs en Jah en aussehen soll. Übe
Res uk u ie ungen ode ga Re o men lassen beide Ak eu e wenig
e lau ba en. Es d äng sich de Eind uck au , dass beide da an
in e essie sind, sich ü die nächs e Zei in eine Posi ion zu
manö ie en, die es e laub , wei e hin inanziell on den s uk u ellen
wie adminis a i en Unzulänglichkei en des Chisokone-Ma k es zu
p o i ie en.
Dabei soll en allen Ak eu en neue e En wicklungen eine Wa nung
sein. Sei de le z en Wahl 2011 is es „S ee Vendo s“ e laub , im
ganzen S ad gebie Handel zu eiben, wo on auch ausgiebig
Geb auch gemach wi d. Sei dem klagen as alle Händle au dem
Chisokone-Ma k übe massi e Umsa zeinbußen, wie meine
Be agungen de le z en Feld o schung im F ühjah 2012 e geben
haben. Sobald eine Al e na i e o handen is , e meiden es Kunden,
sich in das kundenun eundliche Ma k geschehen zu begeben.
Sobald die angesp ochene Shopping Mall e ich e is , kann da on
ausgegangen we den, dass de Ma k wei e an Kunden und dami
auch an Bedeu ung e lie . So ku sie en sei einigen Jah en
Ge üch e und Halbwah hei en um eine Neuges al ung des
Chisokone-Ma k es in Ki we. Allen Be eilig en is kla , dass diese
schnells möglich umgese z we den müss e. Wenn abe bis heu e
kaum ausgemach is , dass das KCC endgül ig die Ve wal ung
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übe nimm und soga die e bann e ZANAMA wiede e such , im
Duns k eis des Chisokone-Ma k es Fuß zu assen, is es schwe
o s ellba , dass in absehba e Zei eine Neuges al ung des Ma k es
ons a en geh . Eine sinn olle Lösung bie e de Vo si zende de
Handelskamme in Ki we, He Banda, an. Da die Händle die
Rochaden und Mach spiele de ins i u ionellen Ak eu e und die dami
e bundene Lähmung leid sind, schläg e einen p i a en In es o
o .
116
Diese übe nähme die Ve wal ung des Ma k es, ges al e e ihn
um und nähme d ingend no wendige Reno ie ungsa bei en o . Ein
p i a e In es o könn e aus Sich des Vo si zenden das
Ma k gelände on de S ad ü beispielsweise 20 Jah e anmie en
und die Ma k gebüh en selbs einnehmen, wobei Obe g enzen
es gese z we den müss en. He Banda be on bei diesem
Ve ah en im Besonde en die Neu ali ä . Bei eine Neuges al ung
sei ens des KCC be ü ch e e , dass Geschä e in güns ige Lage
nich anspa en e geben we den, sonde n im klien elis ischen bzw.
pa imonialem S il an Güns linge e eil we den.
Bis es zu eine Ve besse ung de Lage au dem Chisokone-Ma k
komm , bleib die Si ua ion ü die Händle p ekä . Wei e hin bes eh
die g oße Unsiche hei , we eigen lich den Ma k le z endlich
e wal en wi d und ob diese in seine je zigen Fo m Bes and haben
kann. Ein solches Um eld scha kein in es i ions eundliches Klima
und b ems dami die Ans engungen de Händle aus. Selbs
diejenigen, die e olg eich Handel eiben, hal en sich mi
Expansionsplänen zu ück. Viel wi d da on abhängen, ob es in Ki we
geling , eine unk ionie ende Ve wal ung zu ins allie en, die auch als
solche on allen an dem Ma k be eilig en Ak eu en ane kann wi d.
Das KCC als alleinige Ve wal ung zu benennen und die Mach de
Händle o ganisa ionen zu kappen, wa ein e s e ich ige Sch i .
Li e a u
Banda, C., S. Mu ula and B. G an (2004) ‘In o ma ions needs
assessmen o small scale business communi y in Zambia: case
s udy o Chisokone-Ma k e , Ki we’, Malaysian Jou nal o Lib a y
& In o ma ion Science 9 (2): 95-108.
Egbe , H. (2001) ‘Ne zwe ke als un e nehme ische essou cen und
es ik ionen’. Un e nehme in de ansanischen S ad Tanga. 1.
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Vgl. A chi Felix B inkmann, In e iews 2012 Handelskamme -Ki we, M . Banda
am 20. Mai 2012.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
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Ha mann, M. (1994) ‘Indus ialisie ung, bü ok a ie und die
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dem A bei sgebie En wicklungs o schung, He 24, Müns e .
Liedholm, C. and D. C. Mead (1999) Small en e p ises and economic
de elopmen . The dynamics o mic o and small en e p ises.
London.
Mölle -La sen M. (2009) ‘Ins i u ional En ep eneu ship in Zambian
Ma ke s. The Case o Zambia Na ional Ma ke ee s Associa ion’.
Mas e hesis, Copenhagen Business School.
Raine, S. (2009) China's A ican challenges, IISS, London: Ins . o
S a egic S udies.
Siachoono, S. (2003) Guide o he Coppe bel . Ndola: Coppe bel
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Onlinequellen:
<h p://www.pos zambia.com/Joomla/pos -
p in _a icle.php?a icleId=4171>, au ge u en 20. Ok obe 2012.
<h p://www.who.in /subs ance_abuse/publica ions/en/zambia.pd >,
au ge u en 29. Sep embe 2012.
BIGSAS Wo king Pape s 4/2013: challenging no ions o de elopmen and change om e e yday li e in A ica
138
Anhang 1: eine iliale de Baby Boy Company au dem Chisokone-Ma k