The Izala Mo emen in Nige ia: I s Spli ,
Rela ionship o Su is and Pe cep ion o Sha īʿa Re-
Implemen a ion
A Disse a ion Submi ed in pa ial ul illmen o he equi emen s o he deg ee o
Doc o o Philosophy (D . phil.) a BIGSAS
by
Ramzi Ben Ama a
Resea ch A ea (A): Unce ain y, Inno a ion and he Ques o O de in A ica
Supe iso : D . F anz Kogelmann
June 2011
2
Table o Con en s
Table o Con en s ............................................................................................................................. 2
Fo ewo d ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Technical No e .................................................................................................................................. 7
Chap e One: In oduc ion ...................................................................................................... 8
1 The S udy ..................................................................................................................................... 13
2 Scope o li e a u e ....................................................................................................................... 22
3 Me hodology ................................................................................................................................. 40
4 Theo e ical amewo k ................................................................................................................ 45
4.1 Bou dieu applied o Izala .................................................................................................... 47
4.2 “Modes o Religiosi y” heo y .............................................................................................. 56
4.3 Religious Ma ke Theo y & Religious Mo emen s .......................................................... 60
Chap e Two: Religious Landscape in Nige ia .................................................................. 67
1 Ch is iani y in Nige ia .................................................................................................................. 67
2 His o y o Islam in Nige ia .......................................................................................................... 71
2.1 Su i B o he hoods ................................................................................................................ 75
2.1.1 The Qādi iyya ................................................................................................... 75
2.1.2 The Tijāniyya .................................................................................................... 78
2.2 The Indi ec Rule .................................................................................................................. 81
2.3 English Law o Islamic Law ................................................................................................ 89
2.4 Islam in Nige ia du ing he pos colonial e a ..................................................................... 95
2.5 The con lic be ween he Su i B o he hoods .................................................................. 102
2.6 Sheikh Abubaka Gumi and his s uggle agains Su ism ............................................. 109
2.6.1 Sheikh A. Gumi: his ea ly li e un il 1972 .................................................... 111
2.6.2 Sheikh A. Gumi: om al-ʿaqīda al-ṣaḥīḥa (1972) o he es ablishmen o
Izala (1978) ............................................................................................................... 118
Chap e Th ee: Re o m Islam e sus Su ism .................................................................. 122
1 Wha is e o m in “Nige ian” Islam? ........................................................................................ 125
2 Shiʿi es in Nige ia ....................................................................................................................... 136
3
3 The JTI in Nige ia ...................................................................................................................... 138
4 F om Mai a sine o Boko Ha am - a coincidence o a con inua ion? ................................. 141
5 Sala iyya o ien ed g oups ......................................................................................................... 147
Chap e Fou : The Izala mo emen be ween success and ailu e .............................. 150
1 Sheikh Ismaila Id is and he Izala Ques ion .......................................................................... 150
2 The J.I.B.W.I.S.: Fo ma ion o Izala O ganiza ion in 1978 .................................................. 157
2.1 One cons i u ion and wo ac ions o many cons i u ions o he same o ganiza ion?
..................................................................................................................................................... 165
2.2 S uc u e o he O ganiza ion ........................................................................................... 178
2.2.1 The Council o ʿulamā' .................................................................................. 178
2.2.2 The Adminis a ion Council .......................................................................... 179
2.2.3 Fi s Aid G oup (FAG) ................................................................................... 180
2.2.4 O he Commi ees ......................................................................................... 181
2.3 Cu en leade ship in Izala ................................................................................................ 185
2.3.1 The Jos b anch o Izala ................................................................................ 186
2.3.2 The Kaduna b anch o Izala ......................................................................... 190
3 Izala and Inno a ion .................................................................................................................. 196
3.1 De ini ion(s) o bidʿa ........................................................................................................... 196
3.2 The Discou se o Izala on bidʿa........................................................................................ 215
4 Izala and Wahhabism ............................................................................................................... 228
5 The Di ision o he Mo emen : One o ganiza ion and wo doc ines o wo o ganiza ions
and one doc ine? ........................................................................................................................ 242
5.1 Time o he di ision ............................................................................................................ 243
5.2 Reasons o he Di ision .................................................................................................... 250
5.3 The Izala “Wa o wo ds” be ween Kaduna and Jos: “Two open le e s o Sheikh
Jingi s. answe s om Jos” ................................................................................................... 268
5.4 A emp s a econcilia ion .................................................................................................. 284
Chap e Fi e: Sha īʿa Deba e o 1999 .............................................................................. 291
1 Who implemen ed Sha īʿa? ...................................................................................................... 293
2 P oponen s and opponen s o he Sha īʿa-p ojec ................................................................ 307
2.1 P oponen s o Sha īʿa ........................................................................................................ 310
4
2.2 Opponen s o he e-implemen a ion o Islamic Law .................................................... 314
2.3 The Fede al Go e nmen , he S a es, he
ʿulamā'
, and g ass oo s’ posi ions on
sha ī‛a
e-implemen a ion ........................................................................................................ 323
3 Izala’s con ibu ion o he e-implemen a ion: ini ia o s? ..................................................... 331
4 Izala, Su is, and Sha ī‛a-law: a chance o econcilia ion? .................................................. 339
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 344
Bibliog aphy ................................................................................................................................... 359
Abs ac (English) ..................................................................................................................... 377
Abs ac (Ge man) .................................................................................................................... 379
5
Fo ewo d
I wan o exp ess my g a i ude o all people who assis ed me in my p ojec a di e en s ages
and apologize o all hose I did no men ion he e by name.
Fi s o all, I am e y hank ul o P o . D . Ul ich Be ne who encou aged me du ing my
unde g adua e, g adua e and du ing he p ocess o w i ing my PhD-Thesis. In he ield o
Religious S udies I lea n a lo om P o . Be ne and I am eally lucky and happy o s udying
unde him and wo king unde his supe ision.
Wi hou he assis ance and unlimi ed pa ience o my supe iso D . F anz Kogelmann, his
disse a ion would no ha e been accomplished. I hank him o his kind suppo , c i ical
eadings and o sha ing his knowledge abou
sha īʿa
and Islam in A ica.
P o . D . Roman Loimeie ’s lec u e a Bay eu h Uni e si y abou Islam in A ica linked my
a en ion o Nige ia and Izala. I am g a e ul o him o p o iding me wi h con ac s and
ne wo ks du ing my ield esea ch. I hank him o he discussions and aluable in o ma ion
he p o ided me on Izala a di e en s ages o my PhD-p ojec .
Th ough P o . D . Ku Beck I knew how o deal wi h Islam om an an h opological
pe spec i e. I enjoyed his semina s, lec u es and discussions. I am hank ul o him o his
kind assis ance in all di ec ions.
D . Philip Os ien assis ed me in Nige ia and he e a e no wo ds o hank him enough o his
kind suppo and assis ance. Na Gode!
I am hank ul o: P o . D . Uma Dan ulani (Jos) who assis ed me in many di ec ions: He did
no only hos me in his depa men , bu linked me o many Nige ian schola s o eligions.
I lea n a lo om D . Azonzeh Ukah and app ecia ed his commen s, co ec ions and c i ical
eadings. I am e y g a e ul o him o his kind assis ance.
I hank P o . D . Ch is oph Bochinge and P o . D . Gab iele Cappai o hei suppo and o
discussing my wo k in hei excellen me hodology cou se:
P o . D . Sani Uma , P o . D . Abdukade Tayob, P o . D . Rüdige Seeseman sha ed hei
knowledge wi h me and p o ided me wi h ideas and heo e ical o ien a ion. I am hank ul o
all hem o aking ime o discuss my p ojec wi h hem.
Many hanks o Ca hlene Dolla o he co ec ions, c i ical eading, and ecommenda ions.
I hank all my in e iewees in Nige ia o gi ing me ime and sha ing hei ideas and o being
pa ien o he many ques ions I aised.
In Nige ia, I am g a e ul o P o . M. Yahya (Jos), P o : Musa Gaiya (Jos), D . Gwamna (Jos),
D . Yilpe (Jos), Us az Sani Modibbo (Jos), Us az Abdu ahman Lawal Adam (Jos), Mallam
Kabi u (Jos), Ahmad Ga ba (Jos); Mallam Sani Abdu azaq (Jos), Mallam Dawood Abubaka
(Jos/Be lin), Rahina Muhd (Jos), Chikas Dan ulani (Jos/Bay eu h), Yusu Abdullahi Yusu

6
(Jos/Ka sina), D . A e Adogame (Edinb ough/Lagos), D . Selome Kopunu (Lagos), D . Remi
B i o (Lagos), D . Uma Adam (Kaduna), Babangida (Ka sina), Mallam Bala (Za ia), Sheikh
Mujahid (Za ia), Mallam Amino Kano (Kaduna/ Kano), D . Ma en Milligen (USA), Mallam
Khid (Kano), Mallam U hman (Kano), Saleh Ib ahim (Jos), P o . D . Aljunna (Soko o), D .
Kamal Babak (Soko o), Mallam Salisu Bala (Kaduna), Mallam Musa (A ewa House,
Kaduna), D . Gwadebe (A ewa House, Kaduna), D . Ha una Wakili (Mambayya House,
Kano), P o . D . Muhammad Munkaila (Maidugu i), D . Bala be Zulyadaiyni (Maidugu i) o
hei kind assis ance.
My amily in Tunisia and my iends in Ge many (Aissa, Am , Kamel, Abdou, Ronny, Oli e ,
Ma cus, E a, Silke, Tobi, Ahmad, Vale ie, Salma and many o he s) helped me a lo du ing
he las yea s and I am e y g a e ul o all o hem.
Me on Zeleke and Halkano Abdi co ec ed pa s o his disse a ion and p o ided me wi h
c i ical ema ks and co ec ions. Many hanks o bo h o hem!
This s udy was inanced by di e en ins i u ions a di e en s eps. I am g a e ul o he
Tunisian Minis è e
de l'Enseignemen Supé ieu , The Volkswagen Founda ion, The
In e na ional O ice (Uni e si y o Bay eu h), The In e na ional Club (Uni e si y o Bay eu h),
and o BIGSAS o he inancial suppo h oughou my doc o al hesis.
I am hank ul o all membe s and s a o he Zen albiblio hek (Uni e si y o Bay eu h),
Pe manen Si e Lib a y (Uni e si y o Jos), Mambayaa House Lib a y (Kano), A ewa House
Lib a y (Kaduna), Lib a y o he Depa men o Islamic S udies (Usman Dan Fodio Uni e si y,
Soko o).
7
Technical No e
Non-English wo ds a e i alicised; he ansli e a ion o A abic wo ds ollows ha used
in he In e na ional Jou nal o Middle Eas S udies. The meanings o non-English
wo ds a e gi en in pa en heses ollowing hei i s appea ance, e.g. ibā (in A abic:
in e es ).
All da es a e ci ed acco ding o he “Common E a” (c.e.), nume ically equi alen o
he Ch is ian a.d.
To p o ec he iden i y o my in e iew pa ne s, I ha e decided no o add a de ailed
lis o in e iewees as well as he di e en loca ions o he in e iews. I o academic
easons mo e de ails a e necessa y please con ac he au ho di ec ly.
8
Chap e One: In oduc ion
Nige ia is he mos populous na ion in A ica. Acco ding o he 2006 census mo e
han 140 Million inhabi an s li e in his Wes A ican coun y. Nige ia is e hnically,
linguis ically and eligiously he e ogeneous. App oxima ely o e 500 languages
1
a e
spoken in he coun y. Hausa in he no h, Ibo in he sou h eas and Yo uba in he
sou h wes a e conside ed o be among he mos impo an languages and dominan
e hnic g oups. Nige ia bo de s Came oon and Chad in he eas , he Republic o Nige
o he no h, he Republic o Benin in he wes and he Gul o Guinea o he sou h.
(Wikipedia 2010)
Today, Nige ia is a ede a ion o 36 s a es wi h Abuja, as he Fede al Capi al
Te i o y (FCT). In 1999 he Fou h Republic was decla ed a e a democ a ic
1
h p://www.e hnologue.com/show_coun y.asp?name=NG speaks o 527 “indi idual languages” in
Nige ia among which 512 a e “li ing languages” and 11 ha e “no known speake s” (4/10/2010).
9
elec ion. This was he ou h a emp by a ci ilian go e nmen in Nige ia a e h ee
ailed a emp s and a long expe ience wi h mili a y dic a o ship.
2
Nige ians a e conside ed o be among he happies people in he wo ld. This is
based on an ou come o a s udy om he yea 2003 compa ing mo e han 65
coun ies.
3
Ano he s udy en i led “Wha he Wo ld hinks abou God” da ing om
2004 ega ds Nige ians as he mos eligious people wo ldwide.
4
A Global Co up ion
Repo om 2009 published by T anspa ency In e na ional places Nige ia 121 among
180 coun ies.
5
In he media, Nige ia is o en known o oil, e hnic, and eligious c ises. In he
Nige Del a a ea whe e many in e na ional oil companies ope a e, explosions ela ed
o leaking pipelines as well as kidnappings o Nige ians and o eign esiden s and
wo ke s o oil companies happen in e mi en ly.
6
The si ua ion in his a ea o Nige ia
is a esul o unequal dis ibu ion o oil income. Nige ia has been a membe o he Oil
2
Nige ia gained i s independence om B i ain in Ok obe 1960. The coun y was hen uled by he
Mili a y wi h a emp s o a ci ilian go e nmen . The Fi s Republic was be ween 1963 and 1966; The
Second Republic was be ween 1979 and 1983; he Thi d Republic ook place in 1993 when
democ a ic elec ions we e o ganized and annulled by he Mili a y.
3
Acco ding o he www.bbc.co.uk/news o 02/10/2003 he s udy was published by he New Scien is
magazine in he UK. I is based on a su ey conduc ed be ween 1999 and 2001. The s udy deal wi h
he le el o happiness and sa is ac ion o people wi h hei li es in he coun y hey come om.
(4/10/2010).
4
www.bbc.co.uk/news (26/02/2004).
5
T anspa ency In e na ional (2009): Global Co up ion Repo 2009. Co up ion and P i a e Sec o .
Camb idge: Uni e si y P ess, pp. 200-203; In July 2010 he Nige ian Minis e o Finances decla es his
dissa is ac ion wi h he ac ual si ua ion and s esses ha one o he g ea es conce ns o he ac ual
adminis a ion is igh ing co up ion, see www.alla ica.com (15/07/2010).
6
Du ing he 1s Oc obe independence celeb a ions in 2010, a ca bomb explosion in Abuja killed eigh
people and inju ed h ee. Rebels om he Nige Del a a ea seemed o be behind his ac ion; see
h p://english.aljazee a.ne o mo e de ails (2/10/2010).
16
ini ial ield wo k was he
ʿulamā'
, expe s and eligious leade s wi h he aim o
ex ending hese in e iew subjec s a a g ass oo s le el du ing u u e ield esea ch.
The
ʿulamā'
as well as many eligious schola s a e he ones who wi nessed he
es ablishmen o Izala owa ds he end o he 1970s. They played a majo ole in he
his o y o he mo emen . When i comes o doc inal di e ences be ween Izala and
g oups ou side o he mo emen , he leade s a e he p ima y sou ce o ideas and
eligious doc ines.
In 2008 he spec um o he s udy was enla ged o include o he pa s o
no he n Nige ia and mo e case s udies de i ed om di e en con ex s we e added. I
conduc ed my ield esea ch be ween Feb ua y and Ap il 2008. Du ing his pe iod o
he esea ch ele en ou o wel e no he n s a es we e isi ed. The only excep ion
was Nige S a e. This was a esul o my con ac s in he ield and he a ailabili y o
in e iew subjec s and by no means an exclusion o speci ic ac o s. The leade s o
Izala in Jos and Kaduna we e in e iewed in di e en a eas. Places like Maidugu i,
Soko o, Zam a a, Gombe, and Ka sina – among o he s – we e co e ed.
14
Thema ically h ee basic opics we e explo ed. Fi s , he es ablishmen o Izala
as an o ganiza ion and i s p esence in di e en egions o he no h, i s di ision in o
wo majo g oups and he a emp s o econcilia ion cons i u e he i s pa o he
in e iews. The issue o leade ship, money, and s uc u e we e also pa o hese
discussions.
14
I am hank ul o D . Philip Os ien o assis ing wi h a elling in no he n Nige ia. He was conduc ing
esea ch on Sha īʿa Cou s in he welwe Sha īʿa S a es. Joining him in 2008 allowed me o mo e in
many places and conduc in e iews wi h se e al Izala and non-Izala people in di e en s a es o he
no h.

17
The second opic is he ela ionship be ween Izala and Su i b o he hoods pas
and p esen . In o de o analyse his ela ionship be ween he 1970s and he
beginning o he 1990s s udies published by Roman Loimeie
15
, Sani Uma
16
and
Ousmane Kane
17
we e used. Th ough in e iews wi h Su i and Izala ep esen a i es
and o dina y membe s his ela ionship is analysed om he pe spec i e o oday’s
leade s. Impo an he e is he discou se o bo h g oups as well he change in ha
ela ionship.
The hi d and las opic o he in e iews was he e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
law in no he n Nige ia and i s impac on Izala and he Su is. On se e al occasions
Izala leade s claimed ha he mo emen was he ini ia o o
sha īʿa
in he no h. The
expec a ions om he
sha īʿa
p ojec we e high. The e-implemen a ion s a ed a he
op (by single go e no ) and was accomplished by he masses (
sha īʿa
e-
implemen a ion in o he s a es was o ced a he g ass oo s le el). The e-
implemen a ion i sel p esen s o Muslims o he no h a “success”. All Muslim g oups
in no he n Nige ia wi h he excep ion o he Shiʿi es (knowan among Nige ian
Muslims as Yan Shia; calls i sel Islamic Mo emen in Nige ia) unde he leade ship
o Ib aheem Zakzaky
18
accep ed and appealed o he e-implemen a ion. Th ough
15
Loimeie , Roman (1997): Islamic e o m and poli ical change in Nige ia. E ans on, Illinois:
No hwes e n Uni e si y P ess.
16
Uma , M. Sani (1983): Islamic Re i alism Today. The Example o Jama‘ u Izal ul Bidʿah Wa Iqami is
Sunnah, BA-Thesis, Jos Uni e si y; Uma , M. Sani (1988): Su ism and An i-Su ism in Nige ia, MA-
Thesis, Uni e si y o Kano.
17
Kane, Ousmane (2003): Muslim Mode ni y in Pos colonial Nige ia: A s udy o he Socie y o
Remo al o Inno a ion and eins a emen o T adi ion. Leiden, Bos on: B ill.
18
Fo his biog aphy and he Shiʿism ques ion see Suleimann, Galadima I. (2005): Mallam Ib ahim El-
Zakzaky and he Ques ion o Shiʿism; BA-disse a ion in Islamic S udies, Uni e si y o Jos, Nige ia.
18
his p essu e o implemen Islamic Law a new si ua ion de eloped: a si ua ion in
which all Muslim g oups needed uni y. Acco ding o Ousmane Kane “Any ou b eak o
majo con lic be ween Ch is ians and Muslims caused Muslims ac ions o uni e and
o ge , a leas empo a ily, hei doc inal di isions o igh he common enemy.”
19
The
sha īʿa
issue was a majo con en ion be ween Muslims and Ch is ians. Izala as
well as Su is had no op ion bu o come oge he .
The e a e some claims wi hin he Izala ha he mo emen was he ini ia o o
sha īʿa
and ha Ahmad Sani Ye iman Baku u is a membe o he mo emen . The e is
no de ini i e answe as o how he became a membe and how he was in luenced by
Izala. Su is also claim ha hey we e behind he e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in
no he n Nige ia.
I we ake he e-implemen a ion i sel , hen i can be conside ed as he
ealiza ion o a “d eam” o many Muslims o e-es ablish wha has been emo ed
du ing colonial imes. I is a ma e o iden i y ela ed o he si ua ion in he legal ield
ha exis ed du ing he ime o he Soko o calipha e which was o bidden by he
B i ish colonial adminis a ion. No he n Nige ians a e emo ionally a ached o he
Soko o Calipha e and i s his o y. Fo hem, Izala and
sha īʿa
go side by side. Izala
doc ine eeds in o he
sha īʿa
p ojec and
sha īʿa
can be ega ded as a ealiza ion o
Izala doc ine: Islamiza ion o he socie y (no o be con used wi h an Islamic S a e
p ojec ) - as some schola s desc ibe i .
20
19
Kane, Ousmane (2003), p. 211.
20
In o mal discussion wi h P o . Musa Gaiya om he Uni e si y o Jos 2006; he schola o eligion
sees he Izala p ojec in no way as an a emp o Islamize he s a e. Fu he mo e, i is an Islamiza ion
19
Du ing he ield esea ch, o dina y membe s and ex-membe s o Izala we e
in e iewed in o de o gain g ass oo s pe spec i e on he mo emen . Al hough many
membe s (especially young people) could no ell much abou he his o y o Izala
h ough biog aphical ske ches hey p o ided insigh s o Izala om a di e en
pe spec i e. The en i onmen in which hey g ew up is an addi ional sou ce o
in o ma ion on Izala. The in e iews we e supplemen ed wi h isi s o Izala ins i u ions
in Jos and o he owns. Mainly mosques and schools o Izala we e isi ed. In Gombe,
I had a unique oppo uni y o isi an Izala hospi al.
The i s chap e is an in oduc o y one. A e dealing wi h wha has been
published/w i en on he Izala mo emen in Nige ia so a and i s de elopmen in and
ou side o he Wes A ican coun y, he me hodology h oughou he disse a ion is
cla i ied. Then he heo e ical amewo k is in oduced. The second chap e is a
his o ical one. I se es as a his o ical backg ound o he nex chap e s. The his o y
o Ch is iani y and Islam in Nige ia wi h an emphasis gi en o he Soko o Calipha e
pe iod as well as an ou line o o he Islamic g oups in he coun y will be gi en. The
Su i b o he hoods played an especially impo an ole in sp eading o Islam in he
coun y. The B i ish in oduced so-called “indi ec ule” in Nige ia. This s a egy as
well as he de elopmen o Islam du ing he B i ish colonial and pos -colonial pe iods
will be analysed. The s uggle be ween Su is and e o m-o ien ed Islamic g oups in
he 1970s a e aken in conside a ion. This is shown h ough he s uggle o Sheikh
Gumi and Su i B o he hoods.
o he socie y by insis ing on se e al socie al aspec s such as Islamic educa ion, d essing code,
educa ion o women, ban o alcohol, e c.
20
Izala has a e o m p ojec in Nige ia, bu i is no he only Islamic g oup wi h
such a plan. In chap e h ee his no ion o “ e o m” is dicussed in he Nige ian
con ex . The examples o he Shiʿi e mo emen , he Jamāʿa Tajdīd al-Islām (JTI),
Mai a sine, Boko Ha am, o Sala iyya g oups a e di e en mani es a ions o he same
phenomenon. Some o hese g oups we e es ablished a he same ime o he Izala
ounda ion, o he s, such as Boko Ha am, a e con empo a y ones.
Chap e ou deals wi h he es ablishmen o Izala. I gi es an o e iew abou
he li e and con ibu ion o Sheikh Id is o he mo emen . I se es o cla i y issues
ela ed o Izala like he discussion on inno a ion (A abic: bidʿa), and he ela ionship
be ween Izala and Wahhabism. In his chap e he de elopmen o Izala om he
beginning o he 1990s is ou lined. In pa icula , he di ision o he mo emen in o wo
majo g oups is analysed. The di ision o Izala which was mos ly unclea o non-
Muslims in no he n Nige ia, was a big e en wi hin he mo emen . The doc inal
di e ences and a emp s o econcilia ion as well as he amendmen o he Izala
cons i u ion a e impo an pa s o he mo emen ’s his o y. Doc inal con o e sies
and in e nal deba es a e in many cases hidden o ou side s. This chap e is an
a emp o cla i y some aspec s o in e nal di e ences wi hin Izala. The discou se(s)
wi hin he mo emen and he a ionale o leade s ega ding he di ision is analysed
and e lec ed h ough in e iews and w i ings om wi hin he Izala.
One canno deal wi h Izala wi hou dealing wi h i s ela ionship o Su is. In
chap e i e his ela ionship is elucida ed. Especially in he con ex o he e-
implemen a ion o Islamic law, he Izala-Su i s uggle ook ano he dimension. The
21
con o e sy su ounding he e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in no he n Nige ia was
huge. This e en was pe cei ed di e en ly. Some speak o a p ojec o Islamiza ion o
Nige ia and see in
sha īʿa
a dange o he democ a iza ion p ocess o he ede a ion
du ing he Fou h Republic. Fo many Muslims,
sha īʿa
was cons i u ionally adap ed.
F eedom o eligion is gua an eed in he cons i u ion o he Wes A ican coun y and
wha happened was an adap a ion o an Islamic Law ha exis ed in no he n Nige ia
o hund eds o yea s. In his chap e , he discussion goes beyond he Muslim
communi y o Nige ia. The
sha īʿa
con o e sy in he coun y is a na ional dilemma.
This chap e deals wi h he in a-Muslim discou se on
sha īʿa
especially Izala-Su i
deba e(s). In addi ion, he discou se be ween Muslims and Ch is ians is illus a ed.
The concluding chap e se es as a summa y o he esul s and indings ca ied ou
in his s udy.
The objec i e o his disse a ion is o go beyond he s udies o Roman
Loimeie , Sani Uma , Ousmane Kane, and o some ex en And ea B igaglia. Apa
om dealing wi h he cu en Izala mo emen in Nige ia and i s leade ship and
s uc u e and upda ing he wo k o he p e ious schola s, a cen al objec i e will be o
examine he Izala-Su i ela ionship oday wi hin he
sha īʿa
p ojec .
Sha īʿa
e-
implemen a ion in Nige ia b ough all Muslim g oups i espec i e o hei doc inal
di e ences oge he . Apa om he Shiʿi es unde hei leade Ib aheem Zakzaky all
Muslim g oups and indi iduals welcomed he e-implemen a ion. How di e en
Islamic g oups deal wi h hei di e ences wi hin he con ex o
sha īʿa
will be a

22
cen al ques ion in his s udy. The s udy a emp s o answe he ollowing ques ions:
How did Islamic g oups (Izala o Su is) legi imize hei ini ia ion o he
sha īʿa
p ojec
wi h he Umma (Muslim communi y) in no he n Nige ia? Wha kind o discussions
ela ed o
sha īʿa
ook place? Wha was he ole o o he Muslim g oups wi hin his
p ojec ?
2 Scope o li e a u e
In academia, he wo ks o Sani Uma , Roman Loimeie , and Ousmane Kane
a e among he mos well-known on Izala in Nige ia. The e a e also cases dealing
wi h he si ua ion in he Republic o Nige (Masquelie ’s s udy on Muslim women in
Dogondou chi own, G égoi e on Ma adi own; Alidou on Muslim Women). Li e a u e
on Izala in o he con ex s like Ghana, Chad and Came oon is limi ed. These o he
con ex s could be a subjec o in es iga ion in he u u e. The ma e ial collec ed in
Nige ia a di e en uni e si ies shows ha much esea ch on Izala can be seen as
case s udies. They we e dealing wi h local de elopmen s o he mo emen in a
pa icula place o own. Some o hem deal wi h one aspec ela ed o Izala
(educa ion, mosques, e c.). The ounde o Izala and cu en leade s o he
mo emen we e also o en subjec o s udies. The s udies lis ed below a e in no way
comple e and hey a e only samples o academic esea ch ela ed o Izala done by
Nige ian and o he schola s.
The Izala mo emen a ac ed he a en ion o a ew schola s om bo h
wes e n and Islamic coun ies. In ensi e wo k on Izala was done by a Nige ian
Muslim om he no h, Sani Uma , who looked a he ela ionship be ween Su ism
23
and an i-Su ism in his coun y. The au ho is a Nige ian and a na i e speake o
Hausa o iginally om Jos whe e he had access o he mo emen and conduc ed his
ield esea ch du ing a e y impo an pe iod o he o ganiza ion’s de elopmen . His
BA-Disse a ion was submi ed a Jos Uni e si y in 1983 and his MA a Kano
Uni e si y. Sani Uma is conside ed o be he i s schola who deal wi h Izala in an
academic way.
21
Sani Uma aces he changes o Islamic iden i y om Su ism o
an i-Su ism in he pos colonial pe iod.
22
Uma akes no e o a “popula iza ion” o
Su ism in Nige ia du ing he 1940s. He ela es he g ow h o an i-Su ism in he 1950s
o an i-colonial endencies in Kano, Soko o and Ka sina. The e i al o Islam s a ed
acco ding o Uma wi h Sa’ad Zungu (1915-1958) and Abubaka Gumi (1922-1992).
This end con inued du ing he 1970s wi h he popula iza ion o Sheikh Gumi’s iews
by he media. Th ough he es ablishmen o Izala in 1978 as an o ganized en i y, he
s uggle be ween he mo emen and Su i b o he hoods became mo e isible. The
au ho concludes ha an i-Su ism is a o m o “p o es ” and “ eo ien a ion” wi hin he
Islamic eligious ield in Nige ia.
The s udies o Roman Loimeie and Ousmane Kane a e wo di e en analyses
o e o m Islam in Nige ia. The o me is a wes e n schola o Islam
(Islamwissenscha le ) and he la e is a Senegalese poli ical scien is coming om a
Su i backg ound. Bo h esea che s conduc ed ield wo k a he end o he 1980s.
Bo h ook Kano as s a ing poin o hei s udies. Loimeie looks a he de elopmen
21
Uma , M. Sani (1983), (1988).
22
See Uma , M. Sani (1993): Changing Muslim iden i y in Nige ia om he 1960s o he 1980s: om
Su ism o An i-Su ism, in: B enne , Louis (ed.): Muslim iden i y and social change in Sub-Saha an
A ica, Blooming on & Indianapolis: Indiana Uni e si y P ess, pp. 154-178.
24
o he Su i b o he hoods in Nige ia ( he Qādi iyya and Tijāniyya) and hei s uggle o
powe and o ollowe s. The doc inal di e ences be ween bo h b o he hoods
especially du ing he 1950s and 1960s a e well documen ed. The ad en o Sheikh
Gumi as a pionee o e o m in Nige ia led o a shi o he eligious landscape in he
no h. The s uggle began be ween him and he “uni ied” Su i B o he hoods. The
dispu e be ween bo h exceeded he in ellec ual dispu e. In he ea ly 1970s Gumi and
se e al Su i leade s exchanged a acks ia hei w i ings. The doc inal di e ences
and dispu es led o physical a acks. Loimeie ’s wo k can be conside ed as
undamen al backg ound-s udy o he Nige ian eligious and poli ical landscape a e
independence. Sheikh Gumi played a cen al ole du ing his pe iod. Gumi and his
e o m p og am a e analysed by Loimeie in o he publica ions
23
as well as in a
gene al o e iew on Islamic e o m in Nige ia in compa ison o o he A ican
con ex s
24
I was no su p ise ha an o ganiza ion ha sha ed Sheikh Gumi’s s ance is-
à- is he Su i-b o he hoods was ounded. This idea o es ablishing an o ganiza ion
was ealized by Ismaila Id is h ough he es ablishmen o Izala. Kane ega ds he
es ablishmen o Izala as a p ojec o mode ni y. The o ganiza ion is an in e es ing
23
Die adikale islamische Opposi ion in No dnige ia, In: A ika Spec um, 32, 1, 5-23; see also
Loimeie ’ publica ion o he same yea : Islamic Re o m and Poli ical Change: The Example o
Abubaka Gumi and he 'Yan Izala Mo emen in No he n Nige ia
,
in: Da id Wes e lund (ed.). A ican
Islam and Islam in A ica. Encoun e s be ween Su is and Islamis s, London, 286-307; Loimeie ,
Roman (2003): Pa e ns and Peculia i ies o Islamic Re o m in A ica, In: Jou nal o Religion in A ica,
33, 3, 237-62.
24
Loimeie , Roman (2005): De la dynamique locale des é o mismes musulmans. É udes
biog aphiques (Sénégal, Nige ia e A ique de l´Es ), in: M. Gomez-Pe ez (ed.). L'Islam poli ique au
sud du Saha a. Iden i és, discou s e enjeux. Ka hala, Pa is, 29-48.
25
phenomenon in he his o y o Islam in Nige ia. The mo emen calls people o Islam
based on he Qu ’ān and he
sunna
. Izala in i ed ollowe s o he old adi ion o
al-
Sala al-Ṣāliḥ
(pious p edecesso s; he i s gene a ions a e he dea h o he
P ophe ), bu a he same ime Izala es ablished schools and asked o women o be
educa ed. The mo emen ec ui ed
ʿulamā'
as well as young people a an ea ly s age
o i s es ablishmen . I hen de eloped in o an o icially egis e ed o ganiza ion in
Nige ia. Izala adap ed i sel o he needs o people and concen a ed on se e al
aspec s o social li e o p opaga e i s doc ine. Islamic educa ion played an impo an
ole in Izala. F om Kane’s s udy, i is possible o iden i y se e al main igu es o he
mo emen and i s de elopmen in Kano s a e. Al hough Kane’s book was published
in 2003, i was based on he ma e ials he collec ed o his PhD disse a ion
25
a
Bo deaux Uni e si y in 1993. This aluable s udy on Izala s a ed wi h he ise o he
mo emen and ended wi h i s “domes ica ion” – o use Kane’s concep . In o he
publica ions
26
Kane analyzes he main igu es and he social en i onmen in which
Izala came ou and ela es i o economic and poli ical changes in and ou side o
Nige ia (Sheikh Gumi’s in luence, he Saudi ac o , e c). Kane
27
sees in Izala a
p ojec o “mode niza ion” o Islam and links up i wi h se e al o he e o m
mo emen s in Wes A ica, o ins ance, in Mali o Senegal. S udying ab oad and
25
Kane, Ousmane (1993): Les mou emen s islamiques e le champ poli ique au no d du Nige ia: le
cas du mou emen Izala à Kano, hèse de doc o a , IEP, Pa is.
26
Kane, Ousmane (1994): Izala: The ise o Muslim e o mism in No he n Nige ia, in: Ma in E. Ma y
and R. Sco Appleby (ed.), Accoun ing o undamen alisms: The dynamic cha ac e o mo emen s,
Chicago: Uni e si y o Chicago P ess, pp. 490-512.
27
Kane, Ousmane (1999): La polémique con e le sou isme e les o d es sou is en A ique de l'Oues
pos -coloniale, in: F ede ick de Jong & Be nd Rad ke (ed.) Islamic mys icism con es ed: hi een
cen u ies o con o e sies and polemics. Leiden: E.J. B ill. pp. 324-40.
32
issues ela ed o
iqh
(in A abic: ju isp udence) such as ma iage, de ini ion o
Ahl al-
Ki āb
, a achmen o he Mālikī School o law, e c. Izala p eaching in Bauchi is he
main subjec o his s udy. P eaching is cen al and
khu ba
( he A abic o “F iday
se mon”)
a e unde he supe ision o he
ʿulamā'
Council o he mo emen . The i s
pa is an in oduc ion ela ed o a de ini ion o he concep o
khu ba
and ocusing on
i s meaning in a eligious con ex . Acco ding o he au ho , p eaching by Izala
membe s in Bauchi goes beyond a eligious con ex and ex ends o social and
poli ical aspec s o he communi y. These h ee aspec s sum up he con en o Izala
p eaching. In addi ion o ha , Abdulkadi adds wha he calls “
khu ba ashjīʿiyya
”
(suppo i e p eaching) h ough which Izala in i es i s ollowe s o con inue ollowing
he pa h o he mo emen . This kind o p eaching is also di ec ed a o he people in
o de o in o m hem o he o ganiza ion’s ideas. The Izala p eaching is wi hin he
amewo k o he Mālikī School o Law as unde s ood by he ounde , Sheikh Id is.
Abdulkadi s esses he weaknesses o Izala p eaching in Bauchi c i icising he
compe ence o Imams in e ms o language and expe ience. He comes o he
conclusion ha his si ua ion will no change since he o ganiza ion es ic s i sel o
he eachings o Sheikh Id is.
The wo k o Id is Abdullahi Alhassan
38
deals wi h one o he impo an
ins i u ions o he Izala ac ion in Jos. Namely, he Highe Islamic School, Sa kin
Mangu, whe e he headqua e s o he o ganiza ion a e also si ua ed. Like many
38
Alhassan, Id is A. (2003): The ole o School o Highe Islamic S udies Sa kin Mangu Jos in
ad ancing he sp ead o Islamic cul u e, and A abic language o he yea 1989 o he yea 2001, BA-
disse a ion in A abic S udies, Uni e si y o Jos. (in A abic)

33
p ojec s, he s udy s a s by gi ing an o e iew on he ci y o Jos and Islamic
educa ion in he ci y be o e he au ho deals wi h he his o y o Izala and i s main
igu es, bo h pas and p esen . This ins i u ion was ounded in 1985 in Sa kin Mangu,
Jos. In 1985, i ob ained app o al om he Minis y o Educa ion in Pla eau S a e as
well om Ahmadu Bello Uni e si y, Za ia in 1989. The cu iculum o he School is
di ided in o wo phases: p epa a o y (3 yea s) and seconda y (3 yea s) in o de o
achie e a Seconda y Le el Ce i ica e. In addi ion o highligh ing he s uc u e o he
school and i s ins i u ional amewo k, he au ho also concen a es on he
con ibu ion o h ee impo an igu es in he imp o emen o educa ion in his
ins i u ion. Fi e majo subjec s a e augh in his school, namely Islamic Educa ion
(Qu ’ān,
a sī
,
ḥadī h
, e c.); educa ion (me hodology, psychology), as well as A abic;
English, and Hausa. In addi ion o ha he e a e o he h ee subjec s; he His o y o
Islam, Gene al Knowledge, and Household T aining. The au ho accen ua es he
objec i es o he schools: mas e ing he A abic language and Islamic educa ion, and
p epa ing s uden s o uni e si y. The au ho gi es a a ie y o s a is ics and ables in
his s udy which illus a e he con ibu ions o o me school s uden s in sp eading
Islamic educa ion. A numbe o issues a e seen by he au ho as obs acle, such as
lack o books and inances, and low le els o A abic and English compe ency.
Bawa D. Muhammad Anka
39
p esen s a case s udy om Zam a a S a e whe e
Izala was es ablished on 25 h May 1978. Simila o o he con ex s, Izala a ac ed
young people mo e han any o he popula ion. This esul ed in social con lic s wi hin
39
Bawa D. Muhammad Anka (2002): Izalah-Ta iqah ela ionship in Zam a a: A S udy in pe spec i e,
MA-Disse a ion in Islamic S udies, Usman Dan Fodio Uni e si y Soko o.
34
amilies and be ween Izala and o he Islamic g oups. Izala in Zam a a S a e a e
gene ally mo e peace ul han hose s a es o he no h. Also he di ision o he
mo emen in o wo g oups happened in Zam a a S a e and as a esul wo main
ac ions eme ged. This di ision, Izala’s changing o me hodology, poli ical
pa icipa ion, and
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion a e seen by Muhammad Anka as
easons o app ochemen be ween Izala and Su i b o he hoods in Zam a a S a e. In
addi ion, he au ho highligh s he impac o Izala on educa ion (Islamic knowledge,
es ablishing schools, e c.) and on social li e ( he changing o exis ing p ac ices) in
Zam a a S a e. This esea ch is di e en om o he s udies on Izala since i gi es
examples o coope a ion be ween he mo emen and Su i-B o he hoods. The au ho
sees he e-implemen a ion o Islamic law behind his app ochemen .
The s udies men ioned abo e a e samples o wo ks w i en on Izala. The
spec um is wide and depends on he con ex and depa men in which he p ojec
was ul illed. Pe sonal obse a ions o BA and MA p ojec s in he depa men o
Islamic S udies, a Usman Dan Fodio Uni e si y, Soko o, show ha mos p ojec s a e
mo e closely ela ed o Su ism and o he his oy o he Soko o Calipha e. Only a ew
p ojec s deal wi h he Izala mo emen . This can be explained by he ac ha Soko o
has been a cen e o Su ism since he 19 h cen u y. The de elopmen o Izala seems
o be simila in many no he n s a es o Nige ia. The ela ionship o Su is and also he
di ision o he o ganiza ion in o wo majo g oups can be compa ed in di e en
con ex s. The headqua e s in Jos and la e in Kaduna played a ole in guiding he
doc inal lines o he mo emen .
35
Izala is a ansna ional mo emen . I sp ead no only o mos Nige ian s a es
bu also om Nige ia o neighbou ing coun ies like Chad, Came oon and he
Republic o Nige . The case s udy o Masquelie
40
on he own o Dogondou chi, in
he Republic o Nige , is a documen a ion o Izala de elopmen ou side o Nige ia.
F om an an h opological pe spec i e she shows he social con lic s ha eme ged
a e he coming o Izala. The new “mode o li e” in oduced by Izala c ea ed social
con lic s in he own. Izala eme ged du ing a ime o economic weakness and i
especially a ac ed young people. Acco ding o he au ho , i o e s a discou se o
“mo ali y” in a ime o dissa is ac ion. Izala a e ca ego ized by Masquelie as e o mis
and conse a i e in compa ison o mains eam Islam o o adi ional Muslim cle ics.
Izala’s ad en c ea ed se e al p oblems in amilies and be ween Muslim g oups. The
discou se analyzed by he au ho e lec ed he ype o on-going discussions and
deba es among e o m o ien ed Muslims (Izala) and
ṭa īqa
(Su is) on he meaning o
Islam. An agonism is depic ed h ough a acks on one g oup by he o he , and
des oying each g oup’s social image. Fo ins ance, name-calling o en occu s
be ween he g oups, using e ms as “donkey, dogs,” which illus a es “ he animalized
o he ” – as shown by he au ho .
40
Masquelie , Adeline M. (1996): Iden i y, al e i y and ambigui y in a Nige ien communi y: Compe ing
de ini ions o ' ue' Islam, in: Richa d We bne and Te ence Range (ed.), Pos colonial iden i ies in
A ica, London, Zed Books, pp. 222-244.
36
In ano he publica ion
41
he s uggle o mosque space was a s a ing poin in
he his o y o Izala in he Republic o Nige . A e ha he mo emen changed i s
s a egy o insis on he issue o “knowledge” and necessi y o educa ion, and
especially he educa ion o women. The mo emen ques ioned he exis ing eligious
au ho i ies (
Malamai
; Hausa: adi ional Islamic schola s) in o de o es ablish i s own
sys em o alues and no ms, such as he way o d essing, he ype o educa ion, e c.
Masquelie ’s in-dep h s udy on he same own is e lec ed in he book on “Women
and Islamic e i al”.
42
This publica ion ocuses on one cha isma ic schola o he
own who ep esen s a Su i answe o e o m Islam, and pa icula ly o Izala. The well
espec ed Islamic schola , Malam Awal, came o Dogondou chi wi h a p og am o
“pu i y” he own om Izala and es ablish his ision o “being a Muslim”. In his
p og am women play an essen ial ole in such a way ha hey gain mo e and mo e
social p es ige. I he Izala pu s es ic ions on ma iage (i.e. quick ma iage, law
cos s, e c.), he new o de gi es women space o “sel -de e mina ion” (b ide weal h,
ma e ial needs, ashion e c.). Masquelie highligh s ha “women’s s a egic e o s o
de end hei in e es s and agendas (…) cen e ed on he ede ini ion o Islamic
o hodoxy”.
43
41
Masquelie , Adeline M. (1999): Deba ing Muslims, dispu ed p ac ices: S uggles o he ealiza ion o
an al e na i e mo al o de in Nige , In: Jean Coma o and John L. Coma o (ed.), Ci il socie y and he
poli ical imagina ion in A ica: C i ical pe spec i es, 1999, Chicago, Uni e si y o Chicago P ess, pp.
219-250.
42
Masquelie , Adeline M. (2009): Women and Islamic e i al in a Wes A ican own, Blooming on and
Indianapolis: Indiana Uni e si y P ess; in he same di ec ion see he s udy o Husseina D. Alidou:
(2005): Engaging mode ni y: Muslim women and he poli ics o agency in pos colonial Nige , Madison:
The Uni e si y o Wisconsin P ess.
43
Masquelie (2009), p. 277.
37
The s udy o Emmanuel G égoi e
44
examines he ela ionship be ween ade
and Islam in he own o Ma adi in he Republic o Nige . To be me chan and using
he i le
Alhaji
(pilg im) is a p es igious social posi ion in ha own. This p es ige
de eloped ecen ly by joining Izala as a kind o iden i y ma ke . Being an Izala in his
con ex is a kind o ebellion agains he exis ing Su i au ho i ies o Qādi iyya and
Tijāniyya as well a ebellion agains social ules. These me chan s wan ed o
es ablish new socie al egula ions. Ins ead o es ablishing mosques hey ended o
build schools o educa ion. A new a ilia ion dic a es new social beha iou owa ds
o he s and owa ds he old, es ablished adi ion. G égoi e makes an in e es ing
ema k when he compa es he Izala ideology o he Islamic B o he hoods wi h he
ela ionship be ween P o es an ism and Ca holicism in a Ch is ian con ex .
45
Fu he mo e, he Izala mo emen seems o combine eligion and business.
Abdoulaye Sounaye’s
46
s udy deals wi h Izala in he Republic o Nige ,
pa icula ly in an u ban cen e (Niamey). The mo emen eached he coun y du ing
he mid-1980s and de eloped in o a socio- eligious au ho i y. The Izala mo emen
o en uses di e en s a egies o p opaga e i s doc ine. Th ough he
wa
‘
zin casa
(in
Hausa: na ional p eaching), he
ma kaz
(in Hausa and A abic: cen e o social
in e ac ion), and he mosque, he mo emen ’s discou se changed om being
“ma ginal and pé iphé ique” o a “plu ô
accep é” discou se – as Sounaye poin s ou .
44
G égoi e, Emmanuel (1993): Islam and iden i y o me chan s in Ma adi (Nige ), in: Louis B enne
(ed.), Muslim iden i y and social change in Sub-Saha an A ica, 1993, London, Hu s , pp. 106-115.
45
Ibid. p. 114.
46
Sounaya, Abdoulaye (2009): Izala au Nige : une al e na i e de communau é eligieuse, in: L.
Fou cha d, O. Goe g and M. Gomez-Pe ez (ed.), Les lieux de sociabili é u baine dans la longue du ée
en A ique, Pa is, L'Ha ma an, pp. 481-500.

38
The
wa
‘
zin casa
is an occasion o in e na ional p eaching, whe ein p eache s om
ou side he Republic o Nige come o p each. Du ing hese ew days opics ela ed o
he si ua ion o he
Umma
a e discussed. This e en is also an occasion o collec
money o he mo emen and mobilize people o di e en ages o join Izala and
assis . This can be compa ed o he
maulid
celeb a ion o Su is bu , wi h di e en
objec i es and o ganiza ion. The
ma kaz
is he place o “sociabili y” and appea s as a
place o con inuous educa ion. Wi h a lib a y and a weekly se mon e e y Thu sday,
his place a ac s me chan s, young people and o he ca ego ies o people. The
ma kaz
is a place o building social ne wo ks. I can be compa ed wi h he
Zāwiya
in
he Su i con ex . The hi d place is in he mosque. I is a place o building he
“communau é Izala”
and o “media ion” among i s membe s. Sounaye sees he
mosque as a place o building he sense o “collec i i y” in Izala. The au ho
indica es h ee ins i u ions ha a e used by Izala as “ ools” o p opaga e i s doc ine.
This s a egy aims o b ing eligious, economic and social aspec s oge he . I allows
Izala o domina e he “ eligious ield” in which i ope a es. Finally, he au ho aises an
impo an ques ion ela ed o he ins i u ionaliza ion and no maliza ion o Izala. To
wha ex en is i possible o alk he dynamism o i s e o m p ojec in he u u e?
Robe B. Cha lick,
47
a poli ical scien is , hinks ha Izala (as he de ende o
Islamic mo als) is an “Islamis mo emen ” which con on ed he Nige ian s a e
se e al imes on di e en occasions since he 1990s. The au ho explains ha he
mo emen has been looking o an “au onomous iden i y” which opposes he exis ing
47
Cha lick, Robe B. (2004): Islamism in Wes A ica: Nige , In: A ican S udies Re iew 47 (2), pp. 97-
107.
39
adi ional Hausa social ules. He adds ha Izala a ac ed you h, me chan s, and
“u ban unemployed” and i o e s a pa icula sys em o alues. Cha lick concludes
ha Izala is “used in pa o pe mi a o m o capi alis economic mode niza ion (…)
wi hou an accep ance o he wes e n Belie s…”
Oli ie Meunie ,
48
an h opologis and sociologis who has published
ex ensi ely on Islam in he Republic Nige , desc ibes a phenomenon o uni ica ion o
Su i b o he hoods agains Izala in he own Ma adi ha seems o be simila o wha
Roman Loimeie desc ibed in no he n Nige ia. Meunie documen s ha he ounde
o Izala in he Republic Nige , Malam Chaibou, s udied in Ka sina (Nige ia) and was a
s uden o Sheikh Abubaka Gumi in Kaduna, Nige ia be o e he e u ned o Ma adi
and ounded he mo emen in ea ly 1980s. His p eaching was e en eco ded and
ansmi ed on he adio. Meunie iews in Izala a Wahhābī mo emen ha c ossed
he Nige ian bo de o he own o Ma adi. He ela es he de elopmen o Izala o
ex e nal in luences, especially Saudi A abia. The ise o he mo emen ook place
du ing a ime o economic c isis (1980). Izala a ac ed many unsa is ied people and
es ablished i sel as a mo emen agains Su ism and he sync e is ic p ac ices o
Ma abous. In his book
49
on Islam in Nige , he au ho di e en ia es be ween h ee
majo g oups in Ma adi: adi ionalis s (Su is), a ionalis s ( hose who call hemsel es
Mālikīs wi hou any a ilia ion o Su ism o o e o m Islam), and e o mis s (Izala).
48
Meunie , Oli e (1998): Ma abou s e cou an s eligieux en pays hawsa: dynamique de l’islamisa ion
de la ille de Ma adi à la in du XIX° siècle e du an le XX° siècle, In: Re ue Canadienne d’É udes
A icaines 32 (3), pp.521-557.
49
Meunie , Oli ie (1998): Les oies de l'islam au Nige dans le Ka sina independan du XIXe au XXe
siècle, Pa is: Publica ions Scien i iques du Museum.
40
3 Me hodology
The S udy o Religion o e s di e en app oaches o dealing wi h he
phenomenon o eligion. The his o ical-philological and he empi ical-sociological
me hods a e well-es ablished, schola ly me hods which a e o en applied. Many o he
academic app oaches a e also accep ed, i.e. he an h opological, philosophical,
psychological and e en eminis app oaches.
50
In his s udy, I am no de ining he
concep o “ eligion” ei he in subs an ial o in a unc ional ways as i is he case in
many publica ions in Religious S udies. I am going a beyond he p oblem o
de ini ion o he concep o “ eligion”, and he deba e behind i . I am awa e o he
impo ance o his deba e o my p ojec . I hink ins ead o de ining “ eligion” mysel I
am looking a his no ion om he angle o he Izala and Su is.
This s udy combines a his o ical and empi ical app oach. The his o y o Izala
in Nige ia and i s ela ionship o Su is has been documen ed and analysed in his
s udy. The e is a lack o li e a u e conce ning ecen de elopmen s, cu en leade s,
and especially on-going discou ses wi hin he mo emen . The objec i e is o a emp
o ill his gap in academia and especially o conside how Izala’s con empo a y
cen al igu es econs uc he his o y o he mo emen . Izala’s his o y om he
pe spec i e o i s cu en membe s, ex-membe s and non-Izala seems o be
50
Li e a u e on me hods and app oaches in he S udy o Religion is di e se; o an o e iew on
di e en pe spec i es dealing wi h his opic see o e.g. Connolly, Pe e (1999) (ed.): App oaches o
he S udy o Religion, London and New Yo k: Cassell; also Whaling, F ank (1995) (ed.): Theo y and
me hods in Religious S udies. Con empo a y app oaches o he S udy o Religion, Be lin and New
Yo k: Mou on de G uy e .
41
consis en wi h wha has been al eady w i en on he his o y o his mo emen . The
empi ical app oach consis s o dealing wi h ac o s om di e en eligious
backg ounds and a ilia ions (wi hin Islam) and analyzing he ac ual discou se(s) and
he doc inal o ien a ion o he mo emen .
My ield esea ch in Nige ia ook place be ween Decembe 2006 and Ma ch
2007 and again om Feb ua y o Ap il 2008. The aim o he i s expe ience in he
ield was o build ne wo ks and connec ions o he Izala mo emen in Nige ia and o
explo e he “ eligious ield” o he ci y o Jos. This endea ou was acili a ed by he
depa men o Religious S udies a he Uni e si y o Jos.
51
The i s pe iod o
esea ch was es ic ed o iden i ying cen al eligious igu es and leade s in Jos and
o explo ing he ela ionship be ween he mo emen and Su ism. I did no ake much
ime o iden i y Izala leade s linked o he ounde , Sheikh Ismaila Id is and wi hin he
Jos ac ion and inally, o he s linked o he second g oup: he Kaduna g oup which
spli om he Jos ac ion. The Izala was es ablished in Jos and i s headqua e s a e
s ill in Jos. Today, ollowe s o Sheikh Ismaila Id is ha e hei na ional o ice a Sa kin
Mangu, Jos. The Kaduna ac ion and i s leade s a e based in he same own, as well
in Kaduna. The leade s o Izala can also be ound in o he no he n s a es.
Being a ilia ed wi h Izala as a mo emen o as a eligious o ganiza ion doesn’
equi e any ini ia ion, i ual, o icial o ms o membe ship ees. The o ganiza ion
equi es he accep ance o i s doc ine and ejec ion o Su ism as basic elemen s o
51
I am hank ul o he Head o he Depa men o Religious S udies, P o . U. Dan ulani who hos ed me
and in oduced me o his colleagues bu also o his assis ance in all di ec ions; I am also hank ul o
all s a o he depa men . Th ough Mallam Dawood Abubaka I had my i s con ac s wi h Su i
Sheikhs and Izala membe s in Jos. I eally app ecia e his aluable suppo and pa ience.
48
a limi ed ex en as Da id Swa z obse es. Bou dieu only published a s udy on
F ench Ca holic Bishops in 1982 and wo a icles on sociology o eligion in 1987 and
1991.
59
Some key concep s o Bou dieu’s heo y a e
capi al
,
habi us
,
ield
, and
symbolic powe
. They a e compa ible wi h mo e han one academic discipline. They
a e applicable o cul u e bu can also be used in he con ex o economy, eligion o
philosophy.
Bou dieu’s no ion o
capi al
60
is mani old. The mos impo an a e:
economic
capi al
, which can be con e ed in o money and is ins i u ionalized in p ope y igh s;
cul u al capi al
which is unde ce ain ci cums ances ela ed o
economic capi al
and
i s ins i u ionaliza ion mani es ed in educa ional quali ica ions; and inally
social
capi al
based on social obliga ions and ins i u ionalized in i les o nobili y.
Fo my p ojec he concep s o
cul u al
and
social capi al
appea impo an and
app op ia e. Thus, I wan o explain bo h concep s in mo e de ail. Conce ning he
cul u al capi al
, Bou dieu di e en ia es be ween
embodied
,
objec i ied
, and
ins i u ionalized
o ms.
By
embodied
he means he no ion o cul u e, cul i a ion, o “Bildung”. This capi al can
be con e ed in o
habi us
and “canno be ansmi ed ins an aneously” like money o
p ope y. I is acqui ed and i depends on ime, socie y and social class. I is
unequally dis ibu ed and needs powe in o de o be imposed and ansmi ed.
61
59
Swa z, Da id (1996): B idging he s udy o cul u e and eligion: Pie e Bou dieu’s poli ical economy
o Symbolic powe , In: Sociology o Religion 57 (1), p. 71.
60
Bou dieu, Pie e (1986): The Fo ms o capi al, In: Richa dson, John (eds.): Handbook o heo y and
esea ch o he sociology o educa ion. New Yo k: G eenwood P ess, pp. 241-258.
61
Ibid., pp. 244-245.

49
The
objec i ied
s a e o
cul u al capi al
is ela ed o he i s ype (embodied)
and is “objec i ied in ma e ial objec s and media, such as w i ings, pain ings,
monumen s, ins umen s, e c.” I is ansmi ed ma e ially bu also symbolically.
62
The
las s a e o
cul u al capi al
, he
ins i u ionalized
, is mo e ela ed o academic
quali ica ions ha gi es i s holde a kind o “ce i ica e o cul u al compe ence”. These
quali ica ions a e di e en ia ed be ween people in a pa icula socie y and es ablish a
sys em o alues.
63
I he
cul u al capi al
is mo e o less ela ed o he indi idual, he
social capi al
is ela ed o g oups o people. Bou dieu also calls i “collec i ely-owned capi al”. I s
olume depends on he ne wo ks o an indi idual and on his o he capi al. I is based
on he p inciple o “solida i y” and “du able obliga ions”. A kind o “symbolic
cons i u ion” eme ges om hese and “ ecogni ion” (in he g oup) akes place.
P oduc ion o
social capi al
equi es – acco ding o Bou dieu – “an unceasing o
sociabili y” and “a se ies o exchanges” in which ecogni ion is “a i med and
ea i med”. A g oup egula es i s own ules in e nally and appoin s a ep esen a i e
as a leade who enjoys
symbolic powe
.
64
The desc ibed o ms o capi al and people’s
habi us
a e o be ound in e e y
ield
o he socie y (poli ics, eligion, educa ion, a , e c.). These a ious ields a e no
isola ed om each o he , and a e based on
symbolic powe
. In all ields a s uggle o
62
Ibid., pp. 246-247.
63
Ibid., pp. 247-248.
64
Fo mo e de ails on he “cul u al capi al” see ibid., pp. 248-253.
50
his symbolic powe akes place. These dynamics and he in e ac ions be ween he
ields cons i u e he
habi us
o a pa icula socie y. Bou dieu de ines ha no ion as:
“The
habi us
is he sou ce o hese se ies o mo es which a e
objec i ely o ganized as s a egies wi hou being a p oduc o a
genuine s a egic in en ion – which would p esuppose a leas ha
hey a e pe cei ed as one s a egy among o he possible
s a egies.”
65
Ac o s p oduce and ep oduce “objec i e meaning”. Impo an o Bou dieu is he
“o ches a ion” o he di e en meanings o p oduce a “common-sense wo ld” on he
basis o common p ac ices. These ac o s come ac oss as “simila ” o “iden ical”
expe iences. The common
habi us
o hese ac o s is hen pe cei ed as “immedia ely
in elligible and o eseeable” and “hence aken o g an ed”.
66
The p oduc ion o
habi us
equi es “mobilize s” (p ophe s, leade s) who mas e
common codes and who can unde ake “co ec ions” and “adjus men s”.
67
The
ep oduc ion o
habi us
can ake place as a esul o an “incul u a ion” and
“app op ia ion” h ough which “objec i e s uc u es like language o economy can
ep oduce hemsel es”.
68
In he cou se o he de elopmen o a common
habi us
a new o m o capi al
eme ges: he so-called symbolic capi al. This ype is cha ac e ised by Bou dieu as
“
he mos aluable o m o accumula ion
” and has o do wi h acknowledgmen and
65
Bou dieu, Pie e (1977): Ou line o a heo y o p ac ice, Camb idge: Uni e si y P ess, p. 73.
66
Bou dieu (1977), pp. 79-80.
67
Ibid., p. 81.
68
Ibid., p. 85.
51
p es ige.
69
This capi al is be e called “symbolic iolence” and is necessa y because
i is he “only way in which ela ions o domina ion can be se up, main ained, o
es o ed”.
70
This “in isible” o m – as quali ied by Bou dieu – is “nei he o icially
decla ed no ins i u ionally gua an eed”
71
. This powe canno be acqui ed by a
dis ibu ion o economic capi al. I is based on wha Bou dieu calls “ i ue”.
72
The di e en ypes o capi al as well as he cons uc ion and egene a ion o
habi us
and he
symbolic iolence
equi e an abs ac se ing. Bou dieu sugges s he
no ion o
ield
, cha ac e ised by i s dynamics and based on pa icula ules,
mechanisms and s uc u es. The concep o
ield
is loca ed in many places o he
socie y. I can be a “ ield” o a , o economy, poli ics, o eligion. Magnus Ech le ,
73
an h opologis and schola o eligious s udies om Bay eu h, o e s a good
desc ip ion o wha he no ion o
ield
means in Bou dieu’s e minology. The me apho
o
game
summa izes he whole si ua ion. In e e y game he e a e playe s playing
and de eloping hei skills o mas e he ules. The example gi en by Bou dieu is ha
o oule e. Playing he game means accep ing i s ules and egula ions. This
me apho e lec s a mo e impo an game which is
social game
. This ype is a long-
e m one and has implici egula ions in a pa icula ield and depends on playe s and
hei posi ions. This
social game
di e s om oule e as o mula ed by Ech le : “Bu
unlike oule e, whe e he esul o he game is de e mined by chance, social games
69
Ibid., p. 85.
70
Ibid., p. 191.
71
Ibid., p 193
72
Ibid., p 194.
73
Ech le , Magnus (2008): Changing i uals - The New Yea ’s es i al in Makunduchi, Zanziba , since
colonial imes, PhD hesis, Uni e si y o Bay eu h.
52
a e always igged: he ac o s who accumula e he highes amoun in he igh
combina ion o capi alia will usually succeed.”
74
Acco ding o Bou dieu, a game equi es a s a egy ha he de ines as “(…) he
p oduc o a p ac ical sense, o a pa icula social game”.
75
Playe s di e in hei
capaci y o play by using e ec i e s a egies and by adap ing o new and/o di e en
condi ions in pa icula . As Bou dieu o mula es i :
“The good playe , who is as i we e he embodimen o he
game
, is
con inually doing wha needs o be done, wha he
game
demands
and equi es. This p esupposes a cons an in en ion, an imp o isa ion
ha is absolu ely necessa y in o de o one o adap o si ua ions ha
a e in ini ely a ied. This canno be achie ed by mechanical
obedience o explici , codi ied ules (when hey exis ).”
76
Acco ding o Ech le , Bou dieu de elops his no ion o
habi us
o his heo y o p ac ice
espec i ely as an answe o “objec i e and subjec i e heo ies”. Acco ding o his
heo y he
habi us
o people is based on he expe ience o people in a way ha i can
be p oduced and ep oduced.
77
The concep s o ield, capi al, and p ac ice a e
in e ela ed. Ech le o mula es i accu a ely: “All p ac ices a e s a egic in he sense
ha in e es ed ac o s compe e wi h each o he , make use o he capi alia a he
disposal in o de o enla ge hei capi al o imp o e hei posi ion wi hin he ield o
74
Ech le (2008), p. 28.
75
Pie e Lamaison and Pie e Bou dieu (1986): F om Rules o S a egies: An In e iew wi h Pie e
Bou dieu, p. 112.
76
Ibid., pp. 112-113.
77
Ech le (2008), p. 25
53
p ac ice.”
78
Habi us
is dynamic and is based on ac o s’ “unlimi ed capaci ies” o
gene a e i .
79
Since he e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in no he n Nige ia in 1999, he
ela ionship be ween Su i-B o he hoods and Islamic e o m mo emen s like Izala has
been a ec ed in a e y p o ound way. I changed om iolen con on a ions o
peace ul co-exis ence. These wo g oups educed hei long on-going s uggle o e
doc inal ques ions. To elucida e his phenomenon and o pu i in o a heo e ical
amewo k I will use Pie e Bou dieu’s no ions o
ield
,
capi al
,
habi us
and
symbolic
powe
. Kane
80
uses Bou dieu’s heo y o desc ibe he
eligious ield
in Nige ia and
pa icula ly he ield in which Izala was es ablished. Kane ag ees wi h Bou dieu’s
unde s anding o he no ion o
capi al
ha
symbolic capi al
in a pa icula ield is mo e
impo an han
economic capi al
and iden i ies “accumula ion” and “conse a ion” o
capi al as key concep s o ha heo y.
81
Fo he “ eligious ield” o no he n Nige ia Kane p oposes he ollowing i e
ca ego ies o capi al. 1) Non- o mally ce i ied cul u al capi al (exo e ic knowledge
and eso e ic science - Su ism), 2) o mally ce i ied cul u al capi al o exo e ic
knowledge like a uni e si y ce i ica e o mas e y o Qu ’ān, 3) economic capi al
(ma e ial weal h), 4) symbolic capi al ( igh e s o he cause o Islam) and 5) social
capi al (suppo e s, clien s, disciples, e c…).
82
78
Ibid., p. 30.
79
Ibid., p.31.
80
See Kane (1993) and (2003)
81
See Kane (2003), pp. 20-23.
82
Ibid., pp. 21-22.

54
The applicabili y o he Bou dieu’s heo y by Kane in he con ex o he Izala
mo emen is summa ized in he ollowing:
“An assump ion o Bou dieu’s ield heo y is ha , in each ield, one
inds a s uggle be ween he “newcome s” and he “es ablished
dominan ac o s.” The s a egy o each ca ego y o playe s (o hei
game) is de e mined by he quan i y and he ypes o capi al hey
possess (e.g., money, ollowe s, p es ige, knowledge, e c.). In all
ields, es ablished dominan ac o s con olling di e se so s and
subs an ial olumes o capi al will end o be e y conse a i e in
o de o p ese e he s uc u e o he ield – unde s ood as " he s a e
o powe ela ions among he agen s and ins i u ions engaged in he
s uggle […] o de end he monopoly and keep ou compe i ion".”
83
The ca ego y o “newcome s” is e y impo an when i comes o he s a -up o
Izala. This g oup is ep esen ed by he you h, women, and a new gene a ion o
en ep eneu s who suppo ed Izala om he beginning. Th ough biog aphies o some
ac o s o Izala Kane shows how
capi al
was ob ained and how i was con e ed wi hin
he Izala
eligious ield
in o o he o ms, o ins ance:
economic capi al
o a
social
o
symbolic
one. This change o e s he mo emen an oppo uni y o se up i s own
ideology agains he adi ional eligious ins i u ion.
84
Kane uses Bou dieu’s heo y o explain he Izala phenomenon. An impo an
ques ion a ises he e: wha is he ele ance o using he same app oach wi h he
same mo emen again? The answe is: since Ousmane Kane’s esea ch he
83
Ibid., p. 227.
84
Fo a b ie summa y on he applica ion o Bou dieu’s heo y o ield on Izala see Kane (2003), pp.
228-233.
55
eligious ield
is en i ely e-de ined. Izala has new leade s, he mo emen is di ided
in o wo majo ac ions, and he discou se is di e en o he 1980s and 1990s. E en
mo e impo an is he whole new se ing: e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
by he no he n
s a es. These new challenges a ec ed Izala poli ically, economically and eligiously.
The Izala o oday is aced wi h many challenges. The new eligious and mo e
p ecisely he Islamic eligious ield is di e en om he pas . The Izala o oday is
di ided be ween he Jos and Kaduna ac ions and bo h a e con ending o
acknowledgemen among hei adhe en s. The Izala is also pa o he Muslim
communi y as a whole a a na ional le el as he
sha īʿa
issue shows.
The
eligious ield
in which Izala is ac ing nowadays is di e en om how Kane
desc ibed i . The se ing he illus a ed and in which Izala e ol ed has changed.
Du ing he ime o Sheikh Id is, he es ablishmen o a s ong mass-mo emen wi h
many ollowe s was a he op o his agenda. The ca ego y o “newcome s” (you h,
women, e c.) as well o hose who possessed an
economic capi al
(me chan s o
e.g.) played an impo an ole in he s a -up phase o Izala. Islamic p eache s
(A abic:
duʿā
, sing.
dāʿi
) who joined he Izala- ounde came wi h hei
cul u al capi al
and assis ed in he p ocess o ec ui men . The ounde enjoyed loyal y and espec
and Izala was mainly ocused on igh ing Su is and Su ism and a ac ing new
adhe en s and ollowe s.
Today he mo emen is a ec ed by in e nal s i e and ic ion. The
eligious
ield
is e-de ined. The Jos- ac ion’s leade , Sheikh Sani Yahya Jingi , a o me
s uden o he Izala ounde and cu en leade o he Izala ac ion in Jos, is a ached
56
o he adi ion o Sheikh Id is and de ines all aspec s o “being-an-Izala” in ela ion o
he adi ion o iginally es ablished by him [Id is]. In Kaduna g oup, he wo
dis inguished Sheikhs a e Sheikh Yusu Sambo and Sheikh Rabiu Dau a.
85
The Izala
eligious ield in Kaduna is di e en om wha he ounde o he mo emen
es ablished. De ining Izala-iden i y in e nally and ac ing as a dynamic mo emen
wi hin he Muslim communi y o Nige ia a e he new challenges ha Izala a e acing
oday. These challenges a e elabo a ed in he coming chap e s.
86
4.2 “Modes o Religiosi y” heo y
The “modes o eligiosi y heo y”
87
o Ha ey Whi ehouse can also be a model
o explaining he Izala de elopmen . This ype o cogni i e app oach is new in
eligious s udies and has no been applied o any Islamic con ex . In his heo y,
Whi ehouse is in e es ed in eligious expe ience and in explaining cogni i e
mechanisms in he ansmission o eligion o any eligious i ual.
This heo y ecognises emembe ing and mo i a ion as c ucial elemen s o
any pa icula eligion o i ual ha wan s o su i e. Religious belie s and i uals
should be epea ed and easily accessible o people. They mus be meaning ul o
belie e s in o de o be ans e ed om one gene a ion o he nex .
88
85
Bo h Sheikhs Yusu Sambo and Rabiu Dau a a e he leade s o he Kaduna ac ion o Izala ha spli
om he ounde Sheikh Id is.
86
See chap e “Re o m Islam s. Su ism.”
87
This app oach is elabo a ed by he au ho in se e al o his publica ions and especially in his book
Whi ehouse, Ha ey (2004): Modes o Religiosi y: A cogni i e heo y o eligious ansmission, Walnu
C eek, CA: Al a Mi a P ess.
88
Whi ehouse (2004), p. 64.
57
Based on li e a u e in psychology, Whi ehouse analyses he no ion o memo y
and di ides i in o wo ypes: an implici and an explici one. By “implici memo y” he
means “ hose hings ha we know wi hou being awa e o ”. Fo he explici memo y –
which is mo e impo an o us – he dis inguishes a sho - e m om a long- e m
memo y.
89
The long- e m memo y is also sub-di ided in o seman ic and episodic. The
seman ic ype e lec s “knowledge abou he wo ld” and he indi idual is unable o
emembe he poin in ime o i s adop ion. The episodic ype deals wi h pa icula
e en s in li e (dea h, wa , e c.). Acco ding o Whi ehouse, hese ypes o memo y a e
ac i a ed di e en ly in wha he calls “doc inal” and “imagis ic” modes o eligiosi y.
90
These wo modes occu sepa a ely o oge he in a single eligious adi ion.
Fo he doc inal modes, equen epe i ion o eligious i uals, a long- e m-episodic
memo y, eligious leade s, hie a chy, and o hodoxy a e impo an o a doc ine o
su i e. The imagis ic mode o eligiosi y is cha ac e ised by i s low equency
(ini ia ion o e.g.) and i s high emo ional a ousal. I doesn’ need o hodoxy, i is ha d
o sp ead, and i appeals episodic memo y.
91
In he case o Izala he doc inal mode appea s mo e applicable. Why? We
migh ge he imp ession ha Izala ends o he doc inal mode o eligiosi y while
89
Ibid., p 65
90
Ibid.
91
The wo modes a e explained in de ail in Whi ehouse (2004), pp. 65-85; Whi ehouse (2002): ‘Modes
o Religiosi y: a cogni i e explana ion o he sociopoli ical dynamics o eligion’, In: Me hod and Theo y
in he S udy o Religion
14 , 2002, pp. 293-315;
64
“This yea , hund eds o new eligious mo emen s will appea on
ea h. Some will be o med by disg un led membe s who wi hd ew
om olde eligious bodies. O he s will be bo n because someone
c ea ed o disco e ed new eligious cul u e and con inced o he s o
i s au hen ici y. Howe e , wha e e hei o igins, i ually e e y new
g oup will ha e one hing in common: e en ual ailu e.”
97
The app oach o S a k goes u he and applies he so-called “ a ional choice
heo y” o eligion. This heo y is well-known in economics and o some ex en in
sociology and a ew o he disciplines. F om an economic poin o iew, indi iduals y
o maximize bene i s on he one hand, and on he o he o minimize hei expenses.
Economis s obse e ha ma ke mechanisms depend on daily decisions made by
“consume s and p oduce s (who) a ionally calcula e p o i and loss”
98
In he con ex
o eligion he heo y o a ional choice combines ma ke beha io wi h indi idual
eligious ac ion.
99
As men ioned abo e, eligious ins i u ions a e conside ed “ i ms” o e ing
di e en p oduc s and compe e agains each o he o a monopoly wi hin he ma ke .
Consume s (o adhe en s) ha e he choice o de ine hei needs and calcula e hei
bene i s.
When i comes o Islam, he Religious Ma ke Theo y seems o d aw he a en ion o
schola s. The sociologis o eligion, Massimo In o igne, applied i o Islam in Tu key
97
S a k (1996), p. 133.
98
Spicka d, James V. (1998): Re hinking eligious social ac ion: Wha is „ a ional“ abou a ional
choice heo y?, in: Sociology o Religion. Vol. 59 (2), pp. 99-115.
99
Spicka d (1998), p. 99.

65
and ew o he Muslim socie ies.
100
He ocuses on he concep o “niches” – de eloped
by S a k – and i s ela ionship o “s ic ness”. Religion is o en pe cei ed o be s ic e
when i s symbolic cos s a e highe and when i s membe s a e expec ed o belie e
and beha e in mo e adi ional and conse a i e ways han socie y a la ge.”
101
He
de eloped a model whe e he classi ied Islamic g oups in o i e ca ego ies:
 ul as ic (Al-Qāʿida o e.g.);
 s ic (like B o he hoods, Wahhabism);
 mode a e-conse a i e (Naqshabandiyya Su i b o he hood);
 libe al (Baʿa h Pa y);
 ul alibe al (Islamo-Ma xism).
Following his ca ego iza ion he designed a “Model o he Tu kish Religious Ma ke ”
and p o ed ha S a k’s heo y can be alida ed empi ically in an Islamic con ex .
In o igne’s insigh gene a es he ques ion o he applicabili y o he Religious
Ma ke Theo y is-a- is he Izala mo emen in no he n Nige ia. Does i help o
unde s and he eno mous g ow h o Izala du ing i s i s wo decades o exis ence?
Does i also explain a po en ial ailu e o he mo emen ?
I we apply he “Religious Ma ke Theo y” in he no h Nige ian con ex we can
s a e ha he “ eligious ma ke ” in which he Izala ope a es is “plu alis ic”. In addi ion
o Muslims, Ch is ians and adhe en s o A ican T adi ional Religions a e pa o he
100
In o igne, Massimo (2005): Niches in he Islamic Religious Ma ke and Fundamen alism:
Examples om Tu key and O he Coun ies", In e disciplina y Jou nal o Resea ch on Religion: Vol.
1(1), A icle 3, pp. 1-23.
101
Ibid, p. 3.
66
gene al eligious landscape o Nige ia, and he e a e sub-ca ego ies in each o hese
communi ies. Among Muslims, he wo Su i-b o he hoods (Qādi iyya and Tijāniyya)
had a quasi-monopoly because o hei well-es ablished adi ion in no he n Nige ia.
Loimeie
102
elabo a es on he s uggle be ween hem du ing he 1950s and 1960s.
Su i B o he hoods made big e o s o win new a ilia ed membe s in hei
ṭu uq
(A abic: b o he hoods). The heological and o some ex en poli ical deba es came o
an end wi h he appea ance o he Izala mo emen a end o he 1970s.
102
See Loimeie , Roman (1997): “Islamic e o m and poli ical …”, especially chap e wo “The
de elopmen o Su i B o he hoods in Nige ia”, pp. 19-104.
67
Chap e Two: Religious Landscape in Nige ia
This chap e se es as a his o ical backg ound o he cu en de elopmen in
he coun y. I gi es an o e iew on he sp ead o bo h Ch is iani y and Islam in
Nige ia. The ocus he e is he eligion o Islam. In his con ex , hese chap e s
highligh he es ablishmen o he Qādi iyya and Tijāniyya Su i b o he hoods, gi e
insigh s in o he B i isch colonial policy o “indi ec ule”, and inally documen he ise
o an i-Su ism du ing he pos -colonial pe iod.
1 Ch is iani y in Nige ia
Unlike Islam, Ch is iani y ound i s way o A ica’s mos populous coun y
h ough missiona ies. The i s “spo adic” ac i i ies o Ch is ian missiona ies in he
sou he n pa o Nige ia ook place in 1515. In he ea ly 16 h cen u y, a ew Ch is ian
missiona ies like G ego io Lou enço and A onso Anes we e in Nige ia bu wi hou
much success.
103
The ollowing a emp s o Ch is ianize Nige ia su e ed om he
same se -back. The his o ian Toyin Falola explains his ac in h ee basic elemen s:
sla e y and ade o sla es a ha ime, lack o missiona ies who we e able o
unde ake p osely iza ion, and lack o inances. The ac i i ies o missiona ies we e
in ensi ied by he end o he 19 h cen u y in he sou h o he coun y. Ch is ian
o ganiza ions (esp. P o es an and Ca holic ones) om Eu ope and No h Ame ica
we e in e es ed in a “g ea missiona y expansion”. Some in oduced Ch is iani y as
103
Isichei, Elisabe h (1983): A His o y o Nige ia. New Yo k: Longman G oup Limi ed, p. 318.
68
an al e na i e o sla e ading and ound a way o en e he Wes A ican coun y.
104
To some ex en , his mission can be in e p e ed as an answe o he p esence o
Islam ha has a long adi ion in he coun y.
The Ch is ian missiona ies op ed o sp ead Ch is iani y amongs A icans
hemsel es. This s a egy is known as “na i e agency”. I educes cos s, p o ec s
non-A icans om diseases, and especially mobilizes A icans o p opaga e
Ch is iani y in hei local egions.
105
A e Sla e y was abolished many o me sla es om Sie a Leone, Cuba, and
B azil e u ned o Nige ia a e 1830. They we e conside ed by Eu opeans o be
po en ial missiona ies who could expand Ch is iani y. Fu he mo e hey we e
essen ial elemen s needed in he educa ion and heal h sec o s.
In 1840 a B i ish expedi ion,
The Nige Mission
, came o he Nige Ri e a ea.
This o ganiza ion had a eligious backg ound, bu ied h ough ade ac i i ies o
come in con ac wi h local leade s. This can be conside ed one o he mos
success ul ac i i ies o he
Chu ch Missiona y Socie y
(C.M.S.) and led o he
con e sion o many people in Nige ia.
106
The C.M.S. was success ul especially among he Yo uba in he sou h (Lagos,
Abeoku a, Ibadan und Ilesa), and in he Del a Region. In ha a ea Me hodis and
104
Falola, Toyin (1999): The His o y o Nige ia. Wes po , Connec icu , London: G eenwood P ess, p.
40.
105
Ibid., p. 41.
106
Falola poin s ou he success o his mission h ough he ac i i ies o Samuel Ajayi C ow he , a
o me sla e known as he „he o o he Nige Mission“. This man is he i s A ican Bishop o he
C.M.S., see Ibid., p. 41.
69
Ca holic Chu ches we e es ablished. Ca holicism sp ead among he
Yo uba
and he
Ibo.
The success o Ch is ian missiona ies in Sou he n Nige ia can be explained by
he ac ha
Yo uba
-leade s expec ed ha “ he missiona ies would help hem win
hei wa s and p ocu e a ms and missiona ies.”
107
Conce ning he Del a Region he e we e mo e economic in e es s behind he
success o he missions. Local ade s we e in e es ed in con ac s wi h Eu opeans.
This explains why leade s in hose a eas allowed he es ablishmen o Ch is ian
schools in hei e i o ies.
The sp ead o Ch is iani y in sou he n Nige ia is due o he ac ha people
associa ed e o ms wi h Ch is iani y. Fo he local leade s o ha ime Ch is ian
missions o e ed solu ions o hei p oblems. Missiona ies we e in ol ed in local
poli ics and played he ole o in e media ies, o ins ance, missiona ies we e
esponsible o pu ing an end o he
Yo uba
con on a ions. This kind o ole b ough
missiona ies mo e espec and con idence om local ule s, bu also amongs
common people. In addi ion, missiona y schools played a c ucial ole in con e ing
people: “in many places, he chu ch and he school wen oge he ”
108
– as Falola
poin s i .
When Ch is iani y in Nige ia gained a oo hold, A ican eligions we e
inc easingly cha ac e ized as symbols o “paganism”. T adi ional dei ies, p ies s and
107
Ibid., p. 42.
108
Ibid., p. 42-43.

70
emples we e ejec ed. T adi ional alues we e no espec ed and we e la gely
eplaced by new Ch is ian no ms and alues.
109
Ch is iani y in Nige ia came h ough he sou he n egion be o e i sp ead o o he
pa s o he coun y. By he end o he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies and h ough he
ac i i ies o he
Sudan In e io Mission
(SIM) and
Sudan Uni ed Mission
(SUM)
se e al Ch is ian missions we e ini ia ed in he Middle bel egion and sp ead om
he e o he no h. This en e p ise was in e up ed by he coming o he B i ish who
es ic ed missiona y ac i i ies in he no h. The “Nige ian Ch is iani y” – as Klaus
Hock conno es i – became mo e as ened (“be es ig ”) h ough he independence.
F om ha ime Ch is ian missions became mo e in ensi ied in he no h. Klaus Hock
calls i he “s a egic coun e -in asion” (“s a egische Gegene obe ung”) o Islam. In
addi ion o he SIM, he SUM in ensi ied hei missions, as well as he Ca holic
Chu ch, he Me hodis , he Chu ch o B e h en Mission (CBM), he Qua Ibo Mission,
and he Uni ed Missiona y Mission (UMS) unde ook he same p ojec .
110
Klaus Hock
obse es ha he Ch is ian Chu ches in no he n Nige ia had no spli like wha
happened in he sou h o he coun y wi h he es ablishmen o A ican Independen
Chu ches.
111
Ch is ian missions played a cen al ole in sp eading Ch is iani y. Th ough he
s uc u e o he missions and especially hei concen a ion on educa ion led o hei
109
Ibid., p.44; also Isichei (1983) con i ms ha bo h he Ca holic and P o es an Mission condemned
aspec s o adi ional eligions, p. 326.
110
Hock (1996), p. 46.
111
Ibid., p. 48; he absence o such a spli does no mean ha A ican Independen Chu ches a e no
o be ound in no he n Nige ia. Chu ches like
Celec ial Chu ch o Ch is
and
Aladu a
a e well
es ablished in especially in big owns o he no h, see Ibid., p. 49.
71
success among he A ican popula ion o Nige ia. Ch is ian missions s a ed in he
sou h o he coun y and succeeded in ec ui ing A ican missiona ies amilia wi h
hei local communi ies. A a la e s age, Eu opean missiona ies hemsel es
in ensi ied hei ac i i ies in all di ec ions. Conce ning no he n Nige ia missiona y
ac i i y was es ained by he policy o “Indi ec Rule” o he B i ish be o e en e ing in
he pos -colonial pe iod, and a new and mo e success ul e a.
2 His o y o Islam in Nige ia
112
The e i o y o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia and i s poli ical bo de s is a
p oduc o he colonial e a. Nige ia as a s a e did no exis be o e he coming o he
B i ish. The i s con ac be ween he popula ion o wha is oday known as Nige ia
and Islam happened du ing he 8 h and 9 h cen u ies h ough adeing ca a ans
113
coming om No h A ica. The Ge man schola o eligion and heologian, Klaus Hock
desc ibes his pe iod as “supe icial Islamiza ion” (“obe lächliche Islamisie ung”).
This i s con ac ook place especially in he no h-wes e n pa o he e i o y.
Conce ning he no h-eas e n a ea loca ed nea Lake Chad known as Kanem-Bo nu,
Islam came du ing he 11 h cen u y wi h ade s om Egyp and Fezzan (Libya). Islam
especially a ac ed people eli e membe s o he socie y and emained o a long ime
112
This chap e is based on my unpublished M.A.-Disse a ion (2005) “Die En wicklung de Ša ī‘a-
F age in Nige ia…”.
113
The majo i y o hese ade s we e Ibadi es belonging o Cha iji e-Islam. This g oup o people we e
pushed back as well in Wes A ica as in No h A ica. Ins ead o his e sion o Islam, Sunni Islam
became dominan ; o mo e de ails see Hock, Klaus (1996): De Islam Komplex. Hambu g: Li Ve lag,
p. 14.
72
as such. A e a pe iod o weakness du ing he 16 h and 17 h cen u ies Islam became
a “ eligion o he masses” in ha a ea.
114
In he Hausa s a es, he Alge ian Islamic schola and e o me ʿAbd al-Ka īm
al-Maghīlī played a c ucial ole in he p ocess o Islamizing he egion. Islam was
sp ead by his schola a he end o he 15 h cen u y and was adop ed by Hausa kings
om he beginning o he 16 h cen u y. Al-Maghīlī’s in luenced he masses as well he
Hausa kings who adop ed his ideas and sugges ions o e o m.
115
The his o y o Islam in Nige ia emains incomple e i he Soko o Calipha e o
he 19 h cen u y and he
jihād
mo emen o Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio a e no
men ioned. The Soko o Calipha e was one o he impo an kingdoms in Wes A ica.
I sp ead beyond he cu en bo de s o Nige ia. Sheikh Dan Fodio was om he
114
Ibid., p. 15; Klaus Hock men ions he es ablishmen o he Kingdom o Kanem-Bo nu in he 14 h
cen u y in he Lake Chad a ea as a “s abilizing ac o ” o he egion a ha ime. This s abili y explains
he sp ead o Islam o he masses. Hock compa es he Islamiza ion o Kanem-Bo nu wi h a model o
Islamiza ion in Wes A ica sugges ed by Fo s ne , M. (1987): De Islam in de wes a ikanischen
Sahel-Zone. E scheinungsbild- Geschich e-Wi kung. In: Zei sch i ü Missionswissenscha und
Religionswissenscha 71. This Islamiza ion model consis s o a pe iod o “Islam as eligion o
mino i y“(9 h-12 h cen u ies), “Islam as eligion o he eli es” (12 h-16 h cen u ies), “Islam on he way o
being he eligion o he majo i y” (17 h-18 h cen u ies), and inally he pe iod o “Ğihād-mo emen ”
(18 h-19 h cen u ies). Acco ding o Klaus Hock, his model is applicable o Kanem-Bo nu bu only o i s
hi d le el “Islam on he way…”.
115
Fo de ailed in o ma ion on he li e and in luence o al-Maghīlī in Nige ia see Ba an, Abd al-Aziz
Abd-Allah (1973): A con ibu ion o he biog aphy o Sheikh Muhammad (‘Uma -Ama ) al-Maghīlī al-
Tilimsāni, in: Jou nal o A ican His o y, Vol. 14. p. 381-394; Hunwick, John O. (1974): Al- Maġhili's
eplies o he ques ions o Askia Al-Hajj MuÎammad ed. and ansl. wi h an in oduc ion on he his o y
o Islam in he Nige Bend o 1500, B i . Thesis Se ice, Be chwo h. - London, Uni ., Diss.; o he
expansion o Islam in Hausa land see Meunie , Oli ie (1997): Les Rou es de L’Islam. An h opologie
poli ique de l’islamisa ion de l’A ique de l’Oues en géné al e du pays hawsa en pa iculie du 8ème au
19ème Siècle. Pa is: Edi ions L’Ha mann; acco ding o Klaus Hock he Islamiza ion o Hausa land ook
place la e han Kanem Bo nu. Islam came o Kano h ough ade s om Mali du ing he 14 h and 15 h
cen u ies; see Hock (1996), p. 16.
73
e hnic g oup known as he
Fulani
. He was bo n in Gobi in 1754. He ecei ed a
adi ional Islamic educa ion and a he age o 20 he was al eady a s uden , eache ,
and p eache .
116
Sheikh Dan Fodio mo ed om place o place h oughou Hausaland
and a ac ed many ollowe s along he way. He c i icised p e alen p ac ices in ha
a ea and conside ed hem o be un-Islamic inno a ions (
bidaʿ
). This a i ude was also
suppo ed by his adhe en s. The well-known
jihād
o Usman Dan Fodio s a ed 1804
and was in e p e ed di e en ly. Some schola s in e p e i as “holy wa ” as well as
Islamiza ion o no h Nige ia and neighbou ing a eas. The his o ian Jamil Abun-Nas
conside s i as a “mili an answe “ is-à- is he leade ship o ha ime. Acco ding o
Abun-Nas , he
jihād
s a ed when he King o Gobi ’s soldie s a acked he
communi y o ‘Abd al-Salām, a o me s uden o Dan Fodio, and cap u ed some o
his people.
117
The s uggle agains ʿAbd al-Salām’s communi y and he libe a ion o
p isone s om among his communi y we e in e p e ed by he Hausa king as an
o ensi e agains his au ho i y. As a esul he o de ed Dan Fodio o lea e ha a ea.
The answe was an “Islamic e olu ion” - as Abun-Nas desc ibes i . Dan Fodio called
his allied people om among he
Hausa
,
Tua eg
and
Fulani
and mobilized hem o
wa . This is how he
jihād
s a ed and sp ead in di e en di ec ions. As a esul , he
Soko o Calipha e was es ablished and became he dominan au ho i y in ha egion
116
Fo he li e o Sheikh Dan Fodio see: El-Mas i, F.H. (1963): The li e o Shehu Usman Dan Fodio
be o e he
jihād
, In: Jou nal o The His o ical Socie y o Nige ia 2 (4), pp. 435-448.
117
Abun-Nas , Jamil (1993): Muslime im Na ionals aa Nige ia, in: Abun-Nas , Jamil (Hg.): Muslime in
Nige ia: Religion und Gesellscha im poli ischen Wandel sei den 50e Jah en. Müns e , Hambu g: Li -
Ve lag, p. 3.
80
The Tijāniyya was ini ia ed in Wes A ica h ough Mau i ania by Sheikh
Muḥammed al-Ḥā iz (1759-1830). F om he e i sp ead o Senegal h ough al-Hajj
Uma Tall (1794-1864). He was no only he Caliph o Aḥmad al-Tijānī, bu also an
Islamic schola and poli ical leade . He isi ed Nige ia in 1826 on his way o Mecca
and ma ied a daugh e o Muhammad Bello, he son o Sheikh Dan Fodio. F om
1831 al-Hajj Uma Tall s ayed in Soko o o six yea s. Du ing ha ime he Tijāniyya
expanded h oughou wha is now Nige ia and beyond. The Tijāniyya became an
in luen ial Su i o de in Wes A ica especially a e he
jihād
-mo emen o al-Hajj
Uma agains he F ench colonial expansion in he mid-1850s.
132
In Nige ia, he ad en o he Tijāniyya is h oughou o be ela ed o al-Hajj
Uma ’s isi o he coun y, al hough some iews con i med he p esence o his Su i
o de in Kano and Bo no as ea ly as he ime o Aḥmad al-Tijānī, he ounde . Uma
Tall con ibu ed o he sp ead o he b o he hood as he ini ia ed many people o i .
133
Du ing his s ay in Soko o, he seems o ha e ini ia ed Muhammad Bello o he
Tijāniyya. This claim is s ill con o e sial.
134
Fu he mo e, he ini ia ion o many
people o he Tijāniyya in di e en pa s o he no h (especially in Za ia, Kano, Bo no,
and Soko o) con ibu ed o i s sp ead. This esul ed in a s uggle o hegemony
132
Quad i (1981), pp. 39-51.
133
Ibid., pp. 64-66.
134
The deba e whe he Muhammad Bello was a Tijānī o no was deba ed by many schola s in and
ou side Nige ia. One canno deny he in luence o Sheikh Uma Tall on Dan Fodio’s son. Muhammad
Bello was also inspi ed by he Tijānīyya in some o his w i ings; see Qad i (1981), pp. 66-72.

81
be ween i and he well-es ablished Qādi iyya pa icula ly in he la e 19 h cen u y and
e en du ing he colonial e a.
135
2.2 The Indi ec Rule
136
The colonial occupa ion o Nige ia s a ed in he sou h du ing he second hal
o he 19 h cen u y. Lagos and i s hin e land became a B i ish p o ec o a e in 1867.
The expansion o he no h occu ed du ing he i s yea s o he 20 h cen u y a e a
pe iod o weakness o he Soko o Calipha e a he end o he 19 h cen u y. Acco ding
o Klaus Hock, Muslims eac ed o he B i ish in h ee di e en ways: some Muslims
eac ed wi h a kind o
hij a
(emig a ion) acco ding o he example o he P ophe who
mig a ed om Mecca o Medina; some
ʿulamā'
in Soko o seemingly accep ed he
p esence o he B i ish bu in ac p ac iced an “inne -emig a ion”; and he hi d g oup
o Muslims p e e ed mili a y con on a ion.
137
The B i ish adminis a ion was awa e o he ac ha in ading such a as
e i o y like mode n-day Nige ia would be e y di icul . The obs acles seemed
insu moun able, especially in ligh o he absence o an app op ia e numbe o B i ish
o ice s, adequa e inances, and necessa y mili a y capaci ies.
138
Thus, hey di ided
135
See mo e de ails on he Tijānīyya-Qādi iyya s uggle as well on he a i ude o he B i ish o he
Tijānīyya, in Qad i (1981), pp. 81-106.
136
This policy o Indi ec Rule p ac iced in B i ish colonies was de eloped by Lo d Luga d, o me
Go e no in Nige ia and high- anking colonial o ice in o he B i ish colonies. The heo e ical
dimensions as well he applicabili y o his app oach a e explained in de ail in Lo d Luga d, F ede ick
D. (1965): The Dual Manda e in B i ish T opical A ica.. F ank Cass & Co. L d., London.
137
Hock (1996), p. 22.
138
Isichei (1983) men ions ha he B i ish adminis a ion lacked o ice s, soldie s and especially
mone a y esou ces o be able o con ol he Nige ian e i o y. Thei s a egies consis ed hen o using
A ican soldie s o ul ill his ask; see p. 380.
82
he coun y in o no he n and sou he n egions. They designed hei app oach o
“indi ec ule”. This policy was especially o mula ed o he no he n egion. The
B i ish lea ned om he his o y o Islam in no he n Nige ia ha in e en ion in Islamic
a ai s is isky. Because o ha hey gua an eed Muslims ha hey could keep hei
old s uc u es o au ho i y. The i s B i ish Go e no in Nige ia, Lo d F ede ick
Luga d, p omised Muslim ule s ha hey could keep hei sys em o educa ion and
hei Islamic cou s. Fu he mo e, he p ohibi ed Ch is ian missiona y ac i i ies in he
no h wi hou p io ag eemen o no he n ule s.
139
The B i ish implemen ed “indi ec ule” in Nige ia as hei way o colonial
domina ion. Fo Michael C owde he way B i ain uled in Nige ia became exempla y
o o he B i ish colonies.
140
The policy s ipula es ha B i ish o ice s se e as
ad iso s o na i e ule s and allowed hem o in e e e in local decisions. Local
go e nmen s based on “single execu i e au ho i y” o a “council o elde s” we e
suppo ed by he B i ish o con inue ac ing as such. Lo d Luga d ac ed un il 1906 as
i s High Commissione o he P o ec o a e o no he n Nige ia, be ween 1912 and
1914 as he Go e no o he wo Nige ian p o ec o a es and inally om 1914 o 1919
as he Go e no o he amalgama ed Colony o Nige ia, which elied in no he n
Nige ia on he emi s’ au ho i y o go e n his as egion. As pa o his plan he
139
Hock (1996), p. 23.
140
C owde , Michael (1964): Indi ec Rule: F ench and B i ish S yle, in: A ica: Jou nal o he
In e na ional A ican Ins i u e, Vol. 34 (3), pp.197-205.
83
sugges ed changing he sys em o axa ion as well as mode nizing he adminis a ion
in gene al.
141
These e o ms changed he s a us o he emi s wi hin he poli ical powe
s uc u e. They we e o iginally allies o he Sul an o Soko o. A e he es ablishmen
o indi ec ule hey came unde he supe ision o he B i ish adminis a ion and had
o collec axes in i s name. They e ained up o se en y pe cen o money collec ed
om axes o inance hei own na i e adminis a ion.
142
“Indi ec ule” was applied in
he no h and succeeded because o he p e-exis ing poli ical s u u e o au ho i y. In
o he pa s o Nige ia, like he eas , i was ha dly applicable. B i ish poli ical o ice s
s ayed o a long ime in hei posi ion and wo ked as ad iso ies o he local
chie aincy. They also adap ed o he needs o hei adminis a ion; o example,
hose who lea ned languages we e o en p omo ed.
143
This “indi ec ule” policy was a necessi y o he B i ish adminis a ion
because only a ew o ice s ( hi y one o be exac ) we e sen om London o he
p o ec o a e in Nige ia.
144
The B i ish ook ad an age o he e hnic ac o in he no h
141
Ibid., p. 198; C owde men ions ha Si Donald Came on, who se ed in Tanzania as go e no was
inspi ed by Luga d’s policy in Nige ia. When he came o Nige ia (Si Came on), whe e he ook he
same posi ion be ween 1931 and 1935 he was su p ised by he le el o independence o he no he n
Emi a es ha de eloped a kind o “Indian-s yle na i e s a es”.
142
Ibid.
143
C owde (1964) dis inguishes he e be ween he F ench and he B i ish in dealing wi h hei o me
colonies. The F ench choose a policy o “assimila ion” and he B i ish ha o “indi ec ule”, pp. 203-
205.
144
Ikime, Oba o (1970): The es ablishmen o Indi ec Rule in No he n Nige ia, in:
Ta ikh
(Indi ec
Rule in B i ish A ica), His o ical Socie y o Nige ia, pp. 8; he au ho speaks o ou y- wo o ice s
app o ed by he B i ish go e nmen in London, bu only hi y-one we e appoin ed in Nige ia. In ac ,
84
and a he same ime ecognized he a achmen o he popula ion o he emi s. F om
a his o ical pe spec i e, Oba o Ikime speaks o wo easons which led o he
es ablishmen o “indi ec ule”: on he one hand Lo d Luga d legi ima ed he B i ish
occupa ion o e he Fulani and Hausa emi s as simila o he Fulani occupa ion o e
he Hausa du ing he
jihād
o Dan Fodio. On he o he hand hose emi s who died o
led hei e i o ies we e eplaced by new ones appoin ed by he B i ish. Thei
appoin men ook in o conside a ion hei accep ance wi hin he local communi ies as
well as hei in en ion o coope a e wi h B i ish o ice s who ep esen ed he B i ish
High Commissione and he Go e no , espec i ely. As exchange o hei loyal y
which mani es ed i sel in collec ing axes, building oads and es ablishing “good
go e nance”, he B i ish p omised no o in e ene in eligious a ai s.
145
In 1914 he amalgama ion o Nige ia was decla ed and indi ec ule was
ex ended o he sou h o he coun y. This si ua ion was no an easy ask. The
sou he n pa s o he colony lacked clea s uc u es o “ adi ional ule s” which was
no he case in he no h.
146
The eason o he cen aliza ion o he p o ec o a es was
economic in na u e. I happened unde he go e no ship o Luga d. The well-
es ablished di ec axa ion sys em ha wo ked well in he no h ailed in he sou he n
pa o he coun y. Falola and Hea on explain he B i ish economic in e es in h ee
main poin s: i s o all expanding Nige ian comme ce, second in oducing an
many o hem we e no able o wo k because o diseases. Because o ha he coope a ion wi h he
No he n emi s was mo e han a necessi y.
145
Ibid., pp. 6-7.
146
See mo e de ails in Falola, T. & M. M. Hea on (2008): His o y o Nige ia, Camb idge: Uni e si y
P ess, pp. 112-116.
85
economy based on UK cu ency, and hi d, o o ce Nige ians o wo k in his
di ec ion.
147
Bo h au ho s conclude he e iciency o indi ec ule in he ollowing:
“In he pe iod be o e he 1930 he B i ish colonial egime de eloped
and implemen ed i s p og am o impe ial dominance in Nige ia.
Indi ec ule became he cheapes , easies , and mos ideologically
a ac i e way o jus i y he colonial p esence. Indi ec ule
heo e ically p ese ed indigenous poli ical ins i u ions, bu he na u e
o hese ins i u ions was signi ican ly al e ed by he colonial
p esence.”
148
The ans o ma ion o he Nige ian economy and socie y soon became isible.
Indi ec ule con ibu ed o ha change. B i ain bene i ed om Nige ia and exploi ed
i s mine al and human esou ces. Addi ionally, he colony became a ma ke o B i ish
indus ial p oduc s. Nige ia on he o he hand bene i ed om impo ed Eu opean
goods, and he cons uc ion o ailways and oads. P io o he 1930s a Nige ian
na ional iden i y was no ye cons uc ed: “P io o he 1930s Nige ians by la ge did
no see hemsel es as ‘Nige ians’ a all”.
149
This explains he ise o na ional
mo emen s a e ha pe iod o ime. Be e educa ional acili ies in Nige ia and in
Eu ope educa ed Nige ian in ellec uals con ibu ed o he o ma ion o a so o
na ional consciousness which was deeply oo ed in he egion.
150
The o ma ion o
associa ions and he in ensi ica ion o poli ical ac i ism we e basic elemen s o
147
Ibid., p. 119; see also pp. 116-118 o he amalgama ion o Nige ia.
148
Ibid., p 134.
149
Falola & Hea on (2008), p. 137.
150
Ibid., pp. 137-139; he au ho s men ions he inc ease o p ima y and seconda y schools in Nige ia
be ween 1912 and 1937. In addi ion o ha he numbe o s uden s and wes e n educa ed Nige ians
inc eased as well.

86
poli ically o ien ed o ganiza ions. These ins i u ions we e he esul o pe sonal
ini ia i es o Nige ian ac i is s. Tha is why Nige ians used o be e y egionally and
e hnically o ien ed. The Na ional Council o Nige ia and Came oon (NCNC) was
ounded in 1944 in he sou h eas o he coun y. In 1943, he No he n People’s
Cong ess (NPC) was es ablished in he No h. The Ac ion G oup (AG) was se up in
he sou h wes egion.
151
We e u n ou ocus o Islam and B i ish policy du ing he colonial pe iod – he
i le o Jona han Reynold’s publica ion on “indi ec ule” in Nige ia summa izes he
B i ish policy on Islam in Nige ia up o he 1930s, in which he ca ego iza ion o “good
and bad Muslims” is made.
152
The au ho poin s ou ha he B i ish kep he s uc u e
o go e nance es ablished by Dan Fodio in he Soko o Calipha e in ac .
Cen aliza ion o powe and a ilia ion o he Qādi iyya we e basic elemen s o he
sys em.
The B i ish explici ly decla ed espec o he Islamic ai h and allowed Muslims
con inue p ac icing hei eligion wi hou dis u bance. The expe iences in India and
Egyp compelled he B i ish adminis a ion o change i s s a egy and o a oid
con on a ion wi h Islam. The colonial adminis a ion made e o s o keep i s “image”
owa ds Islam and Muslims as neu al – as Reynolds con i ms i .
153
This policy was
pe cei ed e en by he di e en Muslim g oups in he no h as ole an , and hey
151
See Ibid., pp. 140-154 o mo e de ails on poli ical ac i ism and ini ia ion o e hnic- and egional-
based o ganiza ions/pa ies.
152
Reynolds, Jona han (2001): God and bad Muslims. Islam and Indi ec Rule in No he n Nige ia, In:
The In e na ional Jou nal o A ican His o ical S udies, Vol. 3/4 ( 3), 601-618.
153
Ibid., p. 601.
87
eadily accep ed imposed ca ego iza ions o “good” and “bad” Muslims acco ding o
hei a ilia ion, esis ance o he B i ish, and eadiness o coope a e.
154
The Qādi iyya Su i b o he hood, he la ges Su i o de in he no h, was
posi i ely pe cei ed by he colonial au ho i y. The B i ish cha ac e ized i as a
“peace ul sec ”, “s a e iendly”, a “non- ana ical b anch o Islam”, and “ he a ika o
he egion”.
155
I s p e iously es ablished s uc u es we e main ained and in eg a ed in
he
indi ec ule
guidelines. No doub ha his unde s anding was good o bo h he
Qādi iyya and he B i ish; he Qādi iyya kep i s hegemony o e he no he n egion
and he B i ish elied on a s ong pa ne .
A good example o he success o his pa ne ship was he appea ance o a
Mahdis mo emen in he no hwes in 1906. This mo emen e ol ed agains B i ish
p esence and allied people o e ol agains Ch is ians and no o coope a e wi h
hem. Collabo a ion be ween he Soko o a my and he B i ish o ces succeeded in
pu ing an end o his uphea al. This se ed in enhencing he Qādi iyya image.
Fu he mo e, he o de was o he B i ish mo e o less isola ed om ex e nal
in luences since hey did no wan he whole no he n egion o be exposed o
“Islamic hough ” om ou side.
156
The Qādi iyya we e classi ied among “good Muslims”. O he Su i g oups like
he Tijāniyya, he Sanūsiyya, and Mahdis o ien ed Muslims we e conside ed by he
B i ish o be among he “bad” ones. Reynolds indica es ha he B i ish nei he made
154
Ibid., pp. 602-3.
155
Reynolds (2001), p. 605.
156
, Ibid., pp. 606-8.
88
clea di e en ia ions be ween Muslim g oups no be ween hei doc inal di e ences.
Realis ically, B i ish colonialis s ended o a oid any possible esis ance, especially
om hose g oups wi h ies o o he pa s o A ica we e he e was esis ance o
F ench colonialism i.e. ha esis ance om Mahdis o Tijānī's in a di e en con ex
could ake place in no he n Nige ia. When Nige ian Muslims passed by se e al o he
Muslim communi ies on pilg image ou es o Mecca and came in con ac wi h o he
Muslim communi ies, hey we e a isk o exposu e o ideas o esis ance.
157
The
Tijāniyya was la gely suspec ed by he B i ish because o i s ela ion o o he cen es
in A ica like Senegal, Alge ia, and Mo occo. I s exclusi eness means ha Tijānī's
canno join ano he o de and canno p ay behind ano he
ṭa īqa
-imam. This was a
sou ce o suspicion o he B i ish.
158
Reynolds e isi s he s a egy behind he B i ish
indi ec ule and i s ela ionship o he Qādi iyya and Tijāniyya as well o o he g oup
as ollows:
“(…) B i ish ule s o no he n Nige ia we e ins ead e alua ing o de s
such as he Qadi iyya and Tijaniyya acco ding o a complex se o
assump ions abou Islam. Chie among hese was he associa ion o
Islamic educa ion and pie y wi h " ana icism," bu o he impo an
issues included he s uc u al ela ionship o each g oup o he sys em
o Indi ec Rule and hei spi i ual linkages beyond he egion o
no he n Nige ia.”
159
157
Ibid., pp. 609-111.
158
Ibid., p. 613; also p. 616.
159
Ibid., p. 618.
89
In addi ion o his policy o unde s anding he eligious landscape o no he n Nige ia
he B i ish planned on e o ming Islamic law and educing i s alidi y. All judgemen s
which we e no complian wi h he B i ish law adi ion we e o be e ised and
co ec ed.
2.3 English Law o Islamic Law
The ju idical aspec s o “indi ec ule” we e implemen ed in h ee di e en
p oclama ions: he i s one was he Na i e Cou s P oclama ion o 1900 and
consis ed o he ins i u ionalizing o na i e cou s a ou di e en le els (A, B, C, and
D). The i s le el A, headed by he G and Qadi and he emi s, was able o impose
he dea h penal y (wi h app o al by he High Commissione ). A a la e s age
judgemen s de ined by he B i ish as “inhuman” we e e ealed and abolished. The
second p oclama ion known as he Na i e Re enue P oclama ion o 1906 consis ed
o implemen ing a di ec axa ion, assis ing he emi s in ixing he le el o axes and a
he same ime o gi e hem he oppo uni y o keep a conside able pa o he
e enue o manage hei e i o ies. The las p oclama ion o 1907, called, he Na i e
Au ho i y P oclama ion, legally ecognized local chie s e en ou side o he emi s’
ju idic ion. I ixed he du ies o dis ic heads, as well as hei sala ies wi hin he
emi a es o na i e au ho i ies.
160
160
Ikime (1970), pp. 8-12; see also Reynolds, Jona han T. (1999): The Time o Poli ics (Zamanin
Siyasa). Islam and he poli ics o legi imacy in No he n Nige ia 1950-1966, San F ancisco:
In e na ional Schola s Publica ions, pp. 60-61.
96
adminis a ion succeeded in limi ing Islamic c iminal law and si ua ing i unde he
B i ish law adi ion.
176
The new
Penal Code
(men ioned abo e) which was inspi ed by he Sudanese
judicial sys em was a i ied in Sep embe 1960. Islamic Law became mo e
meaning ul especially in ci il ma e s. The so-called
Moslem Cou s o Appeals
we e
eplaced by
Sha ia Cou s o Appeals
.
177
Hock desc ibes he judicial sys em in Nige ia in he ea ly yea s o
independence as ollows: he op o he sys em consis ed o he
Sup eme Cou o
Nige ia
, ollowed by he
Fede al Cou o Appeal
and
Fede al High Cou
. A he le el
o he p o inces he e we e
S a e Cou s
ep esen ed in all s a es by he
S a e High
Cou
o by he
S a e Sha ia Cou o Appeal
and in some s a es by he
S a e
Cus oma y Cou o Appeal
. The las ca ego y o he judicial sys em is ep esen ed by
he
A ea Cou s
and he
Cus oma y Cou s
a he local le el. Judicial cases we e
handled acco ding o his hie a chy om he local o he ede al le el. The
Fede al
High Cou
was he place whe e ul ima e judgemen s we e aken. In case o con lic
be ween wo di e en law adi ions (e.g. a s uggle be ween a Muslim and a
Ch is ian) an ag eemen o e one cou (Islamic o no ) was ag eed upon.
178
Acco ding Os ien and Dekke , he implemen a ion o he
Penal Code
o 1960
was o he ad an age o Muslims in no he n Nige ia. Al hough he new
Penal
and
C iminal P ocedu e Codes
eplaced he
Na i e and Cus oma y C iminal Law
and
176
Hock (1996), p. 191.
177
Reynolds, Jona han T. (1999), pp. 95-96.
178
Hock (1996), p. 192-193.

97
became s anda dized o all Nige ian ci izens, and al hough
Sha ia Cou
ju isdic ion
was educed o pe sonal ma e s, and he
Emi s Cou s
los much o hei ju idical
weigh o he
P o incial Cou s
,
and he
Alkalis’ Cou s
we e asked o ely on he
Penal Code ( ansla ed in o Hausa) ins ead o using A abic law books, Muslims
ne e heless main ained highe legal p es ige in he ede a ion.
179
This p es ige was
achie ed h ough he es ablishmen o he
Sha ia Cou o Appeal
whose judgemen s
(usually es ic ed o Islamic amily and pe sonal law) we e inal and could no be
e ised by o he cou s. In addi ion, he
Na i e Cou s Appella e Di ision
was
ins i u ed wi h he du y o lis ening o cases o
Na i e Cou s
di ec ed o he
High
Cou
. The
Na i e Cou s Appella e Di ision
consis ed o h ee judges: wo om he
High Cou
and one om he
Sha ia Cou o Appeal
. Ano he ad an age o Muslim
judges was ha hey could handle cases acco ding o Islamic Law as long he
con lic ing pa ies ag eed on i and con i med i in w i en o m.
180
The judicial sys em in oduced in Nige ia a e independence wo ked well and
judges we e in a posi ion o handle Islamic, English, o cus oma y law. P oblems
s a ed in 1967 when Nige ia was di ided in o wel e s a es ins ead o he exis ing
ou egions. Th ough his pa i ion six new
High Cou s
, six
Sha ia Cou s o Appeal
and la e on a Cou o e e y s a e was es ablished. Os ien aises he p oblem in he
ollowing s a emen : “How o ha monize he wo k o all hese new s a e cou s, while
179
Os ien, Philip and Albe Dekke (2010): Sha īʿa and na ional law in Nige ia, in: O o, Jan Michiel
(ed.): Sou ce Sha īʿa Inco po a ed: a Compa a i e O e iew o he Legal Sys ems o wel e Muslim
Coun ies in Pas and P esen , Leiden: Leiden Uni e si y P ess, pp. 564-566.
180
Ibid., p. 567.
98
p ese ing he essen ial elemen s o he se lemen o 1960?“
181
Fo he
High Cou s
he si ua ion was unp oblema ic since hey could appeal o he
Fede al Sup eme
Cou
. Fo he
Sha ia Cou s o Appeal
he si ua ion was mo e complex: judgemen s
om hese cou s we e di e gen and could no be di ec ed o any o he cou . The
es ablishmen o a inal,
Uppe
o
Fede al Sha ia Cou o Appeal
was sugges ed as
a solu ion o he issue. This kind o cou ’s ole was o sol e cases om he di e en
Sha ia Cou s
and o sol e all judicial ques ions be ween hem.
182
Th oughou he 1970s he need o es ablishing a
Fede al Sha ia Cou o
Appeal
became mo e appa en . Pa icula ly in ela ion o deba es o e he new
cons i u ion o 1979 and he ansi ion o he Second Republic
183
,
sha īʿa
u ned ou o
be an issue in he coun y. The p epa a ion o he new cons i u ion s a ed 1976.
Two yea s la e , he Cons i uen Assembly u ned he p oposed es ablishmen o a
Fede al Sha ia Cou o Appeal
down and sugges ed he ela ed sec ion
180 (1) c
om he planned cons i u ional d a be emo ed. As a p o es agains his decision,
Muslim depu ies le he assembly.
184
The hen head o he s a e, Gene al Obasanjo,
appealed o all ac ions o engage in dialogue. The
Cons i uen Assembly
p oceeded
181
Ibid., p. 569.
182
Ibid. pp.569-570; o mo e de ails see also Os ien, Phil (2006): An Oppo uni y missed by Nige ia’s
Ch is ians: The 1976-78 Sha īʿa Deba e e isi ed, in: Soa es, E. Benjamin (ed.): Muslim-Ch is ian
encoun e s in A ica, pp. 221-255.
183
The Fi s Republic in Nige ia was be ween 1960 and 1966. A e ha he Ci il Wa (Bia a) ook
place. A mili a y go e nmen ook o e om 1970. Gene al Mu ala Muhammad, he head o S a e a
he ime, announced in 1975 a ansi ion o ci il go e nmen . He o med a
Cons i u ion D a ing
Commi ee
(CDC) wi h he aim o ske ching he new cons i u ion o he ede a ion; see Os ien and
Dekke (2010), p. 570.
184
Acco ding o Abun-Nas (1993), 88 among 93 Muslim depu ies le he Assembly, see p. 221; Hock
(1996) indica es ha all 93 Muslim membe s p o es ed by boyco ing he mee ing, see p. 194.
99
wi h i s ask on he 29 h Augus 1978, and he new cons i u ion was p esen ed on 1s
Sep embe 1979 wi hou he
Fede al Sha ia Cou o Appeal
clauses. Apa om ha ,
s a es could c ea e
S a e Sha ia Cou s o Appeal
in case hey elec ed o es ablish
such cou s.
185
The deba e on Islamic law did no s op in he pos colonial pe iod. Fo many
Muslims his law is pa o hei iden i y and canno be eplaced by any o he law. I
Muslims we e eady o comp omise ha Islamic law was educed o pe sonal and
amily ma e s by he B i ish and ha
Islamic C iminal Law
was in eg a ed in he
Penal Code
o he whole coun y, hey we e no eady o comp omise when i came
o he
Sha ia Cou o Appeal
.
The democ a iza ion p ocess in Nige ia in he 1980s was in e up ed by he
mili a y, and he Second Republic came o an end in 1983 when Gene al Buha i
became head o S a e. Two yea s la e gene al Babangida ook o e a e a
success ul coup d’é a . Babangida announced a ansi ion o a ci ilian go e nmen by
end o he 1980s and a new discussion abou he cons i u ion o he ede a ion in he
Thi d Republic o Nige ia a ose again. The head o he s a e se up a poli ical boa d
in 1986 wi h a consul a i e unc ion o pe aining o he judicial si ua ion o he
coun y. Muslim leade s o he en no he n s a es asked Islamic Law beyond
pe sonal ma e s o be ex ended. Replacing he exp ession “Pe sonal Law” wi h
185
In Sec ion 240 (1) o he 1979-cons i u ion i was indica ed ha es ablishing
S a e Sha i‘a Cou s o
Appeal
is allowed “ o any s a e ha equi es i ”; see Os ien and Dekke (2010), p. 572.
100
“Islamic law” in
Dec ee 26
in 1986 o he cons i u ion o 1979 made his expec a ion
easible. Also he c ea ion o
Sha ia Cou s o Appeals
was allowed.
186
The cons i u ion o 1979 was again e ised in 1988 and se e al commi ees
we e asked o come up wi h sugges ions. Acco ding o Hock, Commi ee 16 was
conce ned wi h he
sha īʿa
-issue. F om he beginning, iews we e di ided be ween
Muslims asking o obliga o y
Sha ia Cou s o Appeal
in all s a es and Ch is ians
sugges ing emo al o all
sha īʿa
sec ions om he cons i u ion. The ep esen a i e o
he mili a y go e nmen on 28 h No embe 1988 s a ed ha he absence o any
comp omise, all nego ia ions o e
sha īʿa
we e hal ed. A ew days la e an o icial
decla a ion was announced, keeping he 1979 cons i u ional o mula ion.
187
Hock desc ibes he
sha īʿa
-discussions in he 1980s as he “second ound” o
he deba es on Islamic law. Se e al ac o s hinde ed he es ablishmen o a law
sys em combining B i ish secula law wi h adi ional Islamic law. Muslims ne e
o go he de alua ion o hei law h ough he B i ish and used any oppo uni y o
e i e i . Ch is ians conside ed
sha īʿa
a dange and ied e e y means o ha e i
emo ed om he cons i u ion. The Mili a y go e nmen ailed o sol e he
sha īʿa
-
con o e sy. A he same ime Nige ia was passing h ough a poli ical, economic, and
social acuum du ing he 1980s. The di ision be ween Ch is ians and Muslims ook
on ano he dimension wi h absence o a comp omising policy o Babangida’s
adminis a ion. Hock a icula es he con o e sy su ounding Nige ia’s membe ship in
O ganisa ion o Islamic Con e ence
(OIC) in 1986 and he c isis ela ed o i . The
186
Hock (1996), p. 196.
187
Ibid., pp. 197-198.
101
au ho wonde s i such a membe ship can be explained as “g and design” o a
“misleading s ep” o he go e nmen o Babangida. Ce ainly, such an e en
challenged Muslims and Ch is ians o place hei eligion an inc easingly cen al
aspec o hei in e es in he ede a ion.
188
The 1980s we e no di e en om he c isis o 1979 when i came o he
sha īʿa
-issue. Ques ions ela ed o Islamic law in he cons i u ion we e s ill no
answe ed. The es ablishmen o
Sha ia Fede al Cou s
ailed se e al imes since
Muslims and Ch is ians did no ind a way o comp omise. The democ a ic elec ion o
1993 wi h he elec ed P esiden Abiola ga e Nige ians hope ha he hi d ansi ion o
ci ilian go e nmen ( he Thi d Republic) could sol e he coun y’s p oblems, including
judicial con o e sy. These hopes disappea ed e y soon when a new coup d’é a
occu ed in he same yea and he mili a y ook o e again un il 1999. The e a o
Gene al Sani Abacha was one o he mos uns able pe iods in Nige ian pos colonial
his o y. The u moil in all sec o s deeply a ec ed he Nige ian expe ience wi h
democ acy. Acco ding o he his o ian Toyin Falola „...Gene al Abacha (...) abolished
all he elec ed na ional and s a e assemblies, dismissed all he s a e execu i es,
dissol ed all he local go e nmen councils, and banned all poli ical pa ies.“
189
Gene al Abdulsalami Abubaka became head o s a e a e Abacha died
unexpec edly in 1998. As pa o his accession, he p omised a speedy ansi ion o
188
The OIC is an Islamic o ganiza ion ha was es ablished 1969 in Fez, Mo occo. Gene al Babangida
egis e ed Nige ia 1986 in ha o ganiza ion appa en ly o economic easons. This ac aised a big
con o e sy be ween Muslims and Ch is ians in he ede a ion. The o m o he s a e (secula , Islamic)
was especially con es ed; o an o e iew on he deba e see Hock (1996), pp. 212-235.
189
Falola (1999), p. 195.

102
democ acy. Wi hin a ew mon hs new p esiden ial elec ions we e o ganized and
Olesegun Obasanjo was elec ed P esiden o Nige ia. F om 1999, he Fou h
Republic was decla ed and a new con o e sy o e cons i u ion and Islamic law
a ose once again.
The ci il wa , he mili a y egime, he ansi ion o democ acy, he
cons i u ional and judicial deba es, and he poli ical discussions abou Islamic Law in
Nige ia du ing he pos colonial e a o e shadowed o he deba es wi hin he di e en
eligious communi ies. The ongoing poli ical discussions in he ede a ion seemd o
be con on a ion be ween he wo majo eligious communi ies: Muslims and
Ch is ians. Religious s uggle and poli ical in e es can be ound in any eligious
communi y. In he ollowing sec ion, he in a-Islamic deba es be ween Muslims in
Nige ia, especially he s uggle be ween he Su i-b o he hoods and subsequen ly
agains Sheikh Gumi a e e alua ed. These deba e(s) can be unde s ood as he
his o ical backg ound o he Izala o ma ion.
2.5 The con lic be ween he Su i B o he hoods
The Qādi iyya Su i-B o he hood is he oldes and mos dominan Su i-o de in
no he n Nige ia. The Soko o-Calipha e played a decisi e ole in sp eading he
Qādi iyya. Mos leade s o he
jihād
mo emen o Usman Dan Fodio we e membe s
o he Qādi iyya.
190
190
Loimeie , Roman (1993): Auseinade se zungen im islamischen Lage , in: Abun-Nas , Jamil (ed.):
Muslime in Nige ia: Religion und Gesellscha im poli ischen Wandel sei den 50e Jah en. Müns e ,
Hambu g, p.129.
103
The Tijāniyya came o Nige ia in he 19 h cen u y and soon became a coun e -pole
ṭa īqa
. I he leade s o Soko o we e membe s o he Qādi iyya, hen he Tijāniyya
sp ead among ade s and eligious schola s. Acco ding o Loimeie , he con o e sy
be ween bo h b o he hoods da es back o 1845 when a deba e a ose abou he
a ilia ion o Dan Fodio’s son, Muhammad Bello, o he Tijāniyya. Tha was he
s a ing poin when a ilia ion o one o hese
ṭu uq
(pl. o
ṭa īqa
) became eligiously
and poli ically meaning ul. Being “Qadi i” means he conse a ion o Dan Fodio’s
adi ion and changing o Tijāniyya means a ebellion agains Soko o ule s and he
old adi ion. In addi ion, Kano eme ged as a new cen e o he Tijāniyya ha became
inc easingly independen om Soko o, he Qādi iyya cen e. A he beginning o he
20 h cen u y he wo b o he hoods s a ed looking o mo e adhe en s and p es ige in
no he n Nige ia and building ne wo ks wi h Su i cen es ou side o he coun y,
pa icula ly ia Kano, whe e ade and eligious con ac was in ensi e.
191
The mo e
Kano became economically p ospe ous and eligious a ilia ion became an impo an
pa o social li e, he mo e he g ow h o he Tijāniyya became isible. The con ac
wi h Mo occo and Senegal was in ensi ied. E en he Emi s o Kano we e a ilia ed
wi h he Tijāniyya and s o e o legi imacy h ough hei membe ship o he
ṭa īqa
.
192
The Tijāniyya changed om being a
ṭa īqa
o ade s and schola s
o a mass-
mo emen in Kano and in o he pa s o no he n Nige ia. This can be a ibu ed o
191
Ibid., pp. 130-131.
192
Loimeie indica es ha he Emi o Kano be ween 1903 and 1919 ‘Abbas was a membe o he
Tijānīyya. The Emi Abdullahi Baye o who uled om 1926 o 1954 was ini ia ed o he Tijānīyya by he
Senegalese Sheikh Ib ahim Niasse (1900-1975) du ing he Pilg image o Mecca in 1937. Also
Muhammad Sanusi, Emi o Kano be ween 1954 and 1963 ook ad an age o he con ac wi h he
Tijānīyya in o de o become mo e independen om Soko o; see mo e de ails in Ibid., pp. 131-133
104
he success o Sheikh Ib ahim Niasse
193
as he Tijāniyya caliph o Wes A ica as well
as he a ilia ion o he Emi s o Kano wi h his
ṭa īqa
. The Qādi iyya eac ed o such a
de elopmen h ough he ac ions o Sheikh Nasi u Kaba a (1925-1996) who ied o
e o m his own b o he hood. Apa om building ne wo ks wi h he home own o he
Qādi iyya, Bagdad, Sheikh Kaba a ini ia ed a e o m-p ojec o his
ṭa īqa
in Nige ia.
Among o he s he in oduced he celeb a ion o he bi hday o ʿAbd al-Qādi al-Jīlānī
in Kano as well as he
bandi i
-celeb a ions (Hausa: d um) in he mosques. He also
became he Qādi iyya Caliph in Wes A ica.
194
The Su i dispu e o e hegemony and ollowe s wi hin Muslim Nige ia ook on a
poli ical dimension du ing he 1950s. Fo poli ical pa ies, Su i b o he hoods
ep esen ed a sou ce o ne wo ks and po en ial o e s. The b o he hoods hemsel es
became in ol ed in poli ics and inc eased hei poli ical in luence and he numbe s o
hei ollowe s. Ha ing eligious, economic and poli ical in luence was pa o he
“ ules o he game”. Ne e heless, he mo e he poli ical weigh o eligious leade s
inc eased he mo e his in luence u ned ou o be ambi alen and isky.
195
The poli iciza ion o eligion in no he n Nige ia can be seen h ough he
deba e on he iden i ica ion o many Tijānī you h wi h he poli ical pa y, no he n
Elemen s P og essi e Union (NEPU), and he eac ion o ha by Ahmadu Bello
193
Fo mo e de ails on Sheikh Niasse’s li e and in luence see Seesemann, Rüdige (2011): The Di ine
Flood: Ib ahim Niasse and he Roo s o a Twen ie h-Cen u y Su i Re i al, Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y
P ess.
194
Loimeie (1993), p. 134.
195
Ibid., p. 135; he au ho speaks o he “poli ical ins umen aliza ion” o eligious deba es among
eligious schola s om he 1950s.
105
no he n People’s Cong ess (NPC) as well by o he eligious leade s. In addi ion, a
eligious deba e o e he co ec way o pe o m p aye s (wi h
qabdh
o wi h
ṣadl
)
196
eme ged. The Tijāniyya leade Sheikh Ib ahim Niasse ended o p ay wi h
qabdh
and
Sheikh Nasi u Kaba a p e e ed
ṣadl
. This became a poli ical issue among adhe en s
and a eason o di ide mosques as well o blaming
ku
(non-belie ) on each o he
du ing he 1950s and 1960s. The discou se consis ed o inding p oo o each poin
o iew in he adi ion o he P ophe . This con o e sy was used by Sa dauna
Ahmadu Bello in his poli ical p og am. The poli ical leade ended o condemn
qabdh
and dis anced himsel om Ib ahim Niasse as well om he NEPU. This p agma ic
choice e lec s Bello’s in e es in a oiding any obs acles blocking his poli ical agenda
o “one no h”. The
qabdh
-
ṣadl
-con o e sy came o an end in he mid-1960s. In he
ollowing yea s i became a mino issue pa icula ly wi h he appea ance o Sheikh
Gumi as an opponen o Su is and Su ism.
197
Reynolds unde s ands he link be ween he Qādi iyya and NPC as well as
be ween he Tijāniyya and NEPU as a “coope a ion (…) [ ha ] was cons an ly being
enego ia ed as necessi a ed by changing poli ical condi ions.”
198
His o ically, he
sp ead o he Tijāniyya in Kano and Zam a a S a e was a con inua ion o a long
esis ance agains he cen e o Qādi iyya, Soko o. The Qādi iyya was linked o he
196
Qabdh means p aying wi h a ms c ossed in on o he na el and
sadl
means ha ing hem
alongside he body.
197
Ahmadu Bello se up he
Kaduna Council o Malamai
in 1963 in o de o sol e he issue o
qabdh-
sadl
. The epo ecommended ha Imāms should p ac ice
Sadl
since i is he common p ac ice o he
Maliki School o Law, see ibid., pp. 136-138.
198
Reynolds (1999), p. 179.
112
islāmī
(Muslim Wo ld League).
217
He was also close o Sa dauna Ahmadu Bello
218
(1909-1966), P emie o he no he n Region, and ac ed as his eligious ad ise .
Sheikh Abubaka Mahmud Gumi was bo n in 1922, in Gumi, in he mode n-
day Soko o S a e. He was educa ed by his a he , Mallam Mahmud na-Gumi. He
a ended he Cen al Middle School (1936-42) in Soko o and mo ed o Kano o s udy
Islamic Law a he p es igious Sha ia Law School. He a eled o Sudan whe e he
s udied A abic and g adua ed in 1951. Upon his e u n o Nige ia Sheikh Gumi was
appoin ed as a eache in Ma u, in wha is now Zam a a S a e be o e he mo ed o he
School o A abic S udies in Kano, he same ins i u ion he a ended se e al yea s ago.
Gumi was appoin ed as depu y G and Qadi o he no h in 1960 and h ee yea s la e
he se ed as G and Qadi o he no he n Region. In 1976 he was appoin ed as
Pilg ims Boa d Chai man
219
. Gene al Mu ala Muhammad (1938-76), p esiden o
Nige ia (1975-6), appoin ed Gumi as G and Mu i bu he coup d’é a o 1976 and his
assassina ion hinde ed his measu e.
220
In his au obiog aphy, Sheikh Gumi men ioned ha he was a peace ul pe son,
who a oided any kind o con lic . He was “blessed wi h an excellen memo y” and he
liked ma hema ics, geog aphy and his o y, and had ouble wi h he English
217
Fo an o e iew on he Muslim Wo ld League see Schulze, Reinha d (1990): Islamische
In e na ionalismus im 20. Jah hunde . Un e suchungen zu Islamischem Wel liga, Leiden: B ill; in his
book Sheikh Gumi is men ioned wi h o he p ominen Islamic pe sonali ies as membe o he
Cons i uen Assembly o he IWL in 1964, p. 227; also as membe o he
Majlis al-ala al-‚alami li-l
Masajid, MAAM
(Wo ld High Council o Mosques) in 1975, p 285; I is also men ioned ha Gumi was a
delega e in he Egyp ian O ganisa ion
Majma’ al-Buhu h al-islamiyya
(Academy o Islamic S udies)
om 1972, P. 237.
218
See Paden, John (1986): Ahmadu Bello. Sa dauna o Soko o, Za ia: Hudahuda Publishing
Company.
219
Fo de ails on pilg image poli ics in no he n Nige ia see Loimeie , Roman (1988): Das Nige ian
Pilg image Scheme" In: A ika Spec um, 23, 2 (1988), pp. 201-14.
220
Shehu, Bala abe I. (2001): The Ligh o T u h, Kano: Gidan Dabi o Publishe , p. 1.

113
language. A an ea ly age, he s a ed iden i ying himsel wi h eligion: “Iden i ying me
wi h he eligion qui e ea ly in li e, was, indeed, a mo al and social check.”
221
He
s udied he classical wo k o Islamic law like Mukh assa , al-Risala – o men ion
some.
222
A school, Gumi me p ominen pe sonali ies who la e became amous igu es
o he coun y. Among o he s, Gumi was augh by Mallam Junaidu, he la e Wazi o
Soko o. Also he Sa dauna, Ahmadu Bello was eaching in he same school in
Soko o. Shehu U. Shaga i, who headed Nige ia as P esiden be ween 1979 and
1983, was a classma e o Gumi in Soko o and la e on in Kaduna College.
223
Du ing
his ime in Soko o, Sheikh Gumi was close o Aminu Kano, one o he p ominen
ac i is s and opposi ionis s o he B i ish colony. Bo h o hem, along wi h Shehu
Shaga i, we e known in Soko o as ouble- make s: “… he h ee o us, Malam Aminu,
Shaga i and I we e ma ked down as being dange ous o he peace in Soko o
p o ince
.
”
224
A e p ima y school, which Sheikh Gumi inished in h ee yea s ins ead o
ou , he a ended a Middle School in Soko o, and hen he a ended a Qadi School in
221
Gumi (1992), p. 20.
222
Ibid., p. 23; he
Mukha assa al-Risala
is conside ed a s anda d book o Islamic law in Nige ia. I is
w i en by Sidi Khalil (d. 1365) on he basis o he al-Risala, a wo k by Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qay awani (d.
996); on an o e iew on Maliki law and i s applica ion in Nige ia see Ghazali, Abdullahi (n.d.): Maliki
Law: The P edominan Muslim Law in Nige ia, published online a
h p://www.gamji.com/a icle4000/NEWS4601.h m (21/05/2011).
223
Gumi (1992), pp. 22-34.
224
Gumi (1992), p. 48.
114
Soko o be ween 1942 and 1943.
225
La e on, Sheikh Gumi wen o Kano whe e he
joined he School o A abic S udies
226
and g adua ed wi h he highes dis inc ion in
ou yea s.
227
A e his g adua ion he se ed as Sec e a y o he Chie Alkali be ween
1947 and 1948. Being uncom o able wi h his job, Sheikh Gumi le Soko o again o
each in he newly-es ablished Teache T aining College in Ma u, Ka sina. The
Sheikh emained a ha ins i u ion o 18 mon hs. He was unsa is ied, especially
ega ding he igno ance abou eligion and basic knowledge o Islam:
“I obse ed qui e ea ly ha bo h s uden s and wo ke s in he school
we e in many espec s igno an abou hei eligion. They had no
signi ican knowledge abou he p ope Islamic egula ions e en as
hey a ec ed hei daily li e. They did no obse e Islamic E ique e in
much o hei conduc . Many could no say hei p aye s well. In ac ,
some could ha dly pe o m he ablu ion
.
”
228
In own, Sheikh Gumi obse ed ha people pe o med
ayammun
(in A abic:
conno a ion o ablu ion wi h sand i wa e is no a ailable) and no
wuḍū'
(in A abic:
ablu ion) and e en he Imam o he Cen al Mosque did so. As a esul Gumi s a ed
p aying wi h s uden s on he school g ounds and wa ned hem abou going o he
mosque in own.
229
225
Sani, Abul-Mumin (1994): The image and legacy o la e Sheikh Abubaka Mahmud Gumi, unpubl.
BA-Disse a ion, Islamic S udies, Uni e si y o Jos, Nige ia.
226
Sani Uma poin s ou ha „… he School (School o A abic S udies, Kano) came o be ega ded as
he b eeding g ound o An i-Su ism in Nige ia“, See S. Uma (1988): Su ism and An i-Su ism in
Nige ia, MA-disse a ion, ABU Kano, p. 169.
227
Gumi (1992), p. 34.
228
Gumi (1992), p. 47-8.
229
Gumi (1992), p. 48.
115
A he same ime, he Sul an o Soko o ga e a speech du ing he Muslim Eid
celeb a ion
230
hanking Allah, he P ophe , Usman Dan Fodio, and he King o B i ain.
Gumi sen he Sul an a le e wa ning him abou hanking he King o B i ain.
Disappoin ed, he Sul an wan ed o punish him. Gumi was cha ged wi h illegal
p aying in he school g ounds, s opping s uden s om going o F iday p aye s, and
o p e ending o be a
mahdī
.
231
The nex s ep in Gumi’s li e was his mo e o Kano whe e he began o each in
he same School o A abic S udies ha he a ended as a s uden . Du ing his pe iod
Gumi applied o a schola ship o s udy in Egyp , bu he go e nmen decided o send
him wi h se en o he s o he Ins i u e o Educa ion in Kha oum, Sudan.
232
Sheikh Gumi le Sudan in 1956. In he yea 1957 he became he Pilg ims
Wel a e O ice in Jeddah, Saudi A abia. He was con on ed in Mecca by es ablished
Sheikhs who guided pilg ims o money and he ied o change hei a i ude owa ds
pilg ims.
233
Acco ding o Loimeie , he ac ha Sheikh Gumi was close o “ eligious
schola s o he neo-Wahhâbiyya in Saudi A abia”
234
and a leading membe o he
230
Eid
is he mos impo an eligious eas o Muslims. The a e wo di e en
Eid
celeb a ions: he i s
one is he i s day a e he as ing mon h o Ramadan and he second one occu s du ing he Hajj
pe iod and du ing which all Muslims sac i ice (a sheep/a cow in memo y o he P ophe Ib aham’s
sac i ice s o y in he Qu ’ān).
231
Gumi (1992), 49-51; being a
mahdi
seems o ha e a nega i e conno a ion in no he n Nige ia
du ing Gumi’s ime.
232
Paden (1986) men ioned ha 6 s uden s (including A. Gumi) a eled o Sudan o Bakh e -Ruda
School in Kha oum, Sudan, see p. 301.
233
Gumi (1992), 69.
234
Loimeie (1997), 182.
116
Rābiṭa al-ʿālam al-islāmī
ounded in 1962 mean ha he was la gely iden i ied by
Su is and o he s in Nige ia as ep esen a i e o Wahhābiyya in he coun y.
Back in his coun y, Sheikh Gumi se ed as Depu y G and Kadi o wo yea s
(1960-2) and was p omo ed o G and Kadi, when Sheikh Awad, o Sudanese descen
and holde o ha posi ion, wen back o Sudan. Gumi desc ibed his yea s in he
Sha ia Cou o Appeal
as “memo able” and he app ecia ed he wo k o ha body o
es ablish jus ice in no he n Nige ia.
235
O cou se such a posi ion allowed he Sheikh
o come close o poli icians. He became he “p incipal ad ise ” o he Sa dauna
Ahmadu Bello. Bo h o hem a elled oge he o se e al coun ies in A ica and he
Middle Eas and wen on
‘um a
o he Mecca e e y yea du ing Ramadan.
236
This oppo uni y o a elling in he Islamic wo ld and obse ing Nige ian
Muslims especially du ing hei isi s o he Holy Land p o oked Sheikh Gumi o
es ablish an o ganisa ion o educa e Nige ians abou hei Islamic ai h. Tha was he
idea behind he JNI (
Jamāʿa Naṣ al-Islām
: Socie y o he Vic o y o Islam)
es ablished in 1962 wi h inancial assis ance om Saudi A abia and Kuwai .
237
Al hough Sheikh Gumi held he posi ion o G and Kadi, he was passiona e –
as he con essed – abou eaching and p eaching. The opening o he Sul an Bello
Mosque in Kaduna in 1963 ga e him a good oppo uni y o ull il his passion. His
a sī
sessions we e a ended – apa o o dina y people – by p ominen poli icians
235
Gumi (1992), pp. 96-97.
236
Gumi (1992), pp. 100-104.
237
Sheikh Gumi w o e o he Saudi go e nmen asking o assis ance o se up he JNI. The Saudis
dona ed ₤ 100000; also he go e nmen o Kuwai con ibu ed ₤ 300000, see Gumi (1992), p. 107.
117
( he Sa dauna amongs o he s). This oppo uni y was used by Sheikh Gumi o
ansmi his message(s):
“I was happy wi h he mosque especially because i allowed me
o alk di ec ly o hose in au ho i y. (…) I has always been o my
con ic ion ha he bes way o e ec change in he socie y is o
educa e hose who ha e powe , abou he i ue o jus ice and
he ea o God
.
”
238
In Kaduna, he Nige ian B oadcas ing Co po a ion s a ed eco ding he
a sī
sessions o he Sheikh in 1967 and ansmi ing hem o e he he adio.
239
This
happened wi hou special o ganiza ion o any inancial suppo o he Sheikh.
240
In
addi ion, in 1970 Gumi s a ed w i ing in he daily Hausa newspape
Gaskiya a i
Kwabo
. This access o he media allowed him o p opaga e his ideas abou many
eligious issues and pa icula ly abou Su ism. Gumi deal wi h many issues in he
eligion o Islam om sac i ice o communica ion wi h spi i s and om a ibu ing a
di ine na u e o Su i Sheikhs o c i icism o d ums and songs in mosques.
241
And ea
B igaglia speaks o h ee phases when i comes o Gumi’s
a sī
: he i s one was
be ween 1962 and 1966 when Gumi was p eaching in Ahmadu Bello Mosque in
Kaduna and his audience was “made up o he adminis a i e bou geoisie o his
238
Gumi (1992), p. 130.
239
B igaglia, And ea (2007): The Radio Kaduna 'Ta si ' (1978-1992) and he cons uc ion o public
images o Muslim schola s in he Nige ian media, Jou nal o Islamic S udies, ol. 27, pp. 173-210.
240
Sheikh Gumi men ioned ha he nei he isi ed a adio s udio no ecei ed money o eco ding his
Ta si sessions, Gumi (1992), p. 133.
241
Gumi (1992), p. 138.

118
poli ical cen e.“
242
Du ing his i s pe iod Gumi “a ibu ed specious elemen s o
Su ism”; he second phase sugges ed by B igaglia was be ween 1967 and 1976
when Gumi’s p eachings we e b oadcas ed o he i s ime by Radio in Kaduna.
He e Gumi a oided open con lic wi h Su ism and “mode a ed he an i-Su i ones o
his commen s”
243
. The las phase which began in 1977 was cha ac e ized by “explici
ones” ha go as a as o
ak ī
(in A abic: cha ge o
ku
, non-belie ).
244
Sheikh Gumi was a dis inguished Islamic schola . His closeness o he
Sa dauna Ahmadu Bello opened se e al doo s o him. Gumi a elled o many
Islamic coun ies; He es ablished a ne wo k o con ac s in and ou side o Nige ia, and
ound access o he media in o de o p opaga e his ideas and ideology. His c i icism
owa ds Su is and Su ism eached an apogee when he Sheikh published his book
“
al-ʿaqīda al-ṣaḥīḥa bi muwa aqa al-sha īʿa
” which is ega ded by Loimeie as he
majo eligious wo k o Gumi – apa o his Qu ’ān ansla ion in o Hausa.
245
2.6.2 Sheikh A. Gumi: om al-ʿaqīda al-ṣaḥīḥa (1972) o he es ablishmen o Izala
(1978)
Gumi w o e his book “
al-ʿaqīda al-ṣaḥīḥa
…”
246
in A abic language, ga e i o a
Mallam Galadanci, who a ha ime was a membe o he academic s a a he
Uni e si y o Kano, o be e ised and hen o a Sy ian publishe in Saudi A abia o
242
B igaglia, And ea (2005): Two published Hausa T ansla ions o he Qu ’an and hei doc inal
backg ound, in: Jou nal o Religion in A ica, 35 (4), p. 429.
243
Ibid.,
244
This
ak i
was especially di ec ed o he Tijānīyya ollowe s as B igaglia men ions; see B igaglia
(2005), p. 430.
245
Loimeie (1997), p. 186.
246
Abubaka Gumi
(1972):
Al-ʿaqīda al-saḥīḥa bi muwa iqa al-sha i'a
(
The Righ Belie Is Based
on
he
Sha īʿa
), Anka a: Hilal Yayinla i.
119
publica ion. Gumi opposed ce ain doc ines o Su ism in his book, c i icized hei
“access o he hidden” (A abic:
al-bāṭin
), “ hei communica ion wi h he P ophe ” and
“ ecei ing special p aye s om him”. Gumi d ew upon he w i ings o Usman Dan
Fodio ha he e is “no hing a e he
sunna
o he P ophe .”
247
Gumi denounced he idea ha a Su i sheikh can in e ene o hei disciples
du ing he Las Day ( he Day o Resu ec ion). He c i icized he p esence o d ums in
mosques.
248
He insis ed on he idea o oneness o God (A abic:
awḥīd
) and
con i med ha Muhammad is he seal among all P ophe s. Gumi opposed he Su i
idea ha he P ophe s ill exis s mys ically and con inues o ansmi ins uc ions ( o
pa icula pe sons, Sheikhs, e c.). Gumi analyzed he issue o sain hood and insis ed
ha “ eligious obliga ions” (A abic:
wajibā
) a e as impo an as ai h (A abic:
īmān
).
He hen discussed he concep o
bidʿa
. He conside ed
bidʿa
o be all p ac ices ha
con adic he Qu ’ān and he eachings o he P ophe Muhammad. Sheikh Gumi
c i icized he Tijāniyya Su i B o he hood and i s p ac ice. Tijānī’s belie e ha
ṣalā al
Fā iḥ
(one o hei impo an p aye s) was e ealed o he ounde o he o de by he
P ophe himsel and eci ing i is equi alen o six housand eci a ions o he Qu ’ān.
Gumi c i icized p ac icing wi chc a and looking o blessings o a pa icula pu pose.
He a acked p ac icing
dhik
and ca ego ized i as
bidʿa.
He also a acked hie a chies
247
Gumi (1992), p. 142-4.
248
Sani, Abul-Mumin (1994), p. 31.
120
in Su i o de s and how leade s a e conside ed as
aqṭāb
(in A abic: poles) who can
ecei e e ela ions o communica e wi h he P ophe .
249
Gumi’s book was no w i en o he public as he himsel con essed:
“The book had no been w i en o gene al eading, and I was
awa e ha in o mula ing i s majo a gumen s a lo had been
aken o g an ed.”
250
His book was aken by one o his s uden s, Ismaila Id is, who used i o p each
in Kaduna o he public in absence o i s au ho who was by hen in Saudi A abia.
This p o oked a big con o e sy and a campaign agains Gumi in he media. Su i
B o he hoods de ended hei doc ines in he media and especially h ough w i ings
o hei leade s a ha ime. Bo h Sani Ka anga and Nasi u Kaba a, leade s o he
Tijāniyya and he Qādi iyya, w o e eplies o Gumi’s books. They used a polemic
language o de end Su ism. They blamed Gumi o being a
Wahhābī
who
misunde s ood he language o Su is and hei in e p e a ion o he ex . The Su i
leade s aced Su ism in he adi ion o he P ophe . They claimed o ollow
o hodoxy and by no means de ia e om i . Acco ding o hem Su ism is a pa o he
sunna
.
251
The si ua ion escala ed and eached he g ass oo s le el. Sheikh Gumi was
isola ed in he JNI (whe e many Su i leade s we e p esen ) and common people
(among Su is) became agi a ed agains him. The eac ions wen as a as se e al
249
Loimeie (1997) p o ides a de ailed analysis o
al-ʿaqīda al-saḥīḥa
and he majo a gumen and
c i icism o Gumi owa ds Su i B o he hoods see pp. 186-196.
250
Gumi (1992), 145.
251
Fo an o e iew o he Su i answe s see Loimeie (1997), 197-206.
121
a emp s o kill him in Kano and Jeddah – as men ioned in his au obiog aphy. The
ela ionship be ween Gumi and he Su i B o he hoods ook on ano he dimension
when a new o ganiza ion called
Jamāʿa Izala al-Bidʿa Wa Iqama as-Sunnah
,
abb e ia ed as J.I.B.W.I.S. o simply, Izala, was es ablished in Jos 1978. The ounde
o he o ganiza ion was he same Ismaila Id is who used Gumi’s book o p each in
Ahmadu Bello Mosque in Kaduna.
128
e o m p ojec in no he n Nige ia. They b ough se e al w i ings and books o he
Mālikiyya in No h A ica.
266
The pe iod be ween he 16 h and 18 h cen u y is called by
Bunza, o a pe iod o “eme ging schola s” and esul ed in he es ablishmen o he
Soko o Calipha e as pa o Usman Dan Fodio’s e o m p og am du ing he 19 h
cen u y.
267
Also du ing he colonial and pos colonial pe iod o he 20 h cen u y,
e i alism in he Hausaland seems o ha e i s oo s in No h A ica’s expe ience wi h
Islamism. Schola s like Ḥasan al-Bannā’ (1906-49), Sayyid Quṭb (1906-66),
Muḥammed ʿAbduh (1849-1905), al-A ghānī (1838-1897) a e conside ed by Bunza o
be “sou ces o ma e ials and inspi a ion” o he Nige ian e i alism mo emen .
268
To
gi e examples o e o m in pos -colonial Nige ia, Bunza men ioned Sheikh Abubaka
Gumi and he majo Islamic o ganiza ions ha he deeply a ec ed: Jamāʿa Naṣ al-
Islām (JNI) and he Izala-mo emen . Also Zakzakys Muslim B o he s mo emen and
o he s ha e been in luenced by w i ings om No h A ica (e.g. Sayyid Quṭb and
Ḥasan al-Bannā’).
269
Bunza goes u he in ecognizing ha he call o
sha īʿa
in
no he n Nige ia should also o be unde s ood in he con ex o
ajdīd
inspi ed by
Mālikī ju isp udence and No h A ican schola s o Islam.
270
Thus, Bunza’s his o ical
accoun highligh s he dis inc i e ole o he No h A ican schola s o e e o m in
Nige ia.
266
Ibid., p 328; al-Mudawwana al-Kub a, al-Risala al-Qay awaniyya, Mukh assa Khalil a e some
examples men ioned books o Malikiyya by he au ho .
267
Ibid., p 330.
268
Ibid., p 331.
269
Ibid., pp 331-333.
270
Ibid., p 333.

129
Acco ding o Loimeie “ e o m” has no ixed de ini ion (i is a he a desc ibed
bu no de ined concep ). In an Islamic con ex , e o m is linked o se e al
conno a ions like
ajdīd
(in A abic: enewal);
iṣlāḥ
(in A abic: es i u ion, es o a ion);
iḥyā’
(in A abic: e i al);
ṣaḥwa
(in A abic: awakening).
271
Fo Sub-Saha an-A ica,
Loimeie iden i ies he concep
ajdīd
as key concep o e o m du ing he 19 h and
20 h cen u y. He summa izes his unde s anding o he concep o e o m as “change
wi h a p og am”. I s meaning is especially ela ed – acco ding o Loimeie – o
c i icism o immo al li e o go e nmen . Loimeie ega ds a change du ing he 20 h
cen u y a he le el o e minology om using
ajdīd
o
iṣlāḥ
which is mo e ela ed o
“p og amma ic eo ien a ion o Muslim e o me s” as well as o “new ypes o Islamic
e o m mo emen s in Sub-Saha an A ica.”
272
Gene ally, “ e o m” is o be ound in
bo h in academic and non-academic li e a u e and is ela ed o socie al, poli ical, and
eligious mo emen s. The concep is ansla ed as “p og ess” and “mode niza ion” o
as “ enewal o Socie y on he basis o “ undamen al” dogma.
273
Loimeie sugges s
he ollowing de ini ion o e o m: “Re o m has many meanings. I has mode nizing as
well conse a i e, libe al, p og essi e, egali a ian, eli is , ac i is o e olu iona y
conno a ions.”
274
He adds ha any e o m mo emen “conduc a speci ic dialogue
271
See Loimeie , Roman (2007): ”Yesu Hakusulubiwa –Jesus wu de nich gek euzig ”: Möglichkei en
und G enzen des Ve gleichs eligiöse Re o mbewegungen; Pape p esen ed a he Uni e si y o
Leipzig, 11/10/2007, p 2. The Au ho men ions ha o he concep s a e also ound in li e a u e like
nahda
( enaissance),
a aqqi
o
aqaddum
(p og ess), see oo no e (4).
272
My English ansla ion o Loimeie ’s Ge man Te minology „p og amma ische Neuaus ich ung
muslimische Re o me “ and „neue Typus islamische Re o mbewegungen im subsaha anischen
A ika“, Ibid.
273
Ibid., p 3.
274
Ibid. (my ansla ion).
130
wi h his o y and he canon o i s own eligious adi ion (…).”
275
Loimeie speaks o
“ma ke s” ha cha ac e ize eligious e o m mo emen s. He lis ed ele en ma ke s:
ha ing pa icula eligious e e ence (pa icula pe son o e en ), using speci ic ex s
and pa icula in e p e a ion, choosing pa icula ypes o o ganiza ion, pa icula
posi ion o he s a e – jus o men ion some.
276
The example o Loimeie hin s a he
luidi y o he e m “ e o m”.
Ousmane Kane, om poli ical sciences, e e s o “ e o m mo emen s” as
“ hose Islamic mo emen s ha a emp o e o m social and eligious p ac ices”
277
and di e en ia es be ween hem and “islamis mo emen s” ha “a emp o cap u e
poli ical powe and es ablish he ule o God.”
278
Kane’s app oach links a e o m
p og am o social change. This aspec is missed in se e al s udies on Islam in and
ou side o he A ican con inen .
279
Fu he mo e, Kane unde s ands e o m – o Izala
( he mo emen he is dealing wi h) – as a mode ni y p ojec .
280
Acco ding o Pe e Cla k, sociologis and his o ian o eligion, “Islamic e o m
in Nige ia is no a new phenomenon.”
281
I becomes mo e isible in he con ex o he
275
Ibid., p 4 (my ansla ion)
276
See hese ele en “ma ke s” explained by Loimeie ; Ibid., pp 4-5.
277
Kane, Ousmane (2003): Islamic Mode ni y in Pos colonial Nige ia. Leiden, Bos on: B ill, p. 7.
278
Ibid.
279
Ousmane Kane lis ed se e al case s udies dealing wi h e o m Islam in Alge ia, Indonesia,
Mo occo, Egyp , Oman, I o y Coas , F ench Sudan, and Guinea. In hese examples, he au ho
misses a “di ec causali y be ween social change and he ise o a new Islamic a i udes o belie s” –
as he said. See pp. 8-14.
280
Ibid. especially see pp 1-7 and Kane’s discussion on his unde s anding o “mode ni y” in
ela ionship o e o m Islam (Izala Mo emen ).
281
Cla ke, Pe e (1988): Islamic Re o m in con empo a y Nige ia: me hods and aims, in Thi d Wo ld
Qua e ly 10 (2), p. 519.
131
“na ion-s a e” whe e Muslims as well as Ch is ians we e, and s ill a e asked o
answe he demands o one na ion. F om hei si e, Nige ians (Ch is ians and
Muslims) ques ioned he “cha ac e and o ien a ion” o ha s a e.
282
Cla ke loca es
Islamic e o m in Nige ia in he 19 h cen u y. The Soko o
jihād
o Usman Dan Fodio
has no only “ eligious, poli ical, social, and economic” e ec s on Muslims and non-
Muslims, bu i also led o “ ea and opposi ion o Islam which pe sis o his day”.
283
In con empo a y Nige ia, Cla ke iden i ies wo ypes o e o m: mode a e and
adical. Cla ke makes his di e en ia ion on he basis o he sou ces used by
e o me s. He conside s hose who only ely on he Qu ’ān and he
sunna
o he
P ophe as “ undamen alis s”, while mode a es a e hose elying on o he sou ces (in
addi ion o he wo). When i comes o
sha īʿa
, bo h (mode a e and conse a i e ypes
o e o m) ha e simila a i udes. Bo h o hem desi e o Islamize Nige ia al hough he
“ undamen alis ” in es s mo e ene gy in ha di ec ion.
284
Fu he mo e Cla ke
unde s ands Re o m in i s social and economic ci cums ances. By gi ing he example
o Mai a sine io s in Kano in he beginning o he 1980s and he Ka ancan
dis u bance o 1987, Cla ke ies o ind a link be ween undamen alism and Islamic
e o m. He sugges s he ollowing de ini ion:
“Fundamen alism is essen ially abou he e o m o Islam o he
pu pose o c ea ing a mo e jus socie y along Islamic lines. I is no
only a mo al esponse o wha i sees as he co up ing in luence o
wes e n libe a ianism and exploi a ion, and godless socialism, bu
282
Ibid.
283
Ibid.
284
Ibid., pp 521-2
132
also a ailu e o wes e n, secula (…) poli ical, economic, and
educa ional sys ems o p o ide solu ions o he coun y’s p oblems.”
285
Cla ke concludes by making a dis inc ion be ween wha he called “in ellec ual and
mo al” e o m o he Soko o Calipha e and be ween he “pu i ying” e o m ha igh s
inno a ion and ends o Islamize Nige ia.
286
The expe on Nige ian Islam, And ea B igaglia
287
, obse es he
ans o ma ion o he concep o Islamic “ e o m” in Nige ia. He s esses ha he
Muslim iden i y o he eli es du ing he Soko o Calipha e was ela ed o Su ism and
was adop ed by he masses. In e es ingly, “ e o m” as a concep is also p esen in
Su i milieu. B igaglia gi es he example o he “doc inal eo ien a ion” o he Tijāniyya
headed by Sheikh Ib ahim Niasse (d. 1975)
288
and also o he Qādi iyya led by
Sheikh Nasi u Kaba a (d. 1996)
289
in Kano. He also quo es he concep s used by
John Paden who speaks o “ adi ional” and “ e o med” b o he hoods (Qādi iyya,
Tijāniyya)
290
espec i ely.
The appea ance o a “coun e - e o m” p ojec o Sheikh Gumi (d. 1992) and
he Izala mo emen inspi ed by him d ew a en ion o a new discussion abou e o m.
The in e nal discussion among Su is on e o mism seems o ha e aken a new
285
Ibid., p 527
286
Ibid, p 538.
287
B igaglia (2004).
288
Fo mo e de ails, see Seesemann (2004); also B igaglia, And ea (2001), "The Fayda Tijānīyya o
Ib ahim Niasse: Genesis and implica ions o a Su i doc ine", Islam e Socié és au Sud du Saha a
14/15, pp. 41-56.
289
Among o he s see Loimeie (1997), pp. 52-70 on he Li e o Sheikh N. Kaba a and he de elopmen
o he Qādi iyya-Nasi iyya.
290
B igaglia (2004), pp 108-109.
133
dimension. This endency is a esul o he an i-colonial esis ance o many Wes
A ican Muslims agains colonial mas e s, bu also is due o Islamic educa ion and
app ochemen o he A abic and Islamic wo ld.
291
Sheikh Gumi is he pionee o
eligious e o mism in pos -colonial Nige ia ( om 1969), bu i seems ha “ e o m” o
“ e o mism” appea o ha e been used e en du ing he colonial ime.
292
Sani Uma
293
, an expe on Islam in Nige ia, uses he concep o “Islamic
mode nism” o quali y he Izala mo emen and i s Sala i/Wahhābī p og am. This o m
o Islam seems o be he coun e -pole o he so-called “popula Islam” ep esen ed by
he Su is. The a gumen o Sani Uma is ha Izala adop ed a mode n “o ganiza ional
o ma ” and i s leade s and membe s ha e such an educa ional backg ound.
294
Dealing wi h he de elopmen o Izala, Sani Uma speaks o he di ision o Izala
beginning in 1984 and how doc inal di e ences lead o di e en o ien a ions wi hin
he mo emen . On he one hand a ac ion o Izala ollows he eachings o Sheikh
Id is ( he ounde ) and which is conside ed he “ha d-line ” ac ion ( undamen alis )
while he o he one ( hose who a e la gely Medina-educa ed membe s) is mo e
mode a e o “so -line” (as Uma calls i ). In ac , Sani Uma ega ds he e ms
291
B igaglia (2004) quo es he s udy o Kaba Lansiné (1974) on Wahhabism in Mali and how Islamic
educa ion in Egyp (Al-Azha ) and Sudan (Omdou man) played a ole in he “ e o mis ” mo emen
es ablished in Mali, see pp 115-117
292
In he con ex o Na ionalism and esis ance agains he B i ish Colony, Sa’du Zungu and Amino
Kano c i icized he es ablished adi ional au ho i y o he Ulama in he no h in ha hey conside ed i
as an obs acle o any “ e o m” o poli ical p og ess. See B igaglia (2004), pp. 116-118
293
Uma , Muhammad Sani (2001): Educa ion and Islamic ends in No he n Nige ia, 1970s-1990s,
A ica Today 48:2, pp. 127-150.
294
Ibid., p. 134; Sheikh Gumi and Sheikh Id is a ended mode n schools like he Kano School o
A abic; conce ning he Su i-con ex Sani Uma speaks o a ans o ma ion o “ i ual ci ic
associa ions.”

134
“ undamen alis ” and “mode nis ” as no e lec ing “s able eali ies”. He shows he
lexibili y o bo h concep s by gi ing he example o how he “
ʿulamā'’s
adi ionalism
shi s o mode nism” and “Izala’s shi s om mode nism o undamen alism”.
295
The A icanis and His o ian, John Hunwick
296
obse es a “connec ion”
be ween e o m and e i al in an Islamic con ex . Re i alism in A ica s a ed in he
19 h cen u y wi h Usman Dan Fodio in Nige ia and Muḥammad Aḥmad in Sudan.
Bo h mo emen s ook place o “ egene a e” eligion (
ajdīd
) and he wo leade s
appea ed o be he
mahdī
297
(in A abic: igh ly guided es o e o eligion) o hei
ime.
298
Al hough Nige ia and Sudan ha e wo di e en expe iences wi h Islam and
colonializa ion, Hunwick links he idea o Islamic e i al and Mahdism o social,
poli ical, and economical changes in bo h coun ies. In Nige ia Usman Dan Fodio is
seen as a
mahdī
who b ough change especially o Muslims. His “mo emen ”
became a sou ce o inspi a ion du ing he pos -colonial e a when Muslims called o
implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
as a solu ion o he p oblems o he Wes A ican coun y.
In Sudan, he si ua ion is compa able. The ise o change is due o social and poli ical
p oblems o he coun y. The appea ance o he Sudanese
mahdī
Muḥammed
295
Fo Uma ’s analyses o he wo Izala ac ions see pp. 135-138; conce ning he di e en ypes o
shi s see p. 138.
296
Hunwick, John (2005): Islamic Re i al in A ica: His o ical and Con empo a y Pe spec i es. In:
Kama i Maxine Cla ke (2005): Local p ac ices, Global con o e sies: Islam in Sub-Saha an A ican
Con ex , pp. 25-42.
297
On he concep o
mahdi
see among o he s K ame , Robe s S. (2009): Mahdi, In: Esposi o, John
(eds.): The Ox o d Encyclopedia o he Islamic wo ld, pp.448-450; he au ho e e s o s anda d wo k
on he e m
mahdi
.and e e s o Ibn Khaldun’s
Muqaddimah
, chap 3 whe e he e m is discussed in
sunni
as well as
shi’a
Islam.
298
Ibid., pp. 29-30.
135
Aḥmad a he end o 19 h cen u y was an answe o colonialism. The eligion o Islam
became an iden i y ma ke o Muslims. This e i al a emp e lec s hei wish.
Simila de elopmen s can also be ound in he 1989 implemen a ion o Islamic law –
sha īʿa
– as a esul o yea s o social and poli ical ins abili y in Sudan.
299
The concep o e o m na a ed abo e is mul i ace ed and complex.
Some imes his concep is p esen ed in ela ionship o new Islamic mo emen wi h
Sala i/Wahhābī endencies opposing Su is and Su ism
300
. In o he con ex s e o m is
o be ound among Su is – as B igaglia poin s i ou .
301
In some cases e o m is
ela ed o o he phenomenon (like undamen alism) and discussed in ela ionship o i
and o he Nige ian na ion-s a e – as Cla ke did.
302
This demons a es ha he
concep o e o m is luid and depends on he ci cums ances in which i is used. I
would ag ee wi h Kane and Loimeie who ela e e o m o a “p og am wi h change”.
Analyzing he con ex o e o m ins ead o de ining i appea s o be mo e ui ul. Ta iq
Ramadan, he popula schola o Islam, a icula es i igh ly: “We a e in a kind o
e minological haze in which he meaning o wo ds is so a iable ha one no longe
knows exac ly wha he discou se abou “ e o m” e e s o
.”
303
This sen ence
summa izes he dilemma o de ining “ e o m”. In he A ican con ex , including
299
Fo mo e de ails on e i al in Nige ia and Sudan, see Ibid., pp 32-40.
300
See Loimeie 1997; Kane 2004 and Sani Uma 1983, 1988.
301
See B igaglia 2004.
302
See Cla k 1988.
303
Ramadan, Ta iq (2007): On he Concep o Re o m; a h p://www. a iq amadan.com (accessed
01.12.09); e en in he Eu opean con ex , deba es on e o m a e s ill going on. Ramadan men ions
di e en concep s meaning e o m. Among o he s:
Iḥyā’
(in A abic: e i al),
ajdīd
(in A abic: enewal),
iṣlāḥ
(in A abic: e o m). Acco ding o him,
ajdīd
and
iṣlāḥ
a e mo e ela ed and complemen a y. See
also his book Radical Re o m: Islamic E hics and Libe a ion (2009).
136
Nige ia, we wi ness simila de elopmen s. In imes o unce ain y, u moil and poli ical
ins abili y, he doo o “ e o m” and he need o change a e mo e deba ed han in
imes o p ospe i y.The example gi en by Hunwick in Nige ia and Sudan shows i
e y well.
304
One canno s udy Islamic e o m in Nige ia wi hou speaking o he Izala
mo emen . This mo emen s ands o he ecen expe iences o Nige ian Muslims
wi h a s uc u ed o ganiza ion ha ook up he cou se o pu i ying Islam om
inno a ion and es ablishing he
sunna
o he P ophe . Be o e dealing wi h “ e o m” as
seen by Izala i sel , a ew o he examples o Muslim g oups a e in oduced. Shiʿi es,
JTI, Mai a sine, Boko Ha am o Sala iyya o ien ed g oups all sha e one goal:
e o ming Islam in Nige ia. These g oups, hei doc ines, and hei objec i es a e
in oduced in he ollowing sec ion.
2 Shiʿi es in Nige ia
305
This mo emen is led by Sheikh Ib aheem Zakzaky. The Mo emen i sel was
in luenced by he I anian e olu ion o 1979. This in luence de eloped in o o a ull
Shiʿi e o ien a ion. The mo emen calls i sel “The Islamic Mo emen ” and is known in
Nige ia as Yan Shiʿa (Shiʿi e people). The g oup is based in Kano and i became
mo e isible among Nige ian Muslims as he only g oup publicly opposing he
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion and decla ing his poin o iew openly.
304
See Hunwick 2005.
305
Sulaiman, Muhammad Dahi u (1993): Shiaism and he Islamic mo emen in Nige ia 1979-1991,
Islam e socié és au Sud du Saha a 7, pp. 5-16.
137
The Shiʿi e doc ine o igina es in Nige ia’s social, economic and poli ical
challenges du ing he colonial e a and especially h oughou he pos -independence
pe iod.
306
Inspi ed by he success o he e olu ion in I an and due o Nige ia’s u moil
in many di ec ions Sheikh Ib aheem Zakzaky s a ed in oducing Shiʿi e ideas o he
Wes A ican coun y. Sheikh Zakzaky was bo n in Za ia in 1950 and s udied a
Ahmadu Bello Uni e si y in he same ci y. He was among he mos ac i e membe s
o he Muslim S uden s Socie y (MSS) be o e he le i . He was amongs he s uden s
who demons a ed agains he s a e. He isi ed I an in he 1980s and came back o
ec ui new membe s o his “Islamic mo emen ”. He sees in Islam a solu ion o he
coun y’s p oblems and p opaga ed hese ideas h ough lec u es and public
ga he ings in no he n Nige ia. He opposed he na ion-s a e wi h all i s symbols and
de ined i as a
ṭāghū
(in A abic: symbol o idola y, e il). In many cases,
demons a ions by Zakzakys ollowe s u ned in o iolen con es a ions agains he
police. Zakzaky himsel was imp isoned se e al imes because o his ideas and
opposi ion o he ede al s a e.
307
The e we e deba es in Nige ia du ing he 1980s
and 1990s conce ning he “Islamic mo emen ” and whe he i was a eal Shiʿi e g oup
o no . The deba es we e ela ed o he ideology and p ac ices o i s membe s. The e
was no doub ha i s a ed as a poli ical mo emen inspi ed by I an and he
e olu ion o 1979. Nowadays he mo emen seems o be ully in ol ed in Shiʿi e
306
Ibid., pp. 5-8.
307
Ibid., pp. 8-10.
144
Mai a sine io s o he 1980s back o in o ocus. Mass media
324
epo ed ex ensi ely
on he e en s and we e di ided in hei condemna ions o he mo emen , i s an i-wes
o ien a ion as well i s ideology on one hand and c i icizing he Nige ian s a e’s way o
dealing wi h i on he o he . In academia he mo emen seems o a ac a en ion o
schola s om di e en disciplines.
Boko Ha am
325
is an Islamic g oup led by Muhammad Yusu , a Nige ian
Muslim who was a es ed and killed du ing he io s o 2009 in Maidugu i, he capi al
o Bo no s a e. The name “Boko Ha am” ansla es in Hausa as “wes e n educa ion is
a sin”. The mo emen is o en labeled as a “sec ”. I is also e e ed o as he “Taliban
324
Mos o Ge man newspape s (like Die Zei , FAZ, Süddeu sche Zei ung, e c) and magazines (like
De Spiegel, Focus) as well TV-p og ams epo ed ex ensi ely on he e en s a he end o July 2009
and hose in Decembe 2010. Also he BBC and Aljazee a English ( o men ion o he examples) spoke
o he io s in Nige ia. Fo a compa a i e s udy o Aljazee a English and he BBC see Ge ha d, Tobias
(2010): Coun e -discou se in global news media? How Aljazee a English co e s sec a ian iolence in
Nige ia, MA, Cen al Eu opean Uni e si y, Depa men o In e na ional Rela ions and Eu opean
S udies, Budapes , Hunga y.
In he i s io s he media es ima ed he numbe o ic ims o be o e 700. In 2010 se e al con lic s
be ween Boko Ha am and he police especially in Maidugu i we e egis e ed and mos ly accompanied
by deadly shoo ings. Boko Ha am became well known because o i s endency owa ds wes e n
educa ion and i s mili an answe o he Nige ian s a e. The e was also an in e p e a ion assuming a
connec ion be ween ha g oup and he Taliban o A ghanis an.
325
No much has been w i en in academia on Boko Ha am bu he g oup is g adually subjec o
in ensi e s udy by esea che s om di e en backg ounds. Adesoji, Abimbola (2010): The Boko
Ha am Up ising and Islamic Re i alism in Nige ia, In: A ica Spec um 45 (2), pp. 95-108; o mo e
unde s anding o he genesis o he mo emen see and possible connec ions o Boko Ha am in and
ou side Nige ia see B igaglia, And ea (2012): Ja‘ a Mahmoud Adam, Mohammed Yusu and Al-
Mun ada Islamic T us : Re lec ions on he Genesis o he Boko Ha am phenomenon in Nige ia, In:
Annual Re iew o Islam in A ica, Vol. 11, pp. 35-44; B igaglia, And ea (2012), A Con ibu ion o he
His o y o he Wahhabi Daʿwa in Wes A ica: The Ca ee and he Mu de o Shaykh Ja‘ a Mahmoud
Adam (Dau a, ca. 1961/1962-Kano 2007), in:
Islamic A ica
, 3, 1, 1-23.

145
o Nige ia” and in many cases people ha e specula ed abou i s ela ionship o he
Al-Qaeda ne wo k.
326
The g oup has exis ed unde di e en names, and had ano he leade om he
mid-1990s (i no ea lie ) and became isible in Yobe s a e as a esul o i s
con on a ions wi h he police.
327
In he yea 2004 some s uden s in Bo no and Yobe
wi hd ew om he uni e si y and joined Boko Ha am. The Nige ian ede al
go e nmen became awa e o he g oup in 2007.
328
The g oup ideology consis s o denying wes e n cul u e and way o li e and
es ablishing Islamic alues and no ms on he basis o
sha īʿa
. I opposes he secula
s a e and a emp s o esis s i . The leade himsel made use o wes e n echnology
like “exo ic ca s, he la es communica ion equipmen and he bes medical
se ices”
329
. The membe s o he g oups come om di e en social backg ounds,
and a y om o me s uden s and uni e si y lec u e s o jobless and lawless people.
The majo i y o hem come om an unde p i ileged backg ound. Many ac o s ha e
326
Muhammad Yusu (1970-2009) was om Yobe S a e. He was ma ied o ou wi es and a he o
wel e child en. He was educa ed in Chad and Nige Republic. He a ended Qu ’anic school and b oke
wi h educa ion a he seconda y le el. He ejec ed Da winism, he Nige ian S a e; and wes e n
ci iliza ion. His g oup sees es ablishing Sha īʿa in he whole coun y is a du y o be ul illed; see
Onuoha, F eedom C. (2010): The Islamis challenge: Nige ia's Boko Ha am c isis explained, In:
A ican Secu i y Re iew, Vol. 19 (2), pp. 56-57.
327
; Ibid., p. 55; he au ho na a es ha he g oup was known as “Ahlulsunna wal’jama’ah wal hij a”
and i s leade was Abubaka Lawan. A e ha i has di e en names like “Taliban”, Yusu iyya, and
Boko Ha am. I was called by Taliban h ough he e en s o Decembe 2003, when he g oup s o med
police s a ions and o he buildings, occupied hem and hois ed he Taliban’s lag. In 2004 he g oup
ounded a base called “A ghanis an” in Yobe s a e. The new leade was Muhammad Yusu .
328
Ibid., pp. 55-56.
329
Adesoji (2010), p. 100.
146
led hem o join he mo emen o Muhammad Yusu . Among o he s, lack o
oppo uni ies, po e y, educa ional de iciency, unemploymen and co up ion.
330
Lo a Ha bom and Pe e Wallens een see he io s ela ed o Boko Ha am as
he i s ”…in a-s a e go e nmen al powe since 1966.” An a med s uggle ha had
al eady s a ed in 2005 b oke ou again in 2009.
331
Jona han Hill ela es he ise o
Boko Ha am o he e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in no he n Nige ia. Acco ding o him
he g oup eme ged in 2002 as an answe o he e-implemen a ion p ojec and
quickly ec ui ed adhe en s among young people, women and s uden s.
332
The e a e specula ions as o whe e o place Boko Ha am wi hin he Islamic
spec um. In he absence o e idence abou a link o o eign Islamic mo emen s and
o ganiza ions, i is di icul o place i wi hin a pa icula Islamic ideology o g oup.
Ne e heless i is compa ed o he Taliban and i s model. Apa om ha , i is
si ua ed wi hin he spec um o g oups wi h Islamic-Jihadis and undamen alis
o ien a ions.
333
The e is no p oo abou mone a y suppo om ou side o Muhammad
330
Ibid., p. 100.
331
Ha bom, Lo a and Pe e Wallens een (2010): A med con lic 1946-2009, In:
Jou nal o Peace
Resea ch
Vol. 47 (4), pp. 501-509.
332
Hill, Jona han N. C. (2010): Su ism in No he n Nige ia: Fo ce o coun e - adicaliza ion?-
www.S a egicS udiesIns i u e.a my.mil, pp. 1-65.
333
Adesoji (2010) men ions ha he “modus ope andi” o Boko Ha am is “ ashioned a e he Taliban”
model; The au ho also lis ed he Sala is G oup o P eaching and Comba (GSPC) o Alge ia,
Tablighi o Pakis an, Wahabiyya o Saudi A abia, and Al-Qaeda as possible links o Boko Ha am.
These all a e specula ions o he p ess in and ou side o Nige ia and need u he in es iga ion; see p.
101.
147
Yusu . Some weal hy sympa hize s om no he n Nige ia seem o ha e suppo ed
him inancially. One can only specula e abou he easons o his assis ance.
334
5 Sala iyya
335
o ien ed g oups
The Sala iyya is o ien ed a e
al-Sala al-Ṣāliḥ
(in A abic: pious p edecesso s;
i s h ee gene a ions a e he dea h o he P ophe ). The e a e Sala iyya-o ien ed
g oups in he coun y like he Izala mo emen , bu many Sala iyya schola s ac as
indi iduals. The la e Sheikh Jaa a cla i ied in an in e iew ha he Sala iyya as an
o ganized g oup does no exis in Nige ia.
336
Sala ī ideas a e conside ed o be among
he as es g owing Islamic o ien a ions especially in Wes A ica.
337
Fu he mo e,
hese ideas a e p e e ed by se e al Muslims in his egion o he con inen :
“The e is a cu en e ou among Muslim communi ies o he sha iah
and he e u n o he Sala ’s ision anks high in popula i y wi h many
Muslim masses in di e en pa s o Wes A ica.”
338
334
Adesoji (2010) speaks o Alhaji Buji Foi, he o me commissione o Bo no S a e, as a suppo e o
Muhammed Yusu . The e a e specula ions abou o he eligious leade s and businessmen who
belie ed in Yusu ’s cause and may ha e assis ed him inancially. The ailu e o he “Sha īʿa p ojec ”
and he desi e o make change could be an explana ion o ha , see p. 101-102.
335
Fo an o e iew on he Sala iyya gene ally as well o a biog aphy o i s leade s see Mu aza,
Muhammad Samee (2005): Die Sala iya, die Re o me des Islam: eine Da s ellung de Biog aphien
und des poli ischen Denkens on Gamal Al-Din Al-A gani, Muhammad ʿAbduh, Muhammad Rashid
Rida und Hasan Al-Banna, sowie de Muslimb ude scha in ih e o ma i en Phase 1928 - 1932,
No de s ed; see also chap e “Izala and Wahhabism” o a summa y on Sala iyya.
336
In e iew in Kano, Janua y 2nd, 2007.
337
Muhammad, G. Bala and M. Sani Uma (2002): Religion and he Pan-A ican ideal: The Expe ience
o Sala i Islam in he Wes A ican Sub-Region; in: A ican Jou nal o In e na ional A ai s, p. 141.
338
Ibid., p. 144.
148
The eme gence o Sala iyya ideas in Nige ia can be unde s ood wi hin he
con ex o he s uggle agains “coloniza ion” and “decoloniza ion” and he ise o
Islamic ac i ism a e he success o he I anian Re olu ion. Sala ī ideas we e
app ecia ed by educa ed as well as non-educa ed Muslims. Mosques, educa ion
(especially women’s educa ion) and media such as casse es/VHS-casse es
con ibu ed o he p opaga ion o he Sala iyya.
339
I s cen al s a egy is o emind
Muslims o he onesness o God (A abic:
awḥīd
) and ejec all p ac ices ela ed o
shi k
. Sala is s ques ion he ele ance o Su ism and i s basis in Islam.
340
Sani Uma elucida es ha he eme gence o Sala iyya in Nige ia ook place
du ing he 1960s. Acco ding o him his mo emen is a esponse o Su ism. This
esponse became mo e s uc u ed unde he Izala o ganiza ion. Fu he mo e Izala is
pe cei ed by Sani Uma as a Sala iyya/Wahhābiyya o ien ed o ganiza ion wi h a
mode nis agenda.
341
Fo Roman Loimeie , he Sala iyya in Nige ia is ela ed o Sheikh Abubaka
Gumi and his
a sī
sessions and “dogma ic” con es wi h Su i leade s. Sheikh Gumi
was inspi ed by w i ings o Sala iyya o e a he s like Muḥammed ʿAbduh, Rashīd
Riḍā, Sayyid Quṭb – amongs o he s.
342
His in e p e a ion o he Qu ’ān is o be
unde s ood wi hin ha same adi ion and goes beyond he adi ion o he ou
Islamic schools o law (Mālikiyya, Ḥanbaliyya, Ḥana iyya, Sha iʿiyya). Gumi’s
339
Ibid., pp. 145-147.
340
Ibid., pp.148-149.
341
Uma , Muhammad S. (2001): Educa ion and Islamic T ends in No he n Nige ia: 1970s-1990s In:
A ica Today, Vol. 48 (2), pp. 127-150; see pp. 132-134.
342
Loimeie (1997), p. 177.
149
e minology is s ongly in luenced by he language used by Sala iyya leade s
hemsel es.
343
The e a e many Islamic g oups in Nige ia which ollow Sala ī ideology. They
ha e di e en names like
Ahl al-Sunna
– among many o he s. They a e cu en ly
modeled on Islamic cen es like Egyp , Saudi A abia o Sudan. I is di icul o speak
o one o ganized g oup o mo emen called Sala iyya. I is a “ end,” o an Islamic
o ien a ion wi hin he Muslim communi y. Acco ding o Bala and Uma his endency
is especially obse ed among you h (bo h men and women) and became a kind o
“way o li e,” pa icula ly in places like uni e si y campuses.
344
The es ablishmen o he Izala-o ganiza ion in Jos in 1978 was an answe and
a conc e iza ion o many an i-Su i o ien ed Muslims. Wi h he ounda ion o he Izala,
he con lic wi h he Su is u ned ou o be mo e equally weigh ed. The new
o ganiza ion unde ook he du y o c i icizing Su ism and pu i ying Islam in Nige ia
om all “non-Islamic addi ions”. How was he Izala es ablished? Who we e i s
leade s/ac o s? Wha was he agenda in oduced by he o ganiza ion? To wha
ex en has Izala succeeded in achie ing i s objec i e(s)? How did he con lic wi h he
Su is change o e he yea s? Wha is he di e ence be ween he Izala o he la e
1970s and he Izala o oday? All hese ques ions as well as he Izala unde s anding
o
bidʿa
, he ela ionship be ween Izala and Wahhabism, as well he di ision o he
o ganiza ion will be highligh ed in he nex chap e .
343
Ibid, p. 181.
344
Bala and Uma (2002), p. 143.

150
Chap e Fou : The Izala mo emen be ween success and
ailu e
A e dealing wi h he keywo d “ e o m” i sel , he discussion p oceeds o some
biog aphical ske ches o he li e and wo k o Sheikh Abubaka Gumi, he pionee o
Islamic e o m in pos colonial Nige ia, and his s uden Sheikh Ismaila Id is who ook
o e om him and es ablished he Izala o ganiza ion and p oceeded wi h his own
“ e o m” p og am. Fu he mo e, he Izala mo emen is o be desc ibed om i s
es ablishmen un il un il now wi h ocus on i s di ision, a emp s a econcilia ion and
i s main igu es in Nige ia oday. O cou se, he ela ionship wi h Su is and he
doc inal discou ses a e no o be igno ed.
1 Sheikh Ismaila Id is and he Izala Ques ion
The pe son o Abubaka Gumi o e shadowed Sheikh Ismaila Id is, he eal
ounde o Izala in Jos. E en now, some Nige ians (Muslims as well as non-Muslims)
s ill belie e ha Gumi is he one who se up Izala. This chap e ies o gi e an
o e iew on he li e, in luence, and w i ings o Sheikh Gumi and Sheikh Id is, and
hen cla i y he Izala ques ion.
Muhammad N. Gu ama
345
desc ibed Sheikh Id is as someone who g ew up
wi hou “games and spo ”, wi hou “ un and es i i y”, bu who was mo e in e es ed in
books since an ea ly age.
346
Sheikh Id is was bo n in 1937 in Gwaskwa om, which is
345
Muhammad Nuhu Gu ama. (2000): Leade ship usless in an Islamic O ganisa ion: A case s udy o
he Jama’a Izala Al-Bidʿah Wa Iqama Al-Sunnah (J.I.B.W.I.S.), M.A in Islamic S udies, Uni e si y o
Jos, Nige ia.
346
Ibid., p. 49.
151
mode n-day Bauchi S a e. His g and a he , belonging o he
Jahun
ibe (Fulani),
came om wha is now Kano S a e wi h his en i e amily and hei belongings o se le
in ha a ea. Sheikh Id is’ a he , Id is Zaka iyya, was an Islamic schola , imam, and
p eache in his communi y. The i s educa ion o Sheikh Id is was wi h his a he .
Apa om eci a ion o he Qu ’ān and he eading o classical books o
iqh
, hey
looked a e hei ca le – as is he case o many Fulani.
347
Muhammed Sadis ied o gi e an o e iew on Sheikh Id is’s li e. He indica ed
ha Sheikh Id is s a ed lea ning unde se e al Islamic schola s. He was augh
Islamic heology, ju isp udence, and A abic. Mallam Mahmud in Bauchi especially
d ew he a en ion o Sheikh Id is o he no ion o
awḥīd
. Wi h him, Sheikh Id is ead
Mukh asa – among many o he Islamic books o he Mālikī School o Law.
348
Sheikh
Id is hen a ended he School o A abic in Kano, whe e he s udied A abic unde
Gumi and Sheikh Hassan Khalil who we e known o hei “an i-
ṭa īqa
ideas” – as
men ioned by Loimeie .
349
A e his g adua ion, Sheikh Id is was appoin ed as a
eache in Bauchi S a e. “He was no sa is ied wi h ha because his aim in li e was o
p each and each abou Islam”.
350
As a esul , he le Bauchi in o de o go o Kaduna
whe e he was appoin ed as a eache in he Sul an Bello P ima y School which was
unde he con ol o he newly ounded o ganiza ion, J.N.I.
347
The la e Sheikh Ismaila Id is Bin Zaka iyya- His con ibu ion o he de elopmen o Jamaʿa u Izala il
Bidʿa Wa Iqama is Sunnah (J.I.B.W.I.S) in Nige ia, B.A. in he Religious S udies Depa men a he
Uni e si y o Jos, Nige ia, p. 4; Loimeie (1997) indica es ha in addi ion o he Fulani-language,
Sheikh Id is spoke Hausa, A abic and English, see p. 211.
348
Muhammed, M. Sadis (2001), p. 6-7
349
Loimeie (1997), p. 211.
350
Muhammed, M. Sadis (2001), p. 8.
152
His d eam o p eaching o people was ealized in Kaduna whe e Sheikh Id is
s a ed alking o people a e F iday p aye s in di e en mosques (Kawo Mosque,
Doka Mosque), bu , in pa icula in he Sul an Bello Mosque and om ime o ime in
he ba acks o he A my. Annoyed by a epo o he J.N.I. which indica ed ha he
Kaku i mosque had been u ned by some soldie s in o a “bee pa lou ” and he
impossibili y o any eac ion, Sheikh Id is decided o join he Nige ian A my as an
Imam and his applica ion was success ul.
351
Sheikh Id is was employed as a Chie
Imam G ade I ci ilian in 1s Di ision in Kaduna. He was known by his supe io s
because o his “ha sh” p eaching and om ime o ime hey ied o send him o he
p ima y schools o each soldie s’ child en, a du y ha Sheikh Id is was no
com o able wi h. A he same ime he Sheikh was also p eaching o people in own,
ou side he ba acks. Consequen ly he was punished, and ans e ed o Ibadan,
whe e Muslims a e ew in numbe . Apa om leading p aye s, Sheikh Id is had he
du y o sol ing p oblems be ween Muslim soldie s. In Ibadan, Sheikh Id is obse ed
ha soldie s ha e o pay
zakā
(in A abic: alms) om hei own sala ies o he
o ice s, so he issued a
a wā
(in A abic: legal opinion) condemning ha ac .
352
This
ac in luenced he ela ionship be ween Sheikh Id is and his supe io s in Ibadan.
Sheikh Id is appea ed o many people as a “ ouble-make ” since his i s day in
Ibadan and his open c i icism o he Imam o pe o ming addi ional p ac ices and
eci a ions a e he
zuh
obliga o y p aye (a e midday p aye ). Sheikh Id is called
351
Ibid., 9-11; see also Aliyu, Tamimu (n.d.): Inga accen Ta ihin Jama’a u Izala il Bidʿah Wa’ikama is
Sunnah (1), p. 17, he au ho con i med he e en leading Sheikh Id is o join he Nige ian A my
352
The JIBWIS Jou nal 2005, Vol. 1 No. 3, p. 8 and p. 12; see also Loimeie (1997), p. 211.
153
he a en ion o he Imam and he cong ega ion ha he e is no p oo o hei p ac ice
nei he in he Qu ’ān no in he
sunna
o he P ophe . Fu he mo e, he in i ed hem o
ead he book o Usman Dan Fodio Iḥyā’ al-Sunna (in A abic: e i alism o he
sunna
).
353
A e only h ee mon hs he was ans e ed o Kon ago a, which is in
mode n-day Nige S a e.
Sheikh Id is con inued his p eaching o soldie s in Kon ago a and e en people
om own came o lis en o him and eco d his se mons/lessons. He hen examined
he need o es ablishing a F iday-mosque in he ba acks and ob ained pe mission
om his Cap ain o i . The mosque a ac ed many people om inside and ou side
he ba acks and caused p oblems wi h he local au ho i ies.
354
A dispu e be ween
Sheikh Id is and an Imam om he own – a Su i – occu ed. The si ua ion escala ed
and inally Sheikh Id is was demo ed o Wa an O ice I. La e on, Sheikh Gumi
in e ened as media o and o ganized a mee ing be ween he o me s uden o his
and o he local schola s in Kon ago a. A e he mee ing, he same Imam, who was
also he Emi o Kon ago a, le his Su i o de .
355
Loimeie ega ds his e en as a
poli ical and eligious success o Sheikh Id is in Kon ago a.
The nex impo an s ep in Sheikh Id is’ li e was his ans e o Jos, he capi al
o Pla eau S a e. Jos is especially meaning ul because o i s e hnic and eligious
di e si y. The ci y s ill holds symbolic ele ance o many Izala membe s oday. No
353
Muhammed, M. Sadis (2001), p. 13-14.
354
Ibid. p. 16-17.
355
See Loimeie (1997); Loimeie himsel elies he e on Uma (1983), p 51.
256
hem, he nei he was he leade no was he egis e ed as such. They c i icized his
lack o anspa ency in guiding Izala in inancial ma e s. Ve y o en he ques ion was
aised as o whe he money (also o he dona ions like ca s, e c.) was dona ed o
Sheikh Id is as a pe son o o his o ganiza ion as an ins i u ional body. Accusa ion
and coun e -accusa ions ega ding he inancial managemen o Izala played an
impo an ole in he di ision. The discussion abou he s uc u e o he socie y also
ook place. The main ques ion conce ned he s uc u e o he o ganiza ion: wha is i s
pa amoun body? Is i he Council o
ʿulamā'
- since he o ganiza ion is a eligious
one? O is i he Council o Adminis a ion? Who was leading Izala? Is i Sheikh Id is
who is an Islamic schola , o Alhaji Mai Gandu who was no a schola ?
The s uggle wi hin Izala was di ec ed agains Sheikh Id is, accusing him o
sel ishness in guiding he o ganiza ion, bu also o iola ing he cons i u ion. Sheikh
Id is blamed his opponen ’s de ia ion and ebellion agains him. The ac ual leade o
Izala in Lagos (linked o Jos- ac ion), Dalha Abubaka Abdallah, desc ibes he
si ua ion as ollows:
“In he cen e o accusa ion was Sheikh Ismaila Id is. Those who spli
om him accuse him o being sel ish in guiding he socie y. They
blame him o de ia ing om he ini ial goals ou lined in he beginning.
Sheikh Id is was cha ged wi h domina ing Izala and “b eaking” i s
cons i u ion. He was accused o going beyond his posi ion as an
“o dina y schola ” among many o he s and de ia ing a om he
leade ship o Musa Muhammad Mai Gandu. The la e is no an
Islamic schola bu an adminis a o and o icial leade o he socie y.

257
F om his u n, Sheikh Id is accused he g oup ha de ia ed om his
pa h o ’ ebellion‘ when hey spli om him – as he leade and
a chi ec o he o ganiza ion.”
591
Fo Alhaji Ib ahim Musalla (Kaduna b anch o Izala, se ed as s a e easu e
o he o ganiza ion a a e y ini ial s age), he issue o di ision s a ed in he yea
1981 in Saudi A abia when Sheikh Id is con ac ed he Muslim Wo ld League and
in oduced himsel as he leade o Izala. He was con on ed by he ac ha hey
eco ded he name o Alhaji Mai Gandu as leade . Annoyed by his expe ience,
Sheikh Id is s a ed a s uggle o powe wi hin he socie y:
“He wen o Rabi a and in oduced himsel as a leade o he
o ganiza ion. A e sending he message he o ice asked him:’ is he
he one called Alhaji Musa Mai Gandu?’ He said: ‘no’, he is Sheikh
Ismaila Id is.’
They old him ha he man in hei eco d is Sheikh Musa Muhammed
Mai Gandu. He is he leade o he o ganiza ion in Nige ia. ‘Did he
o ganiza ion ha e wo leade s?’
He said: ‘yes, he is he leade o he Imam commi ee, as Imam
among p eache s and Musa Muhammed Mai Gandu is he head o he
en i e o ganiza ion’s adminis a ion.’ Tha is acco ding o him.
They said:’ ha hey a e e y so y and hey can only a end o Musa
Muhammad Mai Gandu as he leade in hei eco d which hey
ecei ed om he embassy.’
Then he was annoyed, and was e y e y ang y. He was complaining
abou why he was su e ing and ha somebody else is aking he all
he c edi . The e is he beginning o he p oblem in he o ganiza ion.
591
In e iew in Lagos on 18 h Feb ua y 2007, (my ansla ion om A abic); in ano he occasion he
in e iew subjec compa ed he spli o he g oup in Kaduna o he Cha iji es: he i s Islamic g oup
who spli om Caliph Ali du ing he 7 h cen u y, See Gu ama (2000) p. 110.
258
The momen he came back, he s a ed bulldozing his way a ound,
looking o a way o u n agains Alhaji Musa Mai Gandu and place he
aul wi h him.”
592
The in o man adds ha acco ding o he cons i u ion o Izala, he execu i e
chai man o he en i e o ganiza ion is Alhaji Mai Gandu who was elec ed by
unanimous o e. When i comes o he Council o
ʿulamā'
and he Fi s Aid G oups,
bo h o hem a e unde he chai manship o he adminis a ion council. This was
ejec ed by Sheikh Id is who conside ed he
ʿulamā'
o be a he op o he
o ganiza ion. Fu he mo e, in he mid-1980s Sheikh Id is s a ed excluding membe s
om he o ganiza ion.
593
I some leade s o Izala did no accep he way Sheikh Id is headed Izala,
he e we e o he s who we e also us a ed and le him because o a nega i e
pe sonal expe ience. An example o his is e iden in he Jos-based Sheikh Alhassan
Said Alha iz, he o me Qu ’ān eci e unde Sheikh Id is. He is now linked o he
Kaduna- ac ion o Izala. Sheikh Alhassan Said poin s ou ha om he beginning he
was on he side o he Izala ounde and ne e hough o de ia ing om him:
“I swea by Allah ha I did no belong o any o he g oup when I was
wi h Ismaila Id is. I was wi h him un il hey emo ed him om his
posi ion. They o ganized a mee ing a Hadija – he name o he own
as I old you – and some b o he s asked us o go he e o ha mee ing
so i hey say some hing w ong we can answe .
592
In e iew in Jos on 24 h Decembe 2006.
593
Ibid.
259
Sheikh Id is ag eed and appoin ed me as he leade o a commi ee
ha should go o Hadija and pu a ca unde my disposi ion. We we e
on he way o lea e and he s opped us and said: “No”, he didn’ wan
us o go he e.
Since we didn’ go, hey decided o emo e him om his posi ion. I
we we e he e, his would no ha e happened. This is he will o
Allah.”
594
Sheikh Alhassan Said adds ha o he easons led him o join he Kaduna
b anch o Izala. His ela ionship became wo se wi h Sheikh Id is because o
misunde s andings and w ong s o ies ansmi ed o he Izala ounde . A e lea ing
Nige ia o s udy a he Islamic Uni e si y in Medina, Sheikh Alhassan Said came back
o a isi in 1992/3 and p eached agains
iyā
(in A abic: hypoc isy) o some people.
He was misunde s ood and blamed o b inging a “new eligion” o he coun y.
Fu he mo e Sheikh Id is was ang y wi h him and ad ised him o abs ain om ha
ype o p eaching which is no allowed among
Ahl al-Sunna
. The si ua ion escala ed
when Sheikh Said was accused o being a
shīʿa
ollowe :
“He [Sheikh Id is] said: ‘Whe e a e you and you Shiʿi e eache s?!’ I
said: ‘me’ and he added: ‘yes! In he Islamic Uni e si y he e a e a lo
o Shiʿi es.’
‘No, no, no! By Allah, in he Islamic Uni e si y he e we e no Shiʿi es
and I don’ know any eache s who a e Shiʿi e. E en i s uden s, ind
ou ha ano he s uden is among he Shiʿi es, hey migh kick him ou
o he Uni e si y.’ And he swea s by God ha he majo i y o eache
in he Islamic Uni e si y a e Shiʿi es. I said: ‘No! I is no like ha ’. (…)
I said: ‘No, look; Sheikh, he books o he
sunna
a e di e en om
hose o Shiʿi es.’
594
In e iew in A abic wi h Sheikh Alhassan Said in Jos on 12 h Decembe 2006 (my ansla ion).
260
He men ioned some saying and I answe ed him: ‘Sheikh! These a e
he s a emen s o
Muʿ azila
.’ Suddenly I had he Ta sī o Dhahabi and
I opened i and said o him: ‘Look! These a e he sayings o
Mu‘ azila
and no o
Ahl al-Sunna
. You a e ou leade s, a he s, eache s and
we will ollow you acco ding o he
al-ʿaqīda al-ṣaḥīḥa
(in A abic: he
igh ai h), bu i you come wi h he eachings o hen we will no
ag ee wi h you
.
’
So he was ang y and le . He also men ioned ha i someone kills
ano he pe son in en ionally, he is a
kā ī
(non-belie e ) e en i he
epen s. I said: ‘No! This is he sayings o Cha iji es’ and I opened he
same book and showed him he p oo . When a pe son kills a human
being in en ionally and i he epen s hen Allah will o gi e him
because Allah is he Fo gi e and he Me ci ul. I is men ioned in he
Qu ’ān: ‘I am he o gi e o hose who epen …’ And I showed him
he places (whe e i was men ioned) as well as he
ḥadī h
. This is
wha b ough he Sheikh o say: ‘You ne e come o me again!’
I said: ‘no, I will come and g ee you. I conside you o be my eache
and Sheikh i you a e mis aken, hen I o gi e you and I don’ blame
you o any hing since you a e a human being. This is he c isis ha
s a ed be ween hem and me.’
595
Sheikh Alhassan Said adds ha he joined he Izala in Kaduna when he was
asked o do so by ha ac ion. He was gi en he oppo uni y o be wi h
al-ḥaqq
(in
A abic: u h) on he basis o he Qu ’ān and
sunna
. F om ha ime he could no
emembe any blame o big issues wi hin he Kaduna g oup o Izala ha led him o
eg e his choice.
This is an example a he op le el o he o ganiza ion o he ac o s ha led o
he di ision because o he ounde o Izala. A he g ass oo s le el, people a e mo e
o less guided by emo ions. In Izala he e is no pa icula i ual o ini ia ion in o any
595
Ibid. (my ansla ion).
261
ac ion o he o ganiza ion. Followe s can easily s op hei a ilia ion o one g oup o
he o he . Followe s a e mo e di ec ed by hei own obse a ions and in e p e a ions
o p oblems. I issues occu a he op le el, in e p e a ions o leade s ci cula e
p omp ly and become well-known o membe s o he g oup. To iden i y wi h one
ac ion means o be on he side o Sheikh Id is o he
Jossawa-
g oup and agains
him in he
Kadunawa-
ac ion. People who a e in Jos and wi nessed he Izala om i s
ini ial s age a e mos ly on he si e o Sheikh Id is and ollow his pa h. They also
p o ec him agains any accusa ion, be i conce ning his leade ship o conce ning
money.
Alhaji Khamis Zaka iyya om Jos, who a i med his a ac ion o he Izala and
he p eaching o Sheikh Id is since he ea ly s ages o he ounda ion, explains ha
he spli o he mo emen is basically due o
al-ḥasad
(in A abic: en y). He explains
ha he e was a ime when Sheikh Id is was gi en a new ca by Mallam Hamza
Abdallah. Sheikh Id is spen six mon hs wi hou using ha ca and hen called he
ʿulamā'
and asked hem wha o do wi h i . They sugges ed ha he use i as a public
ca o gene a e some money. The e a e some people who we e no happy wi h ha .
Mai Gandu and o he Izala leade s be ayed Sheikh Id is in o de o ge money om
he o ganiza ion, and in he p ocess hey excluded him. E en oday hey blame
Sheikh Id is o aking he money o Izala. In de ence o he Izala ounde , Alhaji
Zaka iyya men ions ha Yusu Sambo (leade o Izala Kaduna) also collec ed money
o build his house in Kaduna. Tha money belonged o he o ganiza ion. Also Sheikh
Alhassan Said ecei ed money (one million Nai a) om he ex-go e no o Bauchi,

262
Muazu, and also collec ed dona ions in Po Ha cou and Abuja. He used he money
o build a house. Then Alhaji Zaka iyya asked, as onished, whe he Sheikh Id is
collec ed money o no . A e his dea h hey ealized ha he le behind only a house
ha was buil by he o ganiza ion o him. He con i ms ha he was p esen a e he
dea h o Sheikh Id is when his p ope y was dis ibu ed among his child en. Only a
house was ound. He says:
“I swea ha all he people p esen c ied!” Each daugh e o he
Sheikh go 5,000 Nai a and e e y son ecei ed 10,000 Nai a. He
concludes: “I know Sheikh Id is pe sonally! I swea ! He will p each
om mo ning o e ening wi hou ha ing a single Nai a in his
pocke !”
596
O cou se such a s a emen canno be con i med o denied because o he
absence o any e idence. I only shows how complica ed he money issue in Izala is.
The o ganiza ion is based on dona ions – e en oday. Money is collec ed in mosques
a e p aye s and a any big e en s o ganized by he socie y. Money is accoun ed o
and di ec ed o headqua e s (local, s a e o na ionwide). T us plays a c ucial ole a
all he di e en le els. The de ini ion o dona ions is also impo an : a e hey di ec ed
ei he o a pe son o o he o ganiza ion. The e a e always hose who blamed, and
s ill blame Sheikh Id is o using he o ganiza ion’s money o his own pu poses. The
absence o clea e idence makes any accusa ion o coun e -accusa ion oid.
596
In e iew wi h Alhaji Khamis Zaka iyya in his shop in Jos, 14 h Feb ua y 2008; (in e iew conduc ed
in Hausa wi h simul aneous ansla ion in o A abic by Mallam Sani Abdu azzaq).
263
The g ow h o Izala pa icula ly in no he n Nige ia made con ol o e i
complica ed. I ’s no wonde ha money became an issue since he inc ease o he
o ganiza ion’s esou ces. A s uggle o powe be ween he
ʿulamā'
and execu i e
membe s o he Izala in e nally a ec ed c edibili y and anspa ency in he
o ganiza ion. Many ques ions we e aised wi hin Izala: a e
ʿulamā'
only p eache s o
can hey also ac as easu e s o Izala? Can money go o indi idual accoun s o
ʿulamā'
o only in o he accoun o he o ganiza ion? I i goes o he
ʿulamā'
’s accoun
hen how can he o ganiza ion know abou ha ? Is ha money a p i a e one o does
i belong o Izala as a whole?
Us az Sani Modibbo who hold se e al posi ions
597
in Izala since i s
es ablishmen and was amilia wi h i s in e nal a ai s illus a es how he issue o
money de eloped in o one o easons o di ision in Izala. To some ex en he
conside s money o be one o he majo sou ces o he spli :
“Money is one o he majo ac o s because when he
ʿulamā'
decided
o ha e hei own accoun s, we said: “no!” a ha ime; because he
accoun was o he o ganiza ion. No hing was w ong i one o he
ʿulamā'
, i Ismaila himsel was he signa o y o he accoun , bu hey
should no ha e a sepa a e accoun . Any hing belonging o he Izala
should go in o he main accoun . La e on we hea d ha hey had hei
own accoun s in case he e is a dona ion om an indi idual. So i you
a e dona ing o accoun A, he execu i e will no ha e any idea; i he
dona ion goes o he accoun o he execu i e accoun , hen
e e ybody will know. And hen he e a e audi s; and we ha e audi
597
se ed as Sec e a y Gene al o he Nasa awa-Gwon- B anch (Jos) be ween 1979 and 1985; S a e
Sec e a y Gene al in Pla eau S a e om 1985 o 1986; Adminis a i e Sec e a y 1985/86; Na ional
Execu i e Sec e a y 1985/1986 o 1987; Na ional Esco Membe o he o ganiza ion.
264
uni and an audi o who will come and audi he accoun . (…) he
mone a y issue; one canno deny ha . Really!”
598
The s uc u e o Izala as a eligious and mode n socie y o ganized a e
egula ions simila o s a e ins i u ions (well-es ablished s uc u e, documen a ion,
cons i u ion, e c.) does no gua an ee equali y o anspa ency. The eligious leade s
and
ʿulamā'
o he o ganiza ion enjoyed, and s ill enjoy a special s a us and a e in
posi ions o powe . I is di icul o con ol hem and adap hem o he law o o he
cons i u ion o he Socie y. They eel ha hey a e he law-make s and con olle s o
he o ganiza ion and when i comes o money hey see hemsel es in a posi ion o
us ees. They a e he ones who b ing in money and hey a e he ones who con ol i ,
sa e i o dis ibu e i in he name o Izala. They a e he policy-make s and he
“ eligious capi al” o he o ganiza ion. So how can hey molli y any egula ion o law?
Many in e iew subjec s a es ed ha he di ision o he mo emen was no
because o he doc ine o conce ning ai h. This is also explained by he ac ha
bo h kep he same name e en a e he di ision:
“Indeed! Bo h kep he same name because hei p oblem was no a
basic one ha conce ned ideology. The e was no need o changing
he name. They did no spli because o c ucial, basic o p incipal
issues, bu because o new economic p oblems; maybe you can say
“mashākil dunyawiyya” (in A abic: p oblems o his wo ld).”
599
This can be also con i med h ough he ac ha bo h g oups ha e kep he same
name and cons i u ion e en oday. As an ou side o Izala, he la e Sheikh Jaa a
598
In e iew in Jos wi h Us az Sani Modibbo, 28 h Feb ua y 2007.
599
In e iew in Jos wi h Us az Muhammad Khamis Id is, 11 h Decembe 2007; o me Izala membe .
265
Mahmud om Kano ela ed he di ision in Izala o
i na
600
(in A abic: secession,
uphea al) wi hin he mo emen . He added ha he inancial aspec canno be
igno ed as a eason o he di ision o he o ganiza ion. Acco ding o him, he
p ope y o
Jamāʿa
(communi y; Izala) especially seems o be a sou ce o deba e. In
addi ion, he in e en ion o poli icians and e hnici y played an impo an ole in
spli ing o he mo emen :
“Despi e ha he
Jamāʿa
was ounded by loyal people, hei
knowledge is e y limi ed. O cou se, i he numbe o ollowe s
inc eases and he leade s don’ ha e he p ope knowledge,
expe ience and s udy o old expe iences o he
daʿwa
-wo k, his leads
o di ision among people.
The second issue is he a emp o some poli icians o di ide he
Jamāʿa in o wo. This happened wi h he i s ounde o he Izala,
Ismaila Id is, when hey ied o seek e enge on him by sepa a ing
people om him and in en ing issues wi hin he mo emen .
They (poli icians) used some membe s o ha m o Sheikh Id is and
blame him o hings ha only Allah knows whe he hey we e ue o
no . Well, hese hings we e mos ly igh . They (poli icians) ea ha
he
Jama‘a
sp ead ou in
a sho amoun o ime and see in i a
dange in he u u e. They ied o des oy i in his way. They opposed
i by a es ing people and by in ol ing hei own agen s in i .
Well, maybe hese a e he main easons. People also say ha al-
aʿṣṣub al-qabalī (e hnici y) played an impo an ole. You ind e hnic
di e ences e e ywhe e and ha can lead o an a emp o domina e
he whole socie y. This could also play an impo an ole in he
di ision.”
601
600
This concep is men ioned in he Qu ’an. I s meaning is ela ed o di ision, chaos and he si ua ion
o wa . In Islamic His o y, he i s ci il wa is known as
al-Fi na al Kob a
. I ook place a e he dea h
o he hi d “ igh ully guided Caliph” U hman (d. 656).
601
In e iew wi h la e Sheikh Jaa a Mahmud Adam in Kano, 2nd Janua y 2007; he Sheikh assu ed
me ha he was ou side o he coun y s udying du ing he ime o di ision and his poin o iew was
272
he pas . He lis ed he i s and second “Righ ly-Guided-Caliphs” (Abū Bak and
ʿUma ) and hei s uggle o main ain he guidelines o Islam as es ablished by he
P ophe . The s uggle o he
ʿulamā'
agains new eligious g oups - like he Mu azili e
(8 h-10 h cen u ies, CE) - is men ioned by D . Jallo.
Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn al-Qayyim, and al-Sha ebi a e among he schola s – acco ding o
he au ho – who ough and esponded o inno a ions in he eligion o Islam.
Muḥammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, Usman Dan Fodio, and Abubaka Gumi also belong
o his ca ego y. All o hem con ibu ed o he e i al and pu i ica ion o he
sunna
o
he P ophe .
611
F om his his o ical o e iew he au ho shi s o he Nige ian con ex ,
men ioning he appea ance o
ḥa aka muḍilla
(in A abic: delusi e mo emen ) unde
Ismaila Id is. This mo emen sca cely elies on he iews o he ounde and denies
any ad ice o co ec ions.
612
A e he dea h o Sheikh Id is, he was succeeded by his
mu īd
(in A abic: commi ed one) Sheikh Sani Yahya Jingi . Again he use o a Su i
e m o quali y he Izala leade shows he deepness o he in a-Izala-con lic . The
au ho concludes his in oduc ion wi h he ac ha he w o e he i s le e o he
leade o Jos in o de o ad ise him and his ollowe s. The eac ion and denial o he
i s le e pushed him o w i e a second one, which was mo e de ailed and
explana o y han he i s .
613
611
See Jallo (n.d.), pp. 1-7
612
Ibid., p. 9.
613
Ibid., p. 9-12.

273
The i s le e , w i en on 4 h Decembe , 2005.
Jallo add essed his s a emen o he
Rais al Jamāʿa al-Ismaiʿliyya
(leade o
he g oup o Ismaila Id is) u ging him o e u n o he
sunna
o he P ophe and o
abs ain om any o m o de ia ion om Islam. This le e elies on a s udy o Sheikh
Id is’ casse es and
a wā
s
which con o m nei he o he
sunna
no o he Mālikī
School o law – as Jallo claims.
The e a e i e poin s men ioned in he le e c i icizing he ounde ’s
a wā
s.
The i s and hi d issue a e on
al- ahajjud
, he second on
qabdh
, he ou h on
ci cumcision, and he las poin on
jinn
-possession.
The au ho blames he ounde o Izala o lies and de ia ion om he Māliki
School o law in many ways. Acco ding o him Sheikh Id is ejec s he claim ha his
ollowe s p ay wi h
qabdh
o hold amule s. Sheikh Id is denies he exis ence o
Ahl al-
Ki āb
and e uses o ea hei slaugh e ed animals o o ge ma ied o hei
daugh e s. He ad ises his ollowe s o ci cumcise hei child en a e hey each
se en yea s o age. He ejec s he claim ha anybody can exo cise a possessed
pe son om
jinn
. Jalo demons a es ha hese
a wā
s a e no in con o mi y wi h he
Mālikiyya and quo ed se e al
ḥadī h
indica ing he opposi e.
614
The au ho closes his le e by wa ning he cu en leade o Izala and u ging
him o a oid
bidʿa
and epen o Allah and e u n o he
sunna
on he pa h o he
pious p edecesso s. Fu he mo e he decla es his disposi ion o any eligious
deba es:
614
Ibid., p. 14-27.
274
“I am eady – by he will o Allah – o mee you o any deba e in o de
o cla i y u h, e i e he
sunna
o he P ophe , and e adica e sa anic
inno a ions. This mee ing can happen in any place and a any ime
he e in Jalango o any o he sui able own
.
”
615
The second le e , w i en on 17 h June, 2006.
While he i s le e is only a ew pages in leng h, he second one is much
longe and includes mo e de ails. The issues discussed a e he same men ioned in
he i s le e . Jallo ies o legi ima e he nigh p aye s denied by Sheikh Id is. The
au ho elies on di e en sou ces ha men ion his p ac ice o he P ophe . Jallo did
no es ic himsel o a gumen a ion and p oo om he sou ce (Qu ’ān and
sunna
),
bu he goes a s ep u he anda acks Sheikh Id is by loca ing him a he same le el
o Su is and hei p ac ices:
“You! Leade o he Ismaiʿliyya-Sec ! [ he g oup a ound Sheikh Id is]
You a e on he same pa h as he Su is because you in i e people (in
you
a wā
s and casse es) o unde ake
bidʿa
and o he ubbish. Su is
in many cases dis ega d wha is w i en in he Qu ’ān and he
sunna
o he P ophe – PBUH – and ollow hei passion (
al-hawā
). This is
exac ly you case. You u ged you
mu īdīn
o ad ance he decision o
wha you call “Headqua e s in Jos” ins ead o wha is ixed in he
sunna
. By doing ha , you led you
mu īdīn
o be like
Ahl al-Ki āb
and
Su is in making hei
ʿulamā'
like hei dei y. You do ha h ough
denying wha Allah allowed and by allowing wha Allah denies.”
616
615
Ibid., p. 27. (my ansla ion)
616
Ibid., p. 47
275
The s a egy ollowed by Jallo in his s a emen is o ques ion he
a wā
s o
legal opinions o Sheikh Id is, hen o compa e Id is wi h Su is and
Ahl al-Ki āb
in
alsi ying hei holy books. He quo es he classical wo k o he Tijāniyya
Jawāhi al-
Maʿāni
whe e i is equi ed ha he leade should be ollowed and obeyed wi hou any
opposi ion and compa es his obedience o Sheikh Id is and his ollowe s om he
Jos- ac ion.
617
Jallo uses he oppo uni y o emind he Jos leade o he his o y o Izala. In a
long ( wo pages in leng h) oo no e on page i y- h ee, he e e s o he es ablishmen
o Izala by en husias ic people wan ing o e-es ablish he
sunna
o he P ophe . He
denies Sheikh Id is’ aking o any leade ship posi ion apa om being on he head o
he
ʿulamā'
Council. Acco ding o him Sheikh Id is de ia ed om ha pa h un il he –
as a pe son – became he no m and no he
sunna
.
618
Jallo accuses Sheikh Id is o allowing aid g oup membe s o look a e his
pe sonal secu i y ins ead o pe o ming p aye s (Jallo: 61) and o banning his
ollowe s o lis en o no o he eco ded p eaching apa om his casse es (Jallo: 63).
The au ho c i icizes he ac ha Sheikh Id is’ ollowe s would no p ay behind
somebody who is no Izala. They will no e en g ee a non-Izala o go o his une al.
This beha io is di e en o he adi ion o
al-Sala al-Ṣāliḥ
since many
ʿulamā'
accep di e ences and c i icism (Jallo.65).
617
Ibid., p. 51.
618
Fo mo e de ails see pp. 53-55.
276
Simila o he i s le e , he au ho poin s ou o he ac ual Izala leade ha
Sheikh Id is ook people back on he pa h o Su ism and no on he pa h o
Ahl al-
Sunna wa’l-Jamāʿa
:
“The e is no doub ha wha I men ioned o you is enough o con i m
ha Sheikh Ismaila Id is, he ounde o he
al-Jamāʿa al-Ismaʿiliyya
was he one who b ough people o he pa hway o Su ism by
encou aging hem o ollow hei passion and de ia e om he Qu ’ān
and he
sunna
.”
619
The au ho ei e a es in he e y las oo no e o his le e ha he is p epa ing
a new book en i led
Ismaila Id is i Mizān al-Sha ʿ
(Ismaila Id is a he Le el o
Legacy) in which he indica es he nume ous mis akes and
bida
‘o he Izala ounde .
The nex pa o he “book” consis s o discussing he answe s om he Jos g oup
(Saleh Id is Muhammad and Dalha Abubaka ). Jallo conside s hese esponses o be
no only ull o mis akes (p in , language, knowledge), bu also as asse ions o keep
bidʿa
ali e and o de ia e om he Islamic
sha īʿa
.
620
Kalimā Wajīza li-Qamʿ Sha al-Ḥasūd
This bookle was published in 2006. On he on page is a pic u e o he G and
Mosque in Medina and he las page has he logo o he Izala: a palm ee and wo
c ossing swo ds in he middle. This pic u e is o e layed by he ull name o he
o ganiza ion a he op. Below ha i eads “ ounded by Sheikh Ismaila Id is”. Finally i
is indica ed ha he na ional headqua e s o Izala a e in Jos.
619
Ibid., pp. 74-75
620
Ibid., p. 77.
277
A i s in e p e a ion o he co e o his bookle is ha he au ho loca es – as
expec ed– he Izala be ween he adi ion o he P ophe ha has i s o igin in Saudi
A abia, Mecca, and he adi ion o Sheikh Id is who ounded Izala in Jos. Iden i ying
he Jos- ac ion wi h i s ounde is a “ma ke ” o i s o iginally and loyal y o him. The
sen ence
li mu’aṣṣihā al-Sheikh Ismaila Id is
(es ablished by Sheikh Id is) is isible a
all Izala schools and ins i u ions. The name o he ounde is a sign o au hen ici y o
he Jos- ac ion. This ac ion o Izala insis s ha he mo emen ep esen s he adi ion
o he ounde . I gi es he o ganiza ion no only a his o ical o iginali y bu also
legi imacy among o he g oups. E en when i comes o o icial documen s issued by
Izala in Jos, he name o he ounde is always connec ed wi h Sheikh Id is’ name.
Con en /Subjec (s):
The hi y-six-page bookle is subdi ided in o wen y chap e s in oduced by he
au ho . A e he i s sen ence ese ed o o p aise Allah, Saleh Id is Muhammad
quo es a e se om he Qu ’ān (4:112) and a
ḥadī h
o he P ophe .
[4:112] “anyone who commi s an o ence o a sin, and hen h ows he blame on o
some innocen pe son, has bu dened himsel wi h decei as well as lag an sin”
(Abdel Haleem ansla ion o 2005)
The
ḥadī h
quo ed by Sunan Abu Dawood (book 24, 14) s a es: “Allah sends he one
who ells lies abou a belie e (Muslim) o hell, un il he epen s om wha he said.”

278
F om he beginning he au ho shows ha any Muslim isks commi ing a sin i
he mis akenly blames an innocen o any aul . Also anyone who slande s a belie e
(a Muslim) isks going o hell un il he epen s.
I is a sign ha he “de ense”-p ojec o Sheikh Id is s a ed wi h wo majo
sou ces: The Qu ’ān and
sunna
. He con inued by de ending he ounde o Izala and
p o ing ha ha which has been w i en by D . Jallo is no hing bu a umo .
In he in oduc ion he au ho men ions ha he had he le e s add essed o he
cu en leade o Izala in Jos. Saleh Id is Muhammad expec ed a kind o wa ning
abou he mis akes, bu he was su p ised by he le el o subjec i i y o D . Jallo’s ex .
He says:
„I obse ed h ough wha I ead in he “ i e o jealousy”, ha he e is
an agonism and abho ence in you hea . In ac wha you ha e
w i en canno in any sense damage he wo Sheikhs
.
[Sheikh Id is
and Sheikh Jingi ]”
621
To make he a gumen mo e plausible, he au ho makes use o A abic poe y by
emphasizing he issue o jealousy and illus a ing he sen imen s o en y and
jealousy owa ds hose who a e in a highe posi ion – he Izala ounde and his
successo in his case.
The i s chap e o Saleh Id is bea s he i le “Sheikh Id is is on he side o u h”:
he e he au ho explains how he ounde o Izala elies only on he Qu ’ān and he
621
Saleh (2006), p. 2 (my ansla ion)
279
sunna
o he P ophe and he pa h o
al-Sala al-Ṣāliḥ
including he ou Imams ( ou
schools o law). He s esses ha nobody can deny he impo ance o Imam Malik.
He also de ends Malik (d. 795) in on o al-Albānī (d. 1999) p e e ed by Jallo.
“Wha di ides us is ha we in i e people o lea n abou he Oneness
o Allah and o a oid poly heism wi hou es ic ing ou sel es o he
sayings o his o ha pe son. And you wo k o des oy wha we build,
o ins ance, you in i a ion o people o keep amule s and p aye s like
e e y poly heis wo shipping al-Tijānī o ʿAbd al-Qādi .”
622
The nex nine chap e s deal wi h he issue o
bidʿa
. The main subjec is he
nigh p aye s du ing Ramadan and i s e idence in he
sunna
. The a gumen o he
au ho is ha he P ophe p ac iced i , bu because he ea ed ha people would make
i in o a
sunna
[no m, canon], he s opped doing i . The discussion deals wi h he
con o e sy o e he
ṣalā a - a āwīḥ
(in A abic: a p aye a e nigh p aye s du ing
Ramadan) conside ed o be
sunna
(op ional bu a ecommended p ac ice).
In e es ingly, i is in his con ex ha Saleh Id is Muhammad accuses his
opponen o p ac icing
bidʿa
. Fi s o all he c i icizes he call o p aye s (A abic:
adhān
), in i ing people en husias ically o pe o m i , and o p ac ice i in only du ing a
ew days o Ramadan.
“You s a p ac icing his bidʿa a midnigh , i e hou s a e inishing
a -
a āwīḥ
(we don’ deny i s exis ence). Be o e you s a somebody can
hea he oice o he muezzin wi h a new ype o
adhān
: P aye s!
P aye s! P aye s! And so on … con inuously. You! Jallo! Keep Allah in
622
Ibid. p. 6.
280
mind! You and hose who a e on you side! Whe e did you ge his
[p aye ]?”
623
Saleh Id is Muhammad elies on he s a emen s o he P ophe , especially
ega ding his p ac ices in insis ing ha he [ he P ophe ] p e e ed p aye s du ing
Ramadan and ad ised people o pe o m hem a home.
Conside he sen ence
p ac icing bidʿa is mo e di icul han p ac icing sunna
(Saleh:
12). The a gumen is o show ha he P ophe conside ed he di e en ca ego ies o
people (weak, sick, needy) be o e es ablishing any ules. The au ho adds ha he
p ac icing o his
bidʿa
led o he ac ha many Muslims canno pe o m
aj
-p aye (in
A abic: i s Muslim obliga o y p aye ). I Muslims – acco ding o Saleh – would
es ic hemsel es o he
a āwīḥ
-p aye s du ing Ramadan, which is ecommended
by he “pious p edecesso s”, ha would be much be e o hem. The so called
qiyām
(synonym o
a āwīḥ
p aye s) as known by
al-Sala al-Ṣāliḥ
is p ac iced du ing he
en i e mon h o Ramadan. The new
bidʿa
[nigh p aye s] is only p ac iced du ing he
las en days o Ramadan – which is no in con o mi y wi h he p ac ice o
al-Ṣaḥāba
(P ophe Companions). One o he p ac ices ha is ha shly c i icized by he au ho is
wha he called
al-adhān al-mukh a aʿ
( he in en ed call o p aye s).
In chap e ele en, a new opic is in oduced and discussed, namely he
qabdh-
ṣadl-
con o e sy. The au ho men ions ha Izala in Jos p e e s p aying
ṣadl
(in
A abic: hands alongside he body du ing he p aye ) ins ead o
qabdh
(in A abic: igh
hand c ossed o e he le hand a he na el). He adds ha ollowe s o he Jos-
623
(my ansla ion)
281
ac ion p ay in bo h ways and ha Sheikh Id is ne e o bid i . The a gumen o Saleh
is ha Izala elies on s ong sou ces con i ming i s p e e ence o
ṣadl
o e
qabdh
(Ibn al-Mundhi , al-Ḥasan and Ib āhīm al-Nakh’ī, Ibn al-
ʿ
A abī, al-Ṭaba ī a e some
sou ces men ioned by he au ho in o de o gi e legi imacy o his a gumen ).
The nex subjec , which is discussed in chap e wel e, conce ns
aslīma
, o
he conclusion o p aye s. The Izala Jos has a p e e ence o pe om one
aslīma
ins ead o wo. This p ac ice is c i icized by he Kaduna g oup. To show he s eng h
o his a gumen , Saleh quo es h ee di e en
aḥādī h
624
(A abic: pl. o
ḥadī h
)
showing ha he P ophe comple ed his p aye s wi h one
aslīma
. Many
ʿulamā'
ha e
no conside ed hem [
aḥādī h
] weak o au hen ic bu ins ead ha he ou “ igh ully
guided Caliphs” ( he i s ou caliphs a e he dea h o he P ophe ) p ac iced only
one
aslīma
, which shows ha i was a widesp ead p ac ice. The a gumen o he
au ho he e is o p o e ha he issue o “closing” p aye s is deba ed among Islamic
schola s. He assumes ha opponen s o Sheikh Id is would ne e ag ee wi h him.
The nex subjec ouched by Saleh conce ns
al- amā’im
(amule s). F om he
i le his posi ion is clea : holding amule s is an ac o poly heism. He add esses Jallo
di ec ly by saying: “You de end amule s al hough i is ela ed o
shi k
.”
625
The ac ha Imam Mālik allowed his p ac ice (o holding amule s) doesn’
mean ha Mālik’s s a emen is unques ionable. Saleh’s du y is o de end Sheikh Id is
624
The i s
ḥadī h
he e is documen ed in he a -Tu mudhi
ḥadī h
collec ion and co ec ed by al-Hakim
(he e Aisha na a ed ha he P ophe p ac iced only one
aslima
); he second one is o be ound in Ibn
Majah and na a ed by Sahl Ibn Sa’d (one
aslīma
is also documen ed he e); inally he hi d sou ce is
a ḥadī h o Salma Ibn al-Akwa’; o mo e de ails see Saleh (2006: 16)
625
Saleh (2006:21), (my ansla ion)
288
pa ies, hen he should no p e e one and lea e he o he . He should
in i e all people, mee hem and engage in discussion in o de o
know he u h … isn’ i like his?
Bu when Sheikh D . Gumi came back o Nige ia; you know ha elying
on he Mālikī Law is one hing ha di ides us and he Kaduna- ac ion.
We say ha he majo i y o people a e igno an and i we in oduce his
and ha , people will no know how o wo ship Allah. So le us ha e
only one s and poin .
In he i s yea Sheikh D . Gumi said: “I a pe son abuses he
madhhab
, hen is i p oo ha he is igno an ?”
E e y pe son who abuses he Mālikī School is an igno an pe son.
This is wha he said (D . Gumi). In ha i s yea we suppo ed him
(D . Gumi) because we hough ha he was ollowing he way o his
a he Sheikh Abubaka Gumi in eaching people. Sheikh Abubaka
Gumi was Mālikī and wo ked acco ding he Mālikī School o Law.
We saw ha D . Gumi only ollowed he pa h o his a he and he was
closed o
us.”
638
D .Gumi add essed he media ega ding he p oblem o money, and p o oked bo h
g oups by exp essing he no ion o
ak ī
. Fu he mo e he sugges ed emo ing he
cu en leade ship and eplacing i wi h a new one:
“In he second yea he (D . Gumi) said ha he Jamāʿa Izala al-Bidʿa
Wa Iqama as-Sunna should be one g oup unde one leade ship, bu
we should emo e he cu en leade s in Jos and Kaduna and elec
new ones. He said his on he adio. I was be e o in i e he leade s
and discuss he issue wi h hem ins ead o saying i openly on he
adio.
He came as a sul an accusing bo h g oups o
ku
and ied o uni y
us. Bu when he Socie y was es ablished, he was s udying he
mode n sciences in he English language.
638
Name o In e iew subjec , place and da e a e hidden.

289
He also said ha hey ( ac ion o Izala in Jos) should b ing him ou
ca s, close mosques and schools and we answe ed: “you we e no
he one who buil hese mosques o schools om you own money.
The ca s we e pu chased when you we e in Mecca and you canno
ha e hem now.” (…) So econcilia ion canno be like his.”
639
D . Gumi’s compa ison o he di ision o Izala o
Ahl Ridda
(in A abic: people
o apos asy) ha should be ough acco ding o he Qu ’ān made econcilia ion
unachie able:
“He also old people one day ha i is allowed o kill us acco ding o
he Qu ’ān…
We a e allowed o be killed since we a e
Ahl Ridda
- as he said. He
elied on one Qu ’ānic e se saying “i wo sec s among belie e s a e
igh ing, hen econcile be ween hem and i one o he wo e uses
hen igh he one ha e uses ( he econcilia ion)” his is a p oo o
people o kill us.
We said ha his Qu anic e se was he e when you a he was ali e,
bu ( he a he ; Sheikh Gumi) ne e elied on i o kill he Kaduna-
ac ion who e used econcilia ion a ha ime. You a he le bo h
pa ies do wha hey wan because Allah is on he side o hose who
a e in he igh . Tha ’s i . I you wan o kill us and do his and ha ,
hen we say: “we a e eady o igh .”
This is he eason why he ailed o b ing econcilia ion be ween us. He
was in lexible in he end. He in i ed people o Kaduna and e en he
leade he e didn’ go: Abubaka Ika a didn’ go; Yusu Sambo didn’
go; Mai Gandu didn’ go. These a e he leade s; he leade o he
ʿulamā'
, adminis a ion and he depu y o he leade . They didn’
a end he mee ing.”
640
639
Ibid.
640
Ibid.
290
This is one e sion o why he a emp a he econcilia ion o Izala unde aken
by D . Gumi ailed. These a emp s ook place in 2004 and 2005 and bo h Izala-
ac ions boyco ed i . Du ing my ield esea ch in Nige ia i was no possible o mee
D . Gumi o o lis en o his poin o iew on he econcilia ion p ojec o Izala ha he
sugges ed. The leade o he Council o
ʿulamā'
in Ka sina (Kaduna- ac ion), Sheikh
Yakubu Musa Ka ancan, assu es ha al hough se e al econcilia ion a emp s ailed
o b ing Izala g oups oge he , he e a e e o s s ill on he way. He a gues ha he
in e en ion o he go e nmen in Izala a ai s hinde ed i s eunion. This was due o
Izala’s boyco o a p esiden who was no a Muslim. The Sheikh men ioned ha
Izala’s in e en ion was he eason why Obasanjo le his posi ion as head o s a e.
As a esul o he wo k o Izala, he la e Uma u Ya ’Adua hen became p esiden o
Nige ia.
641
641
In e iew wi h Sheikh Yakubu Musa Ka ancan in Ka sina, 12 h Ma ch 2008.
291
Chap e Fi e: Sha īʿa Deba e o 1999
The mili a y ule o Sani Abacha in 1990 was one o he wo s pe iods o ime
in Nige ia’s mode n his o y. The Wes A ican coun y su e ed om ep ession,
economic and poli ical ins abili y, e hnic con lic s, co up ion, and human igh s
abuses. Abacha b oke away om es ablished democ a ic s uc u es and u ned
Nige ia in o an au ho i a ian s a e in which no oom was gi en o opposi ion o
poli ical ac i ism.
642
A e he unexpec ed dea h o Abacha on 8 h June 1998, unde unclea
ci cums ances
643
Gene al Abdulsalami became he head o s a e and p omised o
ini ia e he ansi ion o Nige ia o a ci ilian go e nmen . In Feb ua y 1999,
p esiden ial elec ions esul ed in Olesegun Obasanjo becoming p esiden . This was
he s a ing poin o he Fou h Republic – ano he a emp o democ a ize he
ede a ion. This ansi ion was accompanied wi h a lo o expec a ions in and ou side
o Nige ia. Nige ians wished o a be e li e wi h highe li ing s anda ds, poli ical and
economic s abili y, and o he de elopmen o democ a ic s uc u es and a mo e
peace ul coexis ence. In e na ionally he e was in e es in ein eg a ing Nige ia in o
he wo ld communi y a e yea s o poli ical isola ion.
642
Ogbondah, Ch is W. (2000): Poli ical Rep ession in Nige ia, 1993-1998: A C i ical Examina ion o
One Aspec o he Pe ils o Mili a y Dic a o ship, In: A ica Spec um 35 (2), pp. 231-242; apa o
dissol ing poli ical pa ies and gene al assemblies he Abacha’s egime pe secu ed poli ical opponen s
and ac i is s; see also Falola (1999), p. 196.
643
See Maie , Ka l (2000): This House has allen. Nige ia in c isis, London: Penguin Books.
292
The Fou h Republic aced big challenges a an ea ly s age o i s
ins i u ionaliza ion. Nige ia is a ich coun y in e ms o mine als. I is he la ges
expo e o pe oleum in A ica and six h wo ldwide. Ne e heless he coun y su e s
om mismanagemen , po e y, co up ion, e hnic and eligious dis u bances, and
inc easing c iminali y.
644
Be o e all hese issues can be sol ed, he cons i u ion has o
be e ised and con i med. This was pa o he democ a iza ion p ocess and a
chance o poli ical pa ies and Nige ian ci izens o pa icipa e in he poli ical deba es
o he ede a ion.
The discussions o e he 1999-cons i u ion and he u u e o Nige ia was
o e shadowed by ano he deba e: namely he so-called
sha īʿa
-con o e sy. The
decision o Ahmad Sani Ye iman Baku u, Zam a a’s democ a ically elec ed go e no ,
o implemen
Islamic C iminal Law
in his s a e in No embe o 1999 was eminiscen
o sen imen s in he 1970s and he poli ical c ises ela ed o i . Zam a a’s go e no
announced ha Islamic Law,
sha īʿa
would be undamen al in his s a e and ha
Muslims could ely on i in all aspec s o hei li es. This decision was la e ollowed
by ano he ele en s a es o he no h ha also announced
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion.
This chap e analyzes he
sha īʿa
-issue and he way in which i was ini ia ed.
The ollowing ques ions a e cen al: Wha ype o socio-poli ical se ing acili a ed he
e-implemen a ion? Who a e he majo ac o s? Who con ibu ed o he so-called
sha īʿa
-p ojec and who opposed i ? Which Islamic g oups s and o
sha īʿa
and which
644
Fa unde, Tunde (2000): Nige ias Rückkeh zu Demok a ie. Eine Bewe ung, in: KAS-AI/00, pp. 74-
76.
293
esis ed i ? Wha is he posi ion o Izala in he con o e sy and wha was i s ole in
he e-implemen a ion?
1 Who implemen ed Sha īʿa?
The Houses o Rep esen a i es o he wel e no he n s a es o Nige ia o ed
o he in oduc ion o
sha īʿa
wi hin a e y sho pe iod o ime. These s a es a e
Zam a a, Bauchi, Bo no, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Ka sina, Soko o, Kebbi,
Yobe, and Nige . The Fede al Republic o Nige ia consis s o hi y six s a es plus he
Fede al Te i o y o Abuja. The in oduc ion o
sha īʿa
ook place legally acco ding o
he laws o he s a es. Philip Os ien sums up he e-in oduc ion o Islamic law and i s
implica ion o he no h in he ollowing i e poin s:
 Es ablishmen o S a e Sha ia Cou s and i s implemen a ion in c iminal and
pe sonal ma e s o Muslims. Appeal o judgemen can be di ec ed o he S a e
Sha īʿa Cou o Appeal;
 in oduc ion o new
Sha ia Penal Code
and
Code P ocedu e
o Muslims wi hin
he Sha īʿa Cou s o Appeal;
 laws ela ed o “social ices” and “un-Islamic beha io ” (as Os ien calls hem)
including alcohol consump ion, gambling, p os i u ion, sepa a ion be ween he
sexes;
 Zam a a S a e and Kano s a e in oduced Public Complain s and An i-
Co up ion Commissions o igh co up ion;

294
 new ins i u ions eme ged om he
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion, such as he S a e
Sha ia commissions, Council o
ʿulamā'
,
zakā
-Boa d and
ḥisba
-Boa d
among o he s.
These measu es a e no consis en and di e om one s a e o ano he . They a e
applied only o Muslims in he
sha īʿa
s a es. These s a es s ill ecognize he Nige ian
cons i u ion.
645
646
Be o e he in oduc ion o Islamic law, go e no s o he no he n s a e cons i u ed he
so-called
Sha ia Implemen a ion Commi ees
. These commi ees de ined he needs
and wishes o he people, consul ed Islamic expe s, and made sugges ions o he
645
Os ien, Philip (2007): Sha īʿa implemen a ion in No he n Nige ia 1999-2006: A Sou ce Book.
Volume 1 “His o ical Backg ound”, p. iii.
646
(h p://undhimmi.com/wp-con en /uploads/2009/07/nige ia_sha īʿa_s a es.gi ; 24.4.2011)
295
u u e implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
.
647
These e o s be o e he e-implemen a ion o
Islamic law ha ook place implied ha no he n poli icians we e conscious abou he
impo ance o Islamic Law o Nige ian Muslims. F om a his o ical pe spec i e
sha īʿa
was a p oblem bo h du ing colonial ule and a e independence. I was (and s ill is)
an impo an pa o he Islamic iden i y o Nige ian Muslims. The go e no o
Zam a a S a e as well as all he o he no he n s a es insis ed ha such a s ep should
be in con o mi y wi h he Nige ian ede al cons i u ion and in no way a de ia ion om
i . The e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
and pa icula ly c iminal law mean ha hese
laws should be codi ied as i is men ioned in chap e 36(12) o he 1999 cons i u ion:
“Subjec as o he wise p o ided by his cons i u ion, a pe son shall no
be con ic ed o a c iminal o ence unless ha o ence is de ined and
he penal y he e o e p esc ibed in a w i en law; and in his
subsec ion, a w i en law e e s o an Ac o he Na ional Assembly o
a law o a S a e, any subsidia y legisla ion o ins umen unde he
p o isions o a law.”
648
The
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion was pa o he poli ical campaign o Ahmed
Sani be o e he was elec ed go e no in Janua y 1999. He p omised o in oduce
Islamic law in his s a e and o p omo e Islam and Islamic alues. In a speech a Ali
Akilu Squa e in Gusau, he capi al o Zam a a S a e, he go e no decla ed “I has
become pe inen ha we wake up om his so y s a e o slumbe and li e up o ou
647
See Os ien, Philip (2007): Sha īʿa implemen a ion in No he n Nige ia 1999-2006: A Sou ce Book.
Volume II “Sha īʿa Implemen a ion Commi ee Repo s and ela ed Whi e Pape s”, p. 3; he au ho
indica es ha he go e no s o he wel e no he n Sha īʿa s a es we e conce ned abou no iola ing
he cons i u ion o he ede a ion. “In mos s a es i [Sha īʿa implemen a ion] was done only a e wide
consul a ion”- as Os ien o mula es i .
648
Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia (1999). Lagos: Fede al Go e nmen P ess, p. 22.
296
esponsibili y o he Almigh y in o de o a oid His cu se.”
649
This decision was
announced on Oc obe 27 h, 1999. The Sha ia Penal Code came in o ope a ion on
Janua y 27 h 2000.
Ahmed Sani appoin ed a commi ee o eigh een membe s o e iew exis ing
laws and p epa e he implemen a ion. This was acco ding o he Nige ian
cons i u ion. The Zam a a S a e commissione o Jus ice, Hon. A o ney-Gene al
Ahmad Bello Mahmud, p esen ed hi een poin s o
sha īʿa
e-ins a emen om he
ime i was me ely an idea un il i s legaliza ion. This was in oduced as pa o a
pa e n among o he no he n s a es which we e also in he p ocess o
sha īʿa
e-
implemen a ion a ha ime. In a pape which Zam a a’s A o ney-Gene al p esen ed
in a semina on
sha īʿa
in Jigawa in 2000, he cla i ied he basic s eps ollowed in
Zam a a S a e. The elec ed
Sha ia Commi ee
iden i ied Sec. 6 o he 1999-
cons i u ion as a legal amewo k o he implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
. He de ined he
easons behind he es ablishmen o he law (cu b social ices, mo al decadence).
Islamic Law was codi ied (
Sha ia Penal Code
,
Penal Code P ocedu e, Sha ia Cou
o Appeal
). The au ho also desc ibes he policy o Zam a a S a e o igh co up ion,
o o ganize
zakā
-collec ion, o make d ess code compulso y (
ḥijāb
o women), and
o egula e ma iage and ade sec o s among o he s. The Commissione insis ed
ha such a p ocess needs a ansi ion phase du ing which people can be in o med
abou
sha īʿa
. He also men ions obs acles ha he e-implemen a ion could ace,
649
Oduyoye, Modupe (2000): The Sha i’ah Deba e in Nige ia. Oc obe 1999-Oc obe 2000. Ibadan:
Se e , S. 1.
297
especially human igh s laws, Ch is ian opposi ion and discussion ega ding he
gene al ou line o he s a e i.e. secula o no .
650
The e-implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in Zam a a S a e was pa o he poli ical
campaign o a single go e no . This decision was app ecia ed by he majo i y o
Nige ian Muslims. They expec ed his change o laws as a solu ion o many o hei
p oblems. Ahmad Sani’s campaign was success ul wice and he
sha īʿa
- opic seems
o ha e been a winning ca d du ing he elec ions in mo e han one s a e.
651
The o he no he n s a es did no hing bu answe he demands o he masses.
Weimann obse es ha he example o e-implemen a ion in Zam a a S a e which
was ollowed by he o he s a es led o a dilemma o some s a es’ go e no s in he
no h. On he one hand hey (as Muslims go e ning s a es o p edominan ly Muslim
inhabi an s) we e pu unde p essu e o implemen Islamic law, and on he o he
hand, hey had o comp ise wi h he ede al go e nmen and especially wi h he
650
Fo De ails see Os ien (2007), Volume II, pp. 171-176; he en i e pape o Alh. Ahmed Bello
Mahmud un i led “On he adop ion and Implemen a ion o Sha īʿa Legal Sys em in Zam a a S a e”,
p esen ed a he JNI-sponso ed semina on Sha īʿa in Jigawa S a e, 6 July, 2000, is a ailable. A e
men ioning he hi een s eps ha ook place in Zam a a h oughou he e-implemen a ion o Sha īʿa,
he au ho insis s on he necessi y o dialogue be ween he p oponen s and opponen s o Sha īʿa. He
emphasizes ha Sha īʿa was in oduced by law and ha all Nige ian s a es should espec he wish o
Muslims.
651
Acco ding o Weimann, Gunna J. (2010) he go e no o Zam a a played he Sha īʿa-ca d in bo h
1999 and 2003 du ing he elec ions. Also Go e no I. Sheka au succeeded wi h a simila s a egy in
Kano s a e du ing he 2003 elec ions, see p. 17. Fo an o e iew on he “Sha īʿa- ac o ” in he 2003
elec ions in he ede a ion, see Kogelmann, F anz (2006): The “Sha īʿa Fac o ” in Nige ia’s 2003
Elec ions, in: Muslim-Ch is ian Encoun e s in A ica. Benjamin F. Soa es (ed.), pp. 256-274, Islam in
A ica se ies 6. Leiden, Bos on: B ill.
304
needed e ision. In Zam a a S a e o ins ance, Pe e s speaks o a “has y d a ing”
wi h “inco ec c oss- e e ences, inco ec and de ec i e wo ding, omissions and
con adic ions.”
678
The
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion aises se e al ques ions abou i s
cons i u ionali y and con o mi y wi h he laws o he ede a ion. Laws in Nige ia like in
any ede al sys em a e complex. The cons i u ion is he mos au ho i a i e documen
de ining egula ions wi hin he e i o y o he ede a ion. Ne e heless laws may di e
om one s a e o he o he . In Nige ia Islamic law was con o e sial du ing and a e
he colonial e a. Islamic Law was educed o pe sonal and amily ma e s. The
ein oduc ion o c iminal law implica es i s codi ica ion and in eg a ion o he law o
he ede al s a e in a w i en o m as ixed in he 1999-cons i u ion:
“Subjec as o he wise p o ided by his cons i u ion, a pe son shall no
be con ic ed o a c iminal o ence unless ha o ence is de ined and
he penal y he e o e p esc ibed in a w i en law; and in his
subsec ion, a w i en law e e s o an Ac o he Na ional Assembly o
a law o a S a e, any subsidia y legisla ion o ins umen unde he
p o isions o a law.”
679
Acco ding o Rudolph Pe e s he no ion o “codi ica ion” in an Islamic con ex
goes back o he ea ly 19 h cen u y. He unde s ands i as a measu e o ixing ha
“(…) only he s a e de e mines wha law is and ha he s a e law is he highes o m
o law.”
680
Nadjma Yassa i, a ju is , obse es ha Islamic law was uncodi ied o mo e
678
Pe e s (2003), p. 45.
679
Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia (1999). Lagos: Fede al Go e nmen P ess, p. 22.
680
Pe e s, Rudolph (2002): F om Ju is s’ Law o S a u e Law o Wha happens when he Sha i’a is
codi ied, in: Medi e anean Poli ics, Vol. 7, 3, p. 88.

305
han a housand yea s, al hough i was based on a collec ion o ex books,
anno a ions, and
a wā
s (legal opinions). The p ocess o codi ica ion ook place
h ough con ac be ween Muslim socie ies and colonial powe s. I was a so o
adap a ion o he exigency o ha pe iod o ime.
681
Codi ica ion o Islamic law i s
ook place in he O oman Empi e be o e i mo ed o o he No h A ican coun ies.
The codi ica ion p ocess a ied om one con y o ano he . I changed he legal
amewo k o
sha īʿa
om being “ju is law” o become “s a ua y law” - as Aha on
Layish o mula es i .
682
Apa om he codi ica ion o Islamic Law se e al ques ions we e aised,
especially as o whe he his law iola es he cons i u ion o Nige ia. One o he
con o e sies has o do wi h Sec ion 10 o he 1999-cons i u ion s a ing ha “The
go e nmen o he Fede a ion o o a S a e shall no adop any eligion as s a e
eligion”. This sec ion was in e p e ed by many opponen s o
sha īʿa
in Nige ia as a
con i ma ion ha he o m o he s a e is “secula ”. This means ha none o he 36
Nige ian s a es can adop a eligiously inspi ed law (like
sha īʿa
) as a s a e law. On
he con a y suppo e s o he
sha īʿa
-p ojec a gue ha he e m “secula ” was no
men ioned in he cons i u ion and he e-implemen a ion was by no means a iola ion
o i . Fu he mo e Muslims men ion ha he cons i u ion gua an ees he igh o
eligion and eins i u ing Islamic law was pa o ha igh de ined in Sec ion 38 (1):
681
Yassa i, Nadjma (2004): Islamisches Rech ode Rech de Muslime- Gedanken zu Rech und
Religion im Islam, in: Zei sch i ü Ve gleichende Rech swissenscha en, 103, p. 112.
682
Aha on Layish (2004): The T ans o ma ion o he Sha ī’a om Ju is s' Law o S a u o y Law in he
Con empo a y Muslim Wo ld, In: Wel Des Islam 44 (1), pp. 85-113; he au ho p o ides a good
his o ical o e iew on Sha īʿa codi ica ion and how i ook place and wha kind o me hods we e
applied. Fu he mo e he gi es an o e iew o he pe cep ion o codi ica ion by he Ulama.
306
“E e y Pe son shall be en i led o eedom o hough , conscience
and eligion, including eedom o change his eligion o belie , and
eedom (ei he alone o in communi y wi h o he s, and in public o
p i a e) o mani es and p opaga e his eligion o belie in wo ship,
eaching, p ac ice and obse ance
.
”
683
The e was an a emp o uni y he
Sha ia Penal Code
ini ia ed by he Ins i u e
o Islamic Legal S udies (CILS) a Ahmadu Bello Uni e si y, Za ia. This was a p ojec
o “ha moniza ion” o all Codes.
684
Fu he mo e i s aim was o de elop a judicial
backd op o he e-implemen a ion in all Muslim s a es and a he same ime he
p ojec was mean o “ (…) enhance legal ce ain y and acili a e he aining o
judicial s a and police pe sonnel.“
685
One o he bigges issues o he e-implemen a ion was he legisla i e powe
be ween he s a es and he ede a ion. Acco ding o Sec ion 4 o he 1999
cons i u ion, his legisla i e powe is di ided be ween bo h he s a e and he
ede a ion. Pe e s cla i ies ha “ma e s men ioned in he Exclusi e Legisla i e Lis
(…) a e exclusi ely ede al ma e s, while ma e s men ioned in he Concu en
Legisla i e Lis can come unde bo h he legisla i e powe o he Fede a ion and he
legisla i e powe o he s a es.” O he ma e s no men ioned in bo h lis s a e pa o
683
Cons i u ion o he Fede al Republic o Nige ia (1999).
684
Os ien (2007), Volume IV “The Sha īʿa Penal and C iminal and P ocedu e Codes” p o ides a good
compa ison o he “ha monized” Codes p ojec s and he Penal Code o 1960. In ac , iews on he
CILS sugges ed Penal Codes a e di ided be ween “scep ics” (as Os ien calls hem) who asked o
easons o such a p ojec ha may es ic Sha īʿa o wha is w i en and hose who pe cei e i as a
chance o ed a and co ec he in oduced Penal Codes; see pp. 20-21. The same olume p o ides
a copy o his “ha monized Sha īʿa Penal Code” wi h anno a ions; see pp. 33-139.
685
Pe e s, p. 45.
307
he s a e’s legisla ion. This was exac ly wha happened wi h he in oduc ion o
Islamic C iminal Law. Pe e s indica es ha he Penal Code i sel is unp oblema ic, bu
in oducing
sha īʿa
as a
eligiously-inspi ed law
was challenging.
686
2 P oponen s and opponen s o he Sha īʿa-p ojec
One may ge he imp ession ha all Muslims ad oca ed he e-implemen a ion
o
sha īʿa
and ha all Ch is ians opposed i . This claim is no ue. The e we e also
Muslims who did no ag ee wi h he e-implemen a ion bu a he same ime could no
oppose i . This was he case among Muslim poli icians, in ellec uals, schola s and
e en among o dina y people.
Allen Ch is elow obse es a loophole in he cons i u ion o 1999 ha led he
wel e no he n s a es o implemen Islamic c iminal law in addi ion o he exis ing
pe sonal and amily law.
687
Ch is elow speaks o se e al o he seconda y ac o s ha
gene a ed he Nige ian
sha īʿa
-c isis. Acco ding o him, he eeling o insecu i y
amongs he popula ion, social inequali y, iolence, and he absence o a well-
s uc u ed s a e sys em a e o he ac o s behind he call o
sha īʿa
.
688
Tabiu Muhammed summa izes iews o he opponen s o
sha īʿa
and hei
a gumen o a possible iola ion o he cons i u ion o 1999 in he ollowing poin s:
686
Pe e s (2003), p. 34.
687
Ch is elow, Allen (2002): Pe sis ence and ans o ma ion in he poli ics o Sha īʿa-Nige ia, 1958-
2002, in: sea ch o an explana o y amewo k. Pape p esen ed a he Con e ence on Muslim Law in
Pos -Colonial A ica, Cen e o Con empo a y Islam, Uni e si y o Cape Town, 11-14 Ma ch 2002, p.
16.
688
Ibid., p. 18.
308
1.
sha īʿa
opponen s ques ioned he legisla i e powe o Zama a a as well
o he o he no he n s a es o eimplemen Islamic c iminal law;
2. o hese opponen s
sha īʿa
is educed o pe sonal ma e s and i s use
in c iminal law is no hing bu a iola ion o he cons i u ion;
3. inally hey conside Nige ia o be a secula s a e acco ding o Sec ion
10 o he cons i u ion.
689
The ju is Bashi Yusu Ib ahim analyzes he con o mi y o
sha īʿa
wi h he
cons i u ion. He men ions he es ablishmen o he
Na ional Assembly
and he
S a e
Houses o Assembly
. Bo h ha e di e en ields o legisla ion ixed in he
Exclusi e
Concu en Legisla i e Lis s
men ioned abo e. The ac ha Islamic C iminal Law
was no men ioned in one o hese lis s became a ma e o he s a es. This means
ha any s a e in he ede a ion can in oduce i s own legisla ion o i s own c iminal
law independen ly whe he his law is inspi ed by a pa icula eligion o no .
690
When
i comes o he ques ion o
sha īʿa
and human igh s, Ib ahim unde s ands penal ies
like dea h by s oning o he ampu a ion o limbs and legs as a way o igh and educe
c iminali y in he socie y and keep secu e he li e, p ope y and digni y o people. In
689
Tabiu, Muhammed (2001): Sha īʿa, Fede alism and Nige ian Cons i u ion. Pape p esen ed a he
In e na ional Con e ence on Sha īʿa 14 h Ap il, o ganized by he Nige ian Muslim Fo um, London,
Uni ed Kingdom, pp. 6-7.
690
Ib ahim, B. Yusu (2003): Applica ion o he Sha i’a Penal Law and Jus ice Sys em in No he n
Nige ia: Cons i u ional issues and implica ions, in: Ezeilo, J. Ngosi; Ladan, M. Taw iq and A. A olabi-
Akiyode (Eds): Sha i’a Implemen a ion in Nige ia: Isssues and challenges on Women’s Righ s and
Acces o Jus ice. Enugu/Po Ha cou /Abuja: (WACOL); Lagos: (WARDC); Hein ich Böll Founda ion,
p. 133.
309
addi ion, he eminds us ha he e is no pa ag aph in he cons i u ion o bidding he
dea h penal y.
691
F iede Ludwig, a schola o eligion and an expe on Ch is ian-Muslim
ela ions in Nige ia, cla i ies ha he majo i y o Muslims (p oponen s) unde s and he
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion as “ es i u ion o hei igh s” while on he con a y, many
Ch is ians (opponen s) conside Islamic law as “a s ep o Islamize Nige ia”.
692
This
opposi ion wi hin he wo camps is mo i a ed by e en s like he wo amous s oning
cases o Amina Lawal and Sa iya Hussaini as well by discussions abou he
p esidency o 2007 and whe he he p esiden should be a Muslim o a Ch is ian.
Ludwig quo es he eac ion o he Anglican A chbishop Pe e Akinalo when P esiden
Uma u Ya ’A dua, a Muslim and PDP (People’s Democ a ic Pa y) candida e was
elec ed as successo o Obasanjo as head o he s a e: “Oh! My God, a Sha ia
go e no ”.
693
In he same ein, he eac ion o he go e no o Kano S a e, Ib ahim
Sheka au, who showed his disappoin men in 1999 when
sha īʿa
was in oduced no
in oduced soone .
694
These wo examples illus a e s e eo ypes o di ided iews on
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion.
691
Ibid., p. 135.
692
F iede Ludwig (2008): Ch is ian–Muslim Rela ions in No he n Nige ia since he In oduc ion o
Sha i’ah in 1999, in: Jou nal o he academy o Religion, Vol. 76 (3), pp. 603.
693
Ibid., p. 604.
694
Ibid., p. 607.

310
2.1 P oponen s o Sha īʿa
Danladi A. Mohammed
695
, om he Cen e o Jou nalism S udies in Wales,
seems o be among hose who de ended
sha īʿa
. His a icle is an answe o he
p ominen Islamic schola and
sha īʿa
c i ic, Sanusi Lamido Sanusi (whose iews a e
e lec ed in he nex chap e ). Danladi A. Mohammad conside s Sanusi o be one o
hose mode nis schola s who is in luenced by “o ien alis s”. Fo him, Sanusi is a
Ma xis who de eloped pe sonal iews on
sha īʿa
ha a e a om eali y. In addi ion,
Danladi Mohammad goes u he in ep oaching Sanusi o being a ac ed o he
iews o he con o e sial Sudanese ounde o he Republican B o he s, Maḥmūd
Muḥammad Ṭaha.
696
As pa o his p o ec ion o
sha īʿa
, Mohammad goes e en u he when he
ca ego izes Sanusi among secula is schola s (in he same ca ego y wi h Abdullahi
Aḥmad An-Na’im, a p ominen Sudanese law expe li ing in he USA) who oppose
ʿulamā'
and blame hem o co up ion and incompe ence.
Acco ding o Danladi A. Muhammed, Sanusi and he mode nis s wan o
e o m Islam and change i s ules. This s ep could be a dange o Islam since i leads
695
Mohammed, Danladi A. (2002): Muslim In ellec uals and he Sha īʿa deba e in Nige ia, aus:
www.nige iadel a cong ess.com/ma icles/muslim_in ellec uals_and_ he_Sha.h m. (22.05.2011).
696
Maḥmūd Muḥammad Ṭaha was execu ed in 1985 du ing he ime o P esiden Numei i because o
his con o e sial iews on Islamic Qu ’ān e ela ion. He made a di e en ia ion be ween wo ypes o
e ela ions: one ha happened be o e he
hij a
o he P ophe o Medina in 622 and one a e ha
e en . Taha belie es ha he Medinian- e ealed Qu anic ex should be unde s ood in i s his o ical
con ex . This poin o iews was hea ily c i icized by Muslim schola s o ha ime; Danladi ep oaches
Sanusi o being in luenced by such iews.
311
o o al secula iza ion and aboli ion o he eligion, which was he case in much o
Ch is iani y:
“The p oblem is ha Sanusi and o he mode nis s be o e him wan ed
o change he ules so ha Islam would be o ally e o med like
Ch is iani y, leading o comple e secula isa ion and he abolishing o
Islam jus as Ch is iani y was abolished. This is clea om he w i ings
o Mahmud Taha and his ollowe s.”
697
The au ho concludes by a acking Sanusi Lamidu Sanusi and ep oaches him
o p ac icing p opaganda, manipula ing Islam, and e en o selec ing pa icula
chap e s om he Qu ’ān and he
sunna
in o de o con i m his poin o iew on he
ejec ion o
sha īʿa
laws.
Danladi Mohammed judges mos secula e o ms in he Islamic wo ld as ailed
e o ms. He ci es he example o Tu key and he p og am o laicism imposed by
A a ü k ha ailed o eplace he long-las ing hegemony o he O oman Empi e. This
a emp , like many o he s, led o a wes e niza ion o Islamic socie ies and he
adap a ion o wes e n no ms.
698
Along he same lines o de ending
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion, he p ominen
Kaduna-based Islamic schola , Muhammed Sanusi Gombi, a gued ha compa ed o
o he eligious communi ies in Nige ia, Muslims ha e been disad an aged o many
yea s. The Islamic schola aises he poin s ha o a long ime Muslims ole a ed
non-Muslim no ms like accep ing Sa u day as a public holiday ins ead o F iday. He
e en ad oca es ex ending
sha īʿa
o he en i e ede a ion, no only in he no h. The
697
Mohammed, Danladi A. (2002).
698
Ibid.
312
Islamic schola Ali A. Maz ui also legi imizes he e-implemen a ion o Islamic Law in
Nige ia. Acco ding o him, his law ques ions wes e n model(s) o law. Maz ui
conside s Nige ia a unique A ican s a e which o e s an al e na i e o wes e n law
adi ions. He adds ha
sha īʿa
was a esul o a c i ical e lec ion on exis ing wes e n
no ms. Fu he mo e,
sha īʿa
led, acco ding o Maz ui, o a plu alis ic socie y and in no
way o a ep essed one.
699
The cu en Izala leade in Jos, Sheikh Sani Yahya Jingi , ully suppo s he
sha īʿa
-p ojec o 1999 and conside s i an “emb yo” which is in he p ocess o
g ow h. He expec s his “emb yo” o ully ma u e one day. He o mula es i in he
ollowing:
“Yes indeed! We also suppo ha . We wan ed
sha īʿa
and conside i
a
janān
(in A abic: emb yo) ha will no be old in only one day, bu will
ma u e g adually. As wes e ne s [ he B i ish] came o us and c i icized
he
sha īʿa
and educed i un il we couldn’ do any hing. Now we wan
o eac o hem. We ha e o eac g adually and when
sha īʿa
becomes s ong enough, hen we will co ec wha we ailed o co ec
be o e…”
700
This s a emen e lec ed he iews o many Muslims in no he n Nige ia who
iewed Islamic law as a chance o uni e Muslims. This uni y was deeply a ec ed by
he colonial policy o educing Islamic law o pe sonal and amily ma e s. The
jou nalis Suleiman Shehu who co e ed he
sha īʿa
- ela ed e en o Radio Kaduna in
1999 speaks abou he eelings o Muslims a he ga he ing o Gusau, in he capi al o
Zam a a S a e when he announcemen o eins a e Islamic law was made. Du ing
699
Dan ulani, U., Ludwig, F. und P. Os ien (2002), p. 89.
700
In e iew wi h he Izala-leade in Jos in his o ice, 28 h Feb ua y 2007.
313
he e-implemen a ion ce emonies, Shehu who was deeply mo ed and he con essed
ha he has ne e seen a compa able c owd o people be o e. Fo him, he p ojec
uni ied Islamic g oups in spi e o doc inal di e ences:
“(…) he implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
in ol es he eligion o Islam, you
ha e all he g oups, I mean he sec s, he g oups unde Islamic
o ganisa ions coming oge he o gi e hei inpu . They we e called by
he s a e go e nmen o come and gi e hei inpu because you ha e
he
ʿulamā'
o he Su is, you ha e
ʿulamā'
in he Izala, you ha e
ʿulamā'
in he o he g oups. So hey called o uni y. Fo he
implemen a ion o
sha īʿa
is basically eaching o he P ophe
Muhammad – peace be upon him. Tha was, I hink, he basis unde
which he g oups we e uni ied.”
701
The accep ance and suppo o
sha īʿa
happened a he le el o he
ʿulamā'
as
well as a he g ass oo s le el whe e expec a ion we e eno mous. O dina y Muslims
we e en husias ic and in e p e ed
sha īʿa
as a solu ion o hei p oblems in he
coun y. Suleiman Shehu added ha in mos cases, people a he g ass oo s le el
a e “guided by he
ʿulamā'
” and conside hem hei “men o s”. Al hough many
Muslims a he g ass oo s le el a e igno an abou wha
sha īʿa
eally means and
wha kinds o challenges and changes can occu because o i , hey us ed hei
eligious leade s who suppo ed
sha īʿa
. Apa om his suppo , o dina y Muslims
also expec ed
sha īʿa
o imp o e hei economic and social condi ions:
“Yes,
sha īʿa
is he way. I will wo k o us. (…), maybe i is he c adle o
he yea s: yea s o campaign, yea s o call, yea s o …, you know; people,
701
In e iew wi h Suleiman Shehu in A ewa House, Kaduna, 16 h Janua y 2007.
320
Sanusi conside s he issue o jus ice o be a cen al aspec o
sha ī‛a
. He asks
how ampu a ion can be applied o hose who s eal a goa and no o co up ci il
se an s o he s a e. He ques ions how jus ice can be p o en in he case o adul e y,
especially when “di e en s anda ds” a e applied o men and women? Is ha eligion
o ideology? Sanusi sees mo e ideology behind
sha ī‛a
han eligion.
721
Fu he mo e
he d aws a en ion o o he Islamic coun ies ha ha e implemen ed e o ms in hei
law adi ion and accommoda ed legisla ion o he needs o people wi hou de ia ing
om he adi ion. He insis s ha such a s ep in Nige ia is mo e han needed –
especially a c i ical app oach owa ds eligion. The e is a need o di e en ia e
be ween hose who consciously manipula e eligion o ideological objec i es and
hose who end o es ablish he law o God.
722
In a pape on he ela ionship be ween poli ics and Islam, Sanusi wa ns hose
poli icians who use Islam in no he n Nige ia o achie e poli ical goals. He de ines he
du y o all Muslims is o oppose such “spoiled” poli ics.
723
Fo such poli icians,
sha ī‛a
should no only be a sign o ha sh sen ences and sanc ions, bu also a way o
es ablish social jus ice and imp o e he economic si ua ion o Nige ians. Poli icians
should no use
sha ī‛a
o conceal hei own co up ion, abuse o o ice, and
nepo ism.
724
721
Ibid., p. 226.
722
Ibid, pp. 227-230.
723
Sanusi, Lamido Sanusi (n.d.): On he Islamiza ion o poli ics and he Poli iciza ion o Islam,
www.gamji.com/sanusi14.h m. (22.12.2004)
724
Sanusi, Lamido Sanusi (1999): Issues in cons uc ing co po a e Nige ia. Pape p esen ed a he
“Na ional Con e ence on he 1999 Cons i u ion”, o ganized by he Ne wo k Fo Jus ice and The Vision
T us Founda ion, A ewa House, Kaduna om 11 h – 12 h Sep embe , p. 8.

321
Lamidu Sanusi was no he only Nige ian schola who main ained a c i ical
iew o
sha ī‛a
; he e a e o he c i ical oices o he
sha ī‛a
p ojec . This ca ego y o
schola s s esses ha he e is no en o cemen in Islamic ai h (
lā ik āha ī’d-dīn
Qu ’ān
2:256) and ha he newly implemen ed Islamic c iminal law canno a ou
a o Muslims o p o ec hem: “(...)
sha īʿa
ule lea es Muslims helpless be o e i .“
725
A Muslim lawye om Kano, Suleman Kumo, obse es ha Islamic judges o sha ī‛a
cou s a e incompe en and co up , and abuse o o ice is common in such cou s.
These judges, a gues Kumo, would e en “ ail a simple cha ac e es ”.
726
Lamin Saneh men ions a Muslim om he no h named Mohammed Sani who
in on o o he Muslims in Augus 2000 openly c i icized Zam a a’s Go e no and his
campaign o e-implemen
sha ī‛a
law. These c i ics we e based on he a gumen ha
he implemen a ion had mo e o do wi h poli ics han wi h eligion. Acco ding o Sani,
sha ī‛a
comes om Allah and no om he go e no .
727
On 21s Feb ua y, 2000, an i-
sha ī‛a
demons a ions ook place in p o es
agains he in oduc ion o
sha ī‛a
. Se e al o he io s be ween Muslims and
Ch is ians esul ing in loss o p ope ies and li es on bo h sides happened in he
ollowing days. Se e al mosques and chu ches we e des oyed.
Sha ī‛a
appea s o
725
Saneh, Lamin (2003): Sha i’ah Sanc ions as Secula G ace? A Nige ian Islamic deba e and an
in ellec ual esponse, in: T ans o ma ion, 20/4 Oc obe , p. 240.
726
As quo ed in Saneh (2003), p. 240 om Maie (2000), p. 178.
727
Saneh (2003), p. 240; based on his s a emen and c i icism owa ds he Go e no o Zam a a,
Mohammed Sani was a es ed and jailed o ou mon hs. He accused o iola ing he loyal y o
Zam a a S a e.
322
be a iolen dispu e be ween Ch is ians and Muslims in he ede a ion, o say he
leas .
728
Ch is ians and human igh s o ganiza ions in Nige ia in e p e
sha ī‛a
as a
iola ion o he cons i u ion and o human igh s and see in i a dange o he
peace ul coexis ence in a mul ie hnic and mul i- eligious s a e like Nige ia. F iede
Ludwig speaks o a so o “Fundamen alism- hesis” de eloped and in oduced o he
deba es by
sha īʿa
opponen s. As an example, Ludwig men ions he chai man o he
Ch is ian Associa ion o Nige ia
(CAN) in Edo S a e, A chbishop Pa ick Ekpu, who
poin s o he OIC con o e sy and wa ns agains Islamic Fundamen alism in no he n
Nige ia sponso ed by A abic coun ies.
729
The e a e some o he opponen s o
sha ī‛a
who conside i a “second Jihad” compa ing i o he success ul mo emen s o Usman
Dan Fodio and he Islamiza ion o no he n Nige ia du ing he 19 h cen u y.
730
In an
In e na ional Religious F eedom Repo
, he US Depa men o S a e
judges he e-implemen a ion o Islamic C iminal Law in Nige ia as an abuse o
eligious eedom and a cause o in e eligious iolence. The epo s a es ha
al hough Ch is ians in he no h we e no a ec ed by
sha ī‛a
, especially in Zam a a
S a e whe e Ch is ian mino i ies we e only minimally in luenced in one way o
728
Fo mo e de ails on he Sha īʿa ela ed io s, see Ib ahim, Jib in (2002): Democ acy and mino i y
Righ s in Nige ia: Religion, Sha i‘a and he 1999 Cons i u ion. Pape o he Con e ence on:
”Globalisa ion, S a e capaci y and sel -De e mina ion in Muslim Con ex s“. Cen e o Global,
In e na ional and Regional S udies, Uni e si y o Cali o nia-San a C uz, San a C uz, 7 h o 10 h Ma ch
2002; also Dan ulani, Uma H. D. (2005): The Sha īʿa Issue and Ch is ian-Muslim ela ions in
con empo a y Nige ia. S ockholm: Almq is & Wiksell In e na ional, esp. pp. 13-38 e lec on wha
happened in Kaduna om di e en pe spec i es.
729
Fo de ails see Ludwig (2001), p. 266.
730
Ibid., p. 267.
323
ano he . Seg ega ion o bo h sexes in public anspo , ban o alcohol, d ess codes,
closing shops on F idays, and banning cinema can be conside ed aspec s o such an
impac o
sha ī‛a
on Ch is ians. The US Depa men o S a e epo poin s ou ha he
law o he ede a ion does no allow any eligious disc imina ion, bu he No he n
S a es o Nige ia iola ed ha law and disc imina ed agains eligious mino i ies.
731
2.3 The Fede al Go e nmen , he S a es, he
ʿulamā'
, and g ass oo s’
posi ions on
sha ī‛a
e-implemen a ion
Fo he Fede al Go e nmen o 1999
732
unde p esiden Obasanjo he
sha ī‛a
e-implemen a ion was a p eca ious ma e . The democ a ic p ocess o Nige ia and
he ansi ion o democ acy was posi i ely app ecia ed on he na ional as well as on
he in e na ional le el. The deba es ela ed o Islamic Law seemed o di ide he
coun y on a eligious basis. The p esiden , a bo n again Yo uba Ch is ian om he
sou h, had no choice bu o educe he ension in he coun y. A a e y ea ly s age o
he e-implemen a ion he e was no o icial s a emen om he go e nmen o
suppo ing o opposing
sha ī‛a
. This is unde s andable since eligion in Nige ia is a
complica ed issue. The in e en ion o P esiden Obasanjo was ela ed o he io s o
Kaduna in 2000 and he hea y ension be ween Muslims and Ch is ians in ha s a e.
T a elling in pe son o ha a ea, P esiden Obasanjo was shocked by he
731
US Depa men o S a e (2001): In e na ional Religious F eedom Repo , Nige ia. Released by he
Bu eau o Democ acy, Human Righ s, and Labo .
732
Fo an o e iew on he ansi ion o democ acy in Nige ia see Fa unde, Tunde (2000): Nige ias
Rückkeh zu Demok a ie. Eine Bewe ung, in: KAS-AI/00, S. 74-91.
324
consequences a ising om clashes ela ed o he
sha īʿa
con o e sy. He exp essed
his deep disappoin men and wonde ed du ing his isi on 27 h Feb ua y, 2000, i i
was eally he same Kaduna ha he knew om ea lie imes:
“A e you people su e his is Kaduna? Can his be Nige ia? A e we
s ill in Nige ia a all? I don’ hink people who did his could ha e
done i o any eligion. I don’ hink hey did his o any
eligion.”
733
He indica ed ha such ac s canno be g ounded in eligion and in an o icial
add ess o he na ion on 1s Ma ch, 2000; he desc ibed he Kaduna e en s as
“ba ba ism”. Obasanjo spoke o a “ he wo s inciden o blood-le ing” since he Ci il
Wa in Nige ia. He all pa ies in ol ed in he con lic s o engage in dialogue,
econcilia ion and o espec he ede al cons i u ion ha gua an ees eedom o
eligion. Fu he mo e he added ha he Na ional Council o S a es would hold a
mee ing o discuss he secu i y si ua ion as well he e-implemen a ion o
sha ī‛a
in
he no he n s a es and i s cons i u ionali y:
“The Council also e iewed he emo e and immedia e causes o
he dis u bances, and no ed ha he Penal Code cu en ly in o ce
in he no he n S a es is subs an ially based on Sha ia Law, wi h
he modi ica ions ha imp isonmen is subs i u ed in place o
ampu a ion o limbs, as punishmen o s ealing, and also as
punishmen o adul e y, ins ead o s oning o dea h. The Council
no ed ha hese modi ica ions a e consis en wi h he human
igh s p inciples ensh ined in ou Cons i u ion, and conside ed he
punishmen s adequa e in he ci cums ances.
The Council unanimously ag eed ha all S a es ha ha e ecen ly
adop ed Sha ia Law should in he mean ime e e o he s a us
733
Quo ed in Dan ulani (2005), p. 24.
325
quo an e. Tha is, Sha ia, as p ac iced in Penal Code, con inues o
be p ac iced by all S a es conce ned. The Council u ges all
Nige ians o emain calm and law-abiding. P o oca i e and inci ing
u e ances will no be ole a ed. This posi ion by he Council is a
iumph o lo e o a he land, iumph o ma u i y and sus enance
o secu i y o he na ion and p ese a ion o ou co po a e
exis ence. The e can be no winne s in he des uc ions, all
Nige ians a e lose s. And in peace and cessa ion o des uc ions
o li e and p ope y, all Nige ians a e winne s. Bu o espec he
eeling o one ano he and o has en he p ocess o econcilia ion,
he e is no ic o y o be celeb a ed and no loss o be mou ned.”
734
The o icial posi ion o he hen p esiden and his go e nmen was mode a e in
o de no o di ide he coun y in o p o- and an i-
sha ī‛a
people – unlike Obasanjo’s
opinion on
sha ī‛a
ew mon hs ago be o e he Kaduna io .
735
The Nige ian In e -
Religious Council (NIREC)
736
es ablished in Sep embe , 1999, ecei ed he suppo
o he p esiden o wo k o mo e peace ul coexis ence be ween Muslims and
Ch is ians in he coun y. NIREC ecommended ha leade s om bo h eligions
should ake on he du y o quelling ensions, and membe s o he wo di e en
eligious communi ies should con e ge.
The ede al go e nmen in Nige ia has no choice bu o econcile con lic ing
pa ies o e
sha ī‛a
. A he s a e le el he si ua ion was di e en . In he sou he n pa
734
P esiden Olusegun Obasanjo's add ess o he na ion on Sha īʿa c isis, Ma ch 1, 2000; see he
en i e speech a (h p://nige iawo ld.com/ ea u e/speech/obasanjo_sha ia_add ess.h ml, accessed
29/05/2011).
735
Du ing a isi o he USA, when he was asked abou he issue o Sha īʿa, P esiden Obasanjo
answe ed; “The go e nmen simply wished he Sha īʿa cance would disappea in o hin ai .”; quo ed in
Dan ulani (2005), p. 23; when he Zam a a go e no called o he inaugu a ion o Sha īʿa, Obasanjo
called on he Vice-p esiden , minis e s, go e no s and emi s o boyco he e en , see ibid. p. 52.
736
Fo his o y and in o ma ion on his ins i u ion see i s homepage h p://www.ni ecng.o g

326
o Nige ia
sha īʿa
was p esen in he media bu was no p oblema ic since Muslims
a e in he mino i y he e. Ne e heless, Muslims among he Yo uba o ins ance ind
o he ways o p ac ice
sha ī‛a
and ha e es ablished Independen
sha ī‛a
Panels as
shown by Abdul a ah Makinde.
737
In he no he n pa o he coun y he go e no s
we e in luenced by he masses; public p essu e seemed o be highe han hey
ealized. Ahmad Sani Ye iman Baku u was elec ed in 1999 and e-elec ed in 2003
because he implemen ed Islamic Law. The
sha īʿa
ac o was also used in Kano by
he o me go e no Ib ahim Sheka au who achie ed wo manda es (2003 and 2007)
be o e he became one o he leading candida es o he Nige ian p esiden ial
elec ions o 2011. In Kaduna he si ua ion was mo e complica ed and he House o
Assembly was di ided among Ch is ians who opposed he e-implemen a ion and
Muslims who a o ed i . Go e no Maka i (PDP) seemed o ha e won he elec ions
o 2003 because o his mode a e iew on
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion, unlike his i al
candida e (ANPP) who played he
sha īʿa
ca d and ad oca ed ull implemen a ion.
738
Ludwig also shows how Gombe S a e chose he way o dialogue be ween Muslims
and Ch is ians in o de o educe ensions and eligious clashes (like he io s o 2000
and 2001). This was achie ed by es ablishing a legal sys em made o Sha ia Cou s,
Cus oma y Cou s, and a Magis a e Cou :
739
E en hough Ahmadu Mu’azu,
go e no o Bauchi S a e (1999-2007), was among he i s go e no s who s a ed o
implemen
sha ī‛a
in he No h, he insis ed on pa ience especially in s oning cases
737
See Makinde, A. (2007). The Ins i u ion o Sha īʿah in Oyo and Osun S a es, Nige ia, 1890–2005.
PhD-Thesis in A abic and Islamic S udies, Uni e si y o Ibadan, Nige ia.
738
See Ludwig (2008), p. 626.
739
Ludwig (2008), p 627.
327
and admonished
sha ī‛a
judges in adul e y cases who sen enced p egnan di o ced
women o dea h by s oning.
740
Conce ning he home s a e o la e P esiden o Nige ia
(2007-2010) and o me go e no o he s a e (1999-2007) Uma u Ya ‘Adua, Ka sina,
Ch is ians seem o ha e ongoing p oblems wi h educa ion wi hin he s a e and hei
child en ace di icul ies a he seconda y school le el in inding a school. In addi ion,
Ch is ian TV-p og ams and he building o chu ches seemed o be among he
di icul ies exp essed by ep esen a i es o he Ch is ian Associa ion o Nige ia in ha
s a e. The e-implemen a ion in Ka sina happened unde p essu e and he go e no
p ac iced a mode a e policy which in pa assis ed wi h pilg images o Muslims and
Ch is ians o Mecca and Je usalem, espec i ely. Also he dialogue be ween bo h
eligious communi ies was suppo ed by he s a e.
741
The
ʿulamā'
a e impo an ac o s in he
sha ī‛a
-p ojec . In No he n Nige ia
Islamic schola s a e well-es ablished and highly espec ed in he socie y. They ha e
he du y o guiding he
Umma
(Muslim communi y) when i comes o eligious
ma e s.
ʿulamā'
a e hose who ha e access o he “sou ces”. The Nige ian His o ian
Ha una Wakili conside s he ole o
ʿulamā'
du ing he pe iod immedia ely be o e he
e-implemen a ion o he
sha ī‛a
in 1999 as “neu al”.
742
A e ha e en hey became
740
Ibid, p. 629, his happened in 2002 and quo ed by Ludwig om Vangua d o 19 h Decembe 2002
“Mu’azu Cau ions Sha īʿa judges”.
741
Ludwig (2008) men ions he es ablishmen o a “Ch is ian Pilg ims Wel a e Boa d” in he S a e as
well a Muslim-Ch is ian Fo um in o de o p omo e peace and dialogue among Muslims and
Ch is ians; see pp. 630-1.
742
Wakili, Ha una (2009): Islam and he Poli ical A ena
in Nige ia:
The Ulama and he 2007 Elec ions.
ISITA Wo king Pape No. 09-004, p. 3.
328
mo e in ol ed in poli ics. They insis ed on mo e “sani iza ion” o he socie y and
poli ics in he no h in o de o achie e he goals o
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion.
743
Wakili shows how
ʿulamā'
ha e he powe o in luence poli ics in he no h.
Du ing he elec ions o 2007, Islamic schola s we e ully in ol ed in calling Muslims o
egis e in he elec ions and o e o leade s who we e “c edible, hones and God-
ea ing.” Al hough
sha īʿa
did no play an impo an ole du ing he elec ion o 2007
(as i was he case du ing he elec ions o 2003)
744
, Ha una Wakili s a es ha
“anyone who campaigned agains he
sha ī‛a
in he s a es su ely would no be o ed
o .”
745
He con i ms ha he
ʿulamā'
a e no a homogeneous g oup in he no h and
hei poli ical o ien a ion was no uni o m. Wakili ci es he example o Kano, when
ʿulamā'
we e di ided be ween hose who suppo ed go e no Sheka au and
campaigned o him and hose who opposed him. Many Islamic schola s used
mosques, semina s and public lec u es o mobilize Muslims o o e o him. O he
ʿulamā'
, like he Qādi iyya and Tijāniyya leade s (Sheikh Qa ibullah Kaba a and
Sheikh Kali a Rabi’u, espec i ely) as well as Sala iyya leade s campaigned agains
Sheka au.
746
O dina y Muslims conside
ʿulamā'
o be hei spi i ual guides. Apa om he
poli ical campaign ela ed o
sha īʿa
a he g ass oo s le el, he expec a ions we e
high.
Sha īʿa
was o Muslims a chance o changes in many aspec s o li e. Mos
743
Ibid., p. 7.
744
Kogelmann, F anz (2006): The “Sha īʿa Fac o ” in Nige ia’s 2003 Elec ions, in: Muslim-Ch is ian
Encoun e s in A ica. Benjamin F. Soa es (ed.), pp. 256-274, Islam in A ica se ies 6. Leiden, Bos on:
B ill.
745
Wakili (2009), p. 8.
746
See Wakili (2009), p. 9.
329
o dina y Muslims do no eally know much abou he implica ion o
sha īʿa
, and wha i
eally means. I you ask abou
sha ī‛a
and how people unde s and i , in many cases
you may ge answe s like:
”Wonde ul! G ea achie emen and we lo e i ! (…) he
implemen a ion was a g ea achie emen o a coun y like Nige ia.
We ne e d eamed o ha ing
sha īʿa
so soon, so e en i i is no ully
implemen ed, i has made a g ea impac in ou hea s and hose o
ou child en. Fo he younge ones o know abou he p esence o
sha īʿa
is a g ea hing.”
747
O s a emen s such as:
“I so much lo ed i . I is a g ea achie emen , hough he e a e ce ain
es ic ions bu I am happy abou i and I hope ha in he u u e we will
be able o ha e a calipha e ha ules acco ding o Islamic law.”
748
The
sha ī‛a
applica ion appealed o he eelings o Muslims.
Sha ī‛a
was
in oduced as a solu ion o hei p oblems and was expec ed o b ing change in many
di ec ions, especially economically and socially. Many see in
sha ī‛a
an answe o
co up ion, poli ical mismanagemen , and social injus ice. The e-implemen a ion o
Islamic Law was alued as an al e na i e and op ion o a be e li e. This may o may
no be ue, bu Muslims gene ally ollow hei
ʿulamā'
in ma e s conce ning he e-
implemen a ion o Islamic law:
747
In e iew wi h J. M. on 15 h Ma ch 2008 in Jos; J.M. is one among six women in e iewed in Jos by
R.M., by a emale esea ch assis an . Fo he eason o p o ec ing he in e iewees as well he name
o he assis an I p e e no o w i e he ull names.
748
In e iew in Jos wi h H.H. on 5 h ma ch 2008.
336
mo e han ha and has o do wi h educa ion, economy, and ci il se ice.
Sha ī‛a
is
acco ding o him is o be ound e e ywhe e.
760
The e-implemen a ion o
sha ī‛a
appea s o be a conc e iza ion o Izala’s
wo ld iew o an Islamic socie y based on he Qu ’ān and he adi ion o he P ophe .
The
daʿwa
o Izala consis s o educa ing people abou hei eligion and guiding hem
o ollow he igh way o become good Muslims. Izala insis s on educa ion a e e y
s age o li e and es ablishes schools and mosques o p o ide i s adhe en s wi h
educa ion. Izala calls on women o wea
ḥijāb
. I s ands o sepa a ion o he sexes in
he socie y in all aspec s o li e. Izala p opaga es an ideal socie y wi hou alcohol,
gambling, and p os i u ion. I encou ages knowledge abou Islam and he A abic
language. I gi es an impo an s a us o eligious schola s. The o ganiza ion
demands o he applica ion o Islamic law in all i s aspec s and acco ding o he
elemen a y sou ces o he Islamic eligion. Izala ega ds i sel as p o ec o o Islam
and Muslims. The o ganiza ion makes e o s o de end Islamic in e es s. In Pla eau
S a e, which is no a
sha īʿa
s a e, Izala o ins ance succeeded in changing he imes
o public adminis a ion and schools on F idays in o de o allow Muslims o go
pe o m hei p aye s. Since colonial imes only Sunday is a wo k- ee day in
Nige ia.
761
A he beginning o 2007 he design o Nige ian cu ency was changed.
The Jos- ac ion o Izala ealized ha he new Nai a bills a e wi hou A abic sc ip u e,
760
In e iew wi h Alhaji Abubaka Imām on 5 h Ma ch 2008 in his o ice, Sha īʿa Cou o Appeal,
Maidugu i.
761
In an in o mal discussion on 13 h Decembe 2006 wi h P o . Muslih T. Yahya in Jos, om he
depa men o A abic and Islamic S udies, he schola men ions ha Izala in Jos makes e o s ha
Muslims can s op wo king by 12.30 in o de o go o F iday p aye s and come back by 2.30 p.m.

337
so hey sen le e o he P esiden o he Fede a ion, Obasanjo, on 27 h Feb ua y
2007, exp essing hei “(…) displeasu e and o al ejec ion o he emo al o A abic
insc ip ion”. Izala indica es ha emo ing A abic, as an iden i y ma ke o Muslims,
may be agains human igh s and “endange s he in e es o some Nige ians on he
basis o hei eligion.”
762
A e Islamic law was in oduced Izala was adaman ha all aspec s o i
should be applied in he no he n s a es. Weimann men ions he example o Bauchi
S a e and i s go e no Mu’azu who was isi ed by a delega ion om Izala u ging him
o ush in applying Islamic c iminal judgemen s. Awa e o he implica ions o he law
in a mixed s a e like Bauchi, he go e no esponded ha i is he
sha ī‛a
commission’s du y o deal wi h ha .
763
Also in Jigawa S a e he Izala wa ned Ib ahim
Tu aki, go e no o he s a e om 1999 un il 2007, ha he should no s op he
“di ine” law o
sha ī‛a
om being en o ced in a s oning case om he yea 2002.
764
Weimann’s explana ion o he en husiasm o Izala in he
sha īʿa
-p ojec sounds e y
plausible: “Yan Izala (…) we e quick o espouse he p ojec on he basis o common
762
This open le e en i led “Memo o M . P esiden Chie Olesegun Obasanjo G.C.F.R. on he ecen
emo al o A abic insc ip ion om he Nige ian cu ency no es”, published in he Daily T us o 27 h
Feb ua y 2007; a copy o his le e was send o he Sena e P esiden , The Speake o he House o
Rep esen a i es, he Depu y Sena e P esiden , The Cen al Bank Go e no , The Sul an o Soko o, he
Emi s (Kano, Bo no, Zazzau, Ka sina, and Ilo in), he E su Nupe, and he AARE Musulmi o
Yo ubaland.
763
Weimann (2010), pp. 49-50.
764
This was a case o ape in 2002 in he s a e when he accused was ound guil y and pu o dea h by
s oning a e his con ession. In 2003 he e ealed his con ession and appealed he judgmen a he
Sha īʿa Cou o Appeal
. The accused was hen eed om cha ges and sen o psychia y; see ibid., p.
68.
338
in e es s.”
765
The au ho emphasizes ha his in e es does no mean an e o o an
Islamic s a e, bu a he a kind o es ablishmen o a pa icula ision o an Islamic
“way o li e” acco ding o
sha īʿa
.
766
His o ically Izala was ounded o igh un-Islamic inno a ions (
bida’a
) in
Nige ia. The e we e social, poli ical, and economic changes ha occu ed in he
ede a ion du ing he las yea s ha b ough Muslims o e lec on hei ela ionship
and doc inal di e ences in he en i e coun y. E en s like e hno- eligious clashes in
se e al pa s o he no h, deba es ela ed o he cons i u ion, and he elec ions in he
ede a ion ( he leade should be a Ch is ian o Muslim) a e jus a ew examples. In
imes o clashes he bo de s be ween eligious g oups wi hin he same communi y all
bu disappea . Fo Ch is ians in Nige ia, all Muslims e-implemen ed
sha īʿa
law and
he e is no di e ence be ween Izala, Su is o Shīʿa-g oups. The
sha īʿa
-p ojec was
an oppo uni y o Muslims o hink abou common objec i es and lea e in e nal
deba es aside. The e-implemen a ion o Islamic law was an oppo uni y o Izala o
“conque ” mo e space in a eligious ield domina ed by he Su i b o he hoods. The
sha īʿa
-p ojec was also a chance o Izala o gain ecogni ion o i s ideology based
on he Qu ’ān and he
sunna
. Izala and
sha īʿa
can be placed side by side since bo h
a e calling o he “sani iza ion” o Islam and o e a solu ion o Muslims in all aspec s
o li e. I Izala pe cei ed
sha īʿa
posi i ely and o i s many leade s claim ha he
o ganiza ion was di ec ly and indi ec ly behind he e-implemen a ion, hen wha
765
Ibid., p. 57.
766
Ibid.; in a discussion on Sha īʿa-deba es in Jos wi h P o . Musa Gaiya, a chu ch his o ian and
eligion expe in Nige ia, he schola spoke o “Islamiza ion o he soci ey” a he han an Islamic s a e;
18 h Decembe 2006.
339
abou he Izala-Su i-b o he hood ela ionship? Did
sha ī‛a
law pu an end o he long
s uggle be ween Izala and he wo majo Su i b o he hoods in no he n Nige ia? Did
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion eally b ing change wi h i ? Did i uni y he Muslim
Umma
?
4 Izala, Su is, and Sha ī‛a-law: a chance o econcilia ion?
A e he long-las ing con lic be ween Sheikh Gumi and he Nige ian Su i
B o he hoods which e en ually de eloped in o clashes be ween Su is and he Izala,
in e nal issues had been inc easingly weakening he o ganiza ion since he beginning
o he 1990s. The di ision o he o ganiza ion be ween Jos and Kaduna a ec ed he
image o he mo emen and especially i s c edibili y amongs Muslims in ma e s o
leade ship. Mos (i no all) Izala leade s con ess ha he di ision o he mo emen
has no hing o do wi h
ʿaqīda
bu a he wi h o ien a ion wi hin he o ganiza ion: a e
ʿulamā'
a he op o Izala o no ?
In dealing wi h in e nal p oblems Izala was conce ned wi h educa ion,
p eaching, and especially wi h con incing Muslims in no he n Nige ia o being he
au hen ic “Izala” ounded by Sheikh I. Id is. This new o ien a ion in Izala allowed
Muslims o speak o di e en g oups in Izala: ha o Jos connec ed wi h he ounde
and known o i s s ic ness compa ed o o he Islamic g oups, and ha o Kaduna
which is mo e comp omising when i comes Su is and o he Muslims, and e en
ano he g oup o Izala membe s who did no belong o ei he o hese wo
340
b anches.
767
The concen a ion on hei own p oblems led o a educ ion o he
ension be ween Izala and Su i. Violen clashes ha we e he case in he 1970s and
1980s we e educed. Clashes o e eligious space in mosques and in he public
sphe e we e educed o e bal s uggles. Ne e heless, di e ences s ill exis ed and
bo de s became mo e isible (di e en schools, mosques, ac i i ies, in e es s).
The e-implemen a ion o
sha ī‛a
was nei he planned no p epa ed. I was
mo i a ed by poli ics and pa o an elec o al campaign o one single go e no wi h
he in en ion “ o gain popula suppo and o secu e his own poli ical su i al
de eloped in o a chain eac ion h oughou he p edominan ly Muslim-inhabi ed
no he n s a es o Nige ia.”
768
Su is, Izala, and many o he Islamic g oups had no
choice bu o coope a e. The no he n go e no s called all Muslims o con ibu e o
he
sha ī‛a
p ojec and asked he
ʿulamā'
o se up he ou lines o such an
unde aking. No eligious leade should be excluded excep i he/she is agains
sha ī‛a
. Opposing
sha ī‛a
means opposing Islam and ha can be ela ed o social
isola ion.
sha ī‛a
– as shown abo e – is an iden i y ma ke o Muslims in no he n
Nige ia. I was seen as a chance o Islamic law a e yea s o opp ession.
Sha ī‛a
was ela ed o change and e o m o he socie y.
Sha ī‛a
became a uni ying issue
767
P o . Musa Gaiya speaks o an Izala A, B, and e en C. Unde he hi d g oup he ca ego izes hose
Izala membe s who s udied ab oad and adap ed a mode n model o socie y, 18 h Decembe 2006.
Unde his hi d wing o Izala I conside hose membe s who a e s ill ela ed o bo h g oups wi hou
aking pa o in g oup o he o he . Among hem is Alhaji Abba Dambu no, om Jos, who conside ed
himsel a a he o bo h he Jos and Kaduna ac ions; in e iew on 24 Decembe 2006.
768
Kogelmann, F anz (2006): The ‘Sha īʿa ac o ’ in Nige ia’s 2003 Elec ions, in: Soa es, Benjamin F.
(ed.): Muslim-Ch is ian Encoun e s in A ica, pp. 257-8.
341
despi e he he e ogenei y o he Nige ian socie y and exis ence o o he eligious
g oups in he
sha ī‛a
s a es.
The publica ions o Philip Os ien
769
show ha mos (i no all) o he no he n
s a es we e no eady o eins a e Islamic Law. This was con i med by he di e ence
be ween he
Penal Codes
and
Penal Codes P ocedu es
in he wel e
sha ī‛a
s a es.
Ou side s may ge he imp ession ha
sha ī‛a
was easily implemen ed and conside
he no he n egion as eligiously uni ied. P oblems eme ged la e wi h he i s
s oning cases ha demons a ed he complexi y o he
sha ī‛a
issue.
770
The e-implemen a ion p ocesses o
sha ī‛a
was ini ia ed by es ablishing
sha ī‛a
Implemen a ion commi ees in each s a e wi h he du y o ad ise and p epa e
a epo wi h he ecommenda ion o he bes way o implemen Islamic law and how
o codi y i in con o mi y wi h he ede al cons i u ion. In hese commi ees we ind
Su is (Qādi iyya, Tijāniyya, e c.), Emi s, Sala is, Izala, independen schola s, Izala,
JTI, Islamic judges, p o esso s, and o he expe s.
771
A a la e s age he di e en
ins i u ions ha eme ged om
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion like he
zakā
-boa d, Council
o
ʿulamā'
, o
ḥisba
-boa d we e comp ised o ep esen a i es om di e en eligious
g oups.
769
Os ien (2007).
770
As an example see Os ien, Philip (ed.) (2007): “Sha īʿa implemen a ion in….”, Vol. V, Two Famous
Cases; his olume deals wi h he cases o Amina Lawal and Sa iya Hussaini who we e pu by Sha īʿa
Cou s o dea h. The book p o ides all documen s ela ed o he wo cases and shows ha he
eimplemen a ion o Sha īʿa was a om being “p ope ly” applied.
771
Fo mo e de ails on he s uc u es o hese commi ees and hei epo s in Bauchi, Zam a a, and
Kebbi s a es as well o all memo anda ela ed o he eimplemen a ion-p ocess see Os ien, Philip
(ed.) (2007): “Sha īʿa implemen a ion in….”, Vol. II, Sha īʿa Implemen a ion Commi ees epo s and
ela ed whi e pape s.

342
Fo some schola s he e-implemen a ion was mo e o a poli ical han a
eligious p ojec . Sheikh Khaled Aliyu, an independen schola based in Jos obse es
ha he e-implemen a ion was poli ically colo ed. He speaks o a “ma iage” (A abic:
zawāj
) be ween Izala and poli icians. Izala was looking o highe in luence and
poli icians o mo e o e s. Tha is why Izala was eady o comp omise.
772
This is
almos cong uen wi h Sheikh Muhammad Ha is, an es ablished Tijāniyya leade in
Jos who saw a lo o
i na
behind he
sha īʿa
e-implemen a ion. The leade con i ms
ha e bal a acks be ween Su is and Izala a e s ill going on.
773
Some o he schola s
a e mo e op imis ic, like Sheikh Alhassan Said who sees an ad an age in he e-
implemen a ion, mainly; he possibili y o a dialogue among he di e en Islamic
g oups: “ hose who implemen ed
sha ī‛a
b ough all o us oge he . We mee , speak
and nego ia e.”
774
A ew schola s ha e indica ed mixed eelings owa ds
sha ī‛a
and euni ica ion
o Muslims including Izala and Su is. Us az Ib ahim Ahmad Maka i, a Tijānī schola
based in Za ia, indica es ha he e was g ea hope linked o he
sha ī‛a
p ojec .
Acco ding o him, hund eds o ga he ings (A abic:
majālis
) we e se up as a esul o
he e-implemen a ion. He expec ed ha he p ojec could esul in e o ms wi hin he
Muslim socie y in he no h, bu he e we e a lo o poli ics behind
sha ī‛a
.
In a ā al-
ḥamās
(in A abic: en husiasm is o e ) – his is how he ph ased i . He men ioned ha
sel -in e es hinde ed he p ojec om achie ing i s goals. In Kano o e.g. he iews
772
In e iew in Jos on 14 h Decembe 2006.
773
In e iew Jos, 3 Decembe 2006.
774
In e iew in wi h he Izala Sheikh who is a ilia ed o he Kaduna b anch, 12 h Decembe 2006.
343
hose who implemen ed Islamic law as selec i e and did i o hei own ad an age. In
addi ion, in he Council o
ʿulamā'
in Nige ia, al hough Tijāniyya, Qādi iyya, and
Sala iyya a e ep esen ed, he ep esen a i es o hese g oups we e a om sol ing
p oblems o o dina y people – as Us az Maka i poin s ou . In Zam a a S a e iden i y
was de ined h ough a long bea d and a pa icula ype o d ess. Maka i concludes
ha maybe i e pe cen o
sha īʿa
was ealis ically achie ed because poli icians
mainly appealed o he emo ions o he people. Maka i ensu ed ha he u u e would
be mo e p omising since he e is an agenda o uni y all Muslims in no he n Nige ia.
Rega dless whe he he Izala ini ia ed he
sha ī‛a
p ojec o ano he Islamic
g oup was esponsible o he mos d ama ic change in he judicial sys em o Nige ia
since independence, in he a e ma h o he e-implemen a ion he con lic be ween
Izala and he Su i b o he hoods seemed o ha e been elega ed o he backg ound.
Whe he his challenge can be unde s ood as econcilia ion be ween Izala and Su i
canno be easily answe ed.
344
Conclusion
The majo objec i e o his s udy was o look a he
sha ī‛a
e-implemen a ion
in Nige ia om he pe spec i e o an Islamic o ganiza ion like Izala. The applica ion o
Islamic law is an in eg al pa o he mo emen ’s ideology. Acco ding o my
knowledge, his aspec has no been s udied be o e, since he e-implemen a ion o
Islamic law is a e y ecen de elopmen in he his o y o no he n Nige ia. Izala has
been s udied in he con ex o i s ela ionship o Su is.
775
The Izala-Su i con o e sy seems o ake on ano he dimension. The iolen
clashes be ween Izala and Su is ha occu ed du ing he 1970s and 1980s we e
educed du ing he 1990s and om he beginning o he new millennium. This can be
explained by he ac ha he Izala mo emen was concen a ed on i s own in e nal
p oblems (di ision, s uggle o leade ship, inancial issues) on he one hand and on
he o he i unde wen a p ocess o ins i u ionaliza ion and became a well es ablished
and ecognized Islamic o ganiza ion in no he n Nige ia. Howe e , i is deba able as
o whe he he se ies o iolen clashes be ween Ch is ians and Muslims since he e-
implemen a ion o Islamic law in 1999 led o a educ ion o ensions wi hin he Muslim
communi y o no i.e. in a- eligious con lic s we e eplaced by in e - eligious ones.
In o de o unde s and he cu en eligious si ua ion i is necessa y o go back
o he his o y o Islam and Ch is iani y in Nige ia. A his o ical o e iew on Islam
se es as a back-g ound o wha is going on oday. This can be simpli ied in he
ollowing pic u e: Nige ia wi h i s cu en bo de s did no exis un il he coming o he
775
Loimeie 1997, Kane 2003, Uma 1983 and 1983.
345
B i ish. In he 19 h cen u y he Soko o Calipha e domina ed he Muslim no h wi h i s
emi a es, and in he sou he n egion A ican T adi ional Religions as well as
Ch is iani y domina ed he eligious landscape. Fo many Muslims o he no h he
colonial domina ion, despi e indi ec ule, was a pe iod o massi e in e en ion in
Islamic a ai s. The ac ha he highly de eloped and in Muslim eyes holy Islamic law
enjoyed only he same s a us as o he “na i e laws and cus oms” was ega ded as a
de alua ion o
sha īʿa
. In addi ion, he e o m o ce ain aspec s o he Islamic legal
adi ion acco ding o wes e n no ms and alues was also an impo an e en . This
led o a con lic o laws ha con inued un il he e-implemen a ion o
sha ī‛a
in 1999.
Izala eme ged om an in a-Islamic con lic be ween Sheikh Gumi and he Su is. The
o ganiza ion became he majo ac o amongs e o m-o ien ed Nige ian Muslims
since i a acked he well-es ablished adi ion o Su is in he coun y. Su ism in he
Nige ian con ex also means ha ce ain eligious adi ions we e a ilia ed wi h
poli ical and economic powe . The Qādi iyya Su i b o he hood is adi ionally linked o
he house o Usman dan Fodio whe eas he Tijāniyya Su i-b o he hood challenged
his posi ion o a long ime.
The os ensible eason o he es ablishmen o Izala was o pu i y Islam om
all inno a ions. Fo se e al yea s Izala a acked Su ism on his ma e , bu i was also
a s uggle o e he in e p e a i e au ho i y in Islamic issues which is di ec ly linked o
ques ions o powe . A e he di ision o he mo emen discou se on
bidʿa
became
pa o he in e nal s uggle o he mo emen . One in e es ing inding o his s udy is
352
a pa icula doc ine led o he di ision o he mo emen . E en he se e al a emp s o
uni y he di e en ac ions ailed. As we ha e seen he same Izala is di ided in o wo
“ i ms”: one in Jos, ela ed o he ounde and his doc ine. To a ac mo e ollowe s
his i m de eloped he s a egy claiming ha hey a e mo e au hen ic. The o he
g oup is es ablished in Kaduna and is con inced ha he di ision was necessa y o
sa e he o ganiza ion’s ini ial and au hen ic goals. The le el o success o Izala can
be measu ed in acco dance wi h he model sugges ed by S a k. In his con ex he
p oposed en necessa y poin s o a eligious mo emen o be success ul.
Fi s , Izala seems o be success ul in e aining “cul u al con inui y wi h he
con en ional ai h”. Izala is a con inua ion o he p ojec o pu i ica ion o Islam
ini ia ed by Sheikh Gumi and Sheikh Id is. Izala sees i sel as he ideal p o ec o o
he
sunna
. I places i sel wi hin he adi ion o pious p edecesso s ha goes back o
he i s cen u ies o Islam.
Second, Rodney s a k assumes ha new eligious mo emen s can be
success ul o he ex en ha hei doc ines a e non-empi ical. S a k ga e he
example o he Jeho ah’s Wi nesses who ”su e ed e y ma ked decline in
missiona y ac i i y” a e hei expec a ion o he end o he wo ld did no ake place.
The poin he e is ha a success ul eligious mo emen has a non-empi ical doc ine.
In ac , his can also be p o ed o he Izala case. I showed ea lie ha
bidʿa
o
inno a ion is an “open sys em o meanings”. Figh ing inno a ion in Islam and
es ablishing he
sunna
a e he wo elemen s o Izala doc ine. Izala o e s a unique
way o achie e ewa d in he a e li e. This dogma canno be p o en empi ically.

353
Thi d, eligious mo emen s succeed i hey main ain a medium le el o ension
wi h hei su ounding en i onmen - hey a e s ic bu no oo s ic . Indeed Izala
main ained a medium le el o ension wi h i s su ounding en i onmen . The e a e
se e al ma ke s o Izala. These a y om he way o p aying o d ess code o he
mo emen . The mo emen opposes o e.g. wea ing o amule s and jus i ies his by
he ac ha such a p ac ice does no exis in he undamen al sou ces o Islam on
one hand. On he o he hand, Izala does no oppose non-Izala a ending hei
schools a di e en le els o educa ion. This illus a es a ‘medium’ aspec o
s ic ness o he mo emen .
Fou h, legi ima e leade s o eligious mo emen s ha e adequa e au ho i y.
This equi es clea doc inal jus i ica ion and pa icipan s ecognize hemsel es as
membe s o his sys em o au ho i y. In he case o Izala his assump ion can be
opposed by he ac ha he mo emen was di ided in o wo ac ions. The leade ship
o Sheikh Id is seems no o ha e been e ec i e enough so ha i could be
ecognized by all Izala membe s. In ac , many Izala people ques ioned he
legi imacy o his leade ship and o med ano he g oup wi h a new au ho i y and mo e
“legi ima e” leade s.
Fi h, eligious mo emen s can gene a e a highly mo i a ed, olun ee eligious
o ce willing o p osely ize. This is absolu ely applicable o Izala. Membe s o he
mo emen a e highly mo i a ed. Thei ac i i ies and con ibu ions wi hin he
mo emen a e no paid. Each membe conside s himsel an Izala- ep esen a i e who
can ansmi i s message and p opaga e i s doc ine.
354
Six h, he le el o e ili y ha o se he le el o mo ali y equi ed o any
eligious mo emen o su i e. This poin can also be iden i ied in Izala since i
p oduced and s ill p oduces leade s and membe s able o gua an ee he con inua ion
o he mo emen ’s doc ine.
Se en h, Rodney S a k assumes ha eligious mo emen s p ospe so ha
hey compe e agains weak, local eligious o ganiza ions wi hin a ela i ely
un egula ed eligious ma ke . This can be empi ically p o ed wi h Izala. Since i s
es ablishmen in 1978 Izala has been compe ing wi h o he Muslim g oups in
no he n Nige ia. This compe i ion has led o he ecogni ion o Izala as pa o he
eligious landscape. Izala ejec s igno ance abou Islam and asks Muslims o
in ensi y hei knowledge in his ield. Izala in i es people o ejec any a ilia ion wi h
Su ism and join he mo emen ’s s uggle o a “pu i ied” Islam. By doing ha , Izala is
in a con inuous compe i ion o legi imacy wi h o he Muslim g oups.
Eigh h, new eligious mo emen s will succeed o he ex en ha hey sus ain
s ong a achmen s, while emaining an open social ne wo k which is able o main ain
and o m ies o ou side s. This p oposi ion can also be a i med in he Izala con ex .
Izala o e s a eligious and social se ice o i s ollowe s. A he same ime Izala is an
open social ne wo k. I s goal is o b ing newcome s and “con e s” non-Muslims and
in eg a e hem in o i s doc ine. Izala main ains “bonds” o ne wo ks o non-Izala. This
happens ei he h ough educa ion (a schools ecei ing pupils om di e en g oups
and o ien a ions) o h ough social in e ac ion wi h o he Muslims/non-Muslims. This
openness is necessa y o he mo emen o be a ac i e o ou side s.
355
Nin h, a eligious mo emen con inues o g ow so ha i can main ain su icien
ension wi h i s en i onmen . This is applicable o Izala, since he mo emen
main ains a ce ain le el o s ic ness owa ds o he g oups. The le el o s ic ness
has dec eased since he i s yea s o he es ablishmen un il oday. The mo emen
s ill de ines i s own iden i y and eligious o ien a ion, bu seems o be mo e
accomoda ing o o he s. This can be a seen as a way o adap a ion o he necessi ies
o he eligious en i onmen in no he n Nige ia.
Ten h, a eligious mo emen has o socialize wi h he young su icien ly, well
as o minimize bo h de ec ion and he appeal o educed s ic ness. In ac , you h a e
he a ge o Izala. The mo emen is in eg a ed in a pa icula ype o educa ion a
Izala schools. These schools and ins i u ions a e known o high le els o
compe i ion. G adua es especially ecognize he Izala s ic ness o achie ing i s goal
o es ablishing an Islamic educa ion based on he Qu ’ān and
sunna
and a away o
any inno a ion. Izala is known - e en by ou side s o he mo emen – by i s s ic ness
in achie ing goals.
Rodney S a k lis ed hese en poin s o any eligious mo emen willing o
achie e a ce ain le el o success. A he same ime, he expec s ailu e o any
eligious mo emen o a ying easons, like di ision o he appea ance o new
leade ship wi h new ideas o app oaches ela ed o au hen ici y. S a k a gues ha
mos eligious mo emen s sha e one aspec which he called “e en ual ailu e”. In
ac , Izala aced his ailu e when i was di ided in o wo majo g oups du ing he li e
ime o i s ounde , Sheikh Id is. Fo many yea s he con lic ing Izala pa ies
356
s uggeled o e legi imacy and au hen ici y. Bo h sides kep he same name and he
same s uc u e and con inued p eaching o people in he name o he “au hen ic”
Izala ha calls Muslims o he igh pa h o Islam. Su p isingly, Izala ound i s way o
euni ica ion in 2011.
781
This may con i m S a k’s heo y ha ailu e emains
“e en ual”.
Se e al aspec s o he “modes o eligiosi y heo y” (see in oduc o y chap e )
in oduced by Whi ehouse can be p o en in he Izala con ex . The wo basic
elemen s o his heo y ( emembe ing and mo i a ion) a e pa o Izala’s doc ine.
Izala insis s on e i alism o he
sunna
o he P ophe . This e i al should happen ia
s udying his adi ion and making i an indispensable pa o he daily eligious
ou ine. The o ganiza ion o e s an easy access o his adi ion: i p oposes he
ele an Qu anic e ses and
ḥadī h
quo a ions. I p oduces books and p eaches o
he adhe en s. Izala de elops i s educa ional cu icula acco ding o i s needs. Ha ing
his ideology epea ed o adhe en s in schools, mosques, in media, in w i ings, CDs
and in audio-casse es, he doc ine can be p ese ed inde ini ely. The mo i a ion o
Izala membe s (like any Muslims) is o achie e he ewa d o Allah. These elemen s
can also be ound in he con ex o Su i b o he hoods insis ing on he su i al o hei
sheiks and hei
ṭa īqa
. Memo iza ion is pa o hei doc ine and daily epe i ion o
li anies keeps his doc ine ali e. Membe s o Su i g oups ha e he same mo i a ion
( ewa d, pa adise) as Izala, bu di e in hei me hods o eaching such a goal.
781
I did no conduc esea ch on he euni ica ion o he mo emen . I accomplished my PhD p ojec
be o e ha e en ook place. The euni ica ion a e many yea s o di ision may be an in e es ing opic
o u u e esea ch on Izala.
357
Whi ehouse gi es wo ypes o eligious modes: a doc inal and an imagis ic
one. All aspec s o he doc inal mode o eligiosi y a e iden i iable in Izala as well as
among Su i-g oups ( i uals, long- e m-episodic memo y, eligious leade s, hie a chy
and o hodoxy). The ini ial assump ion ha Su ism may be ca ego ized unde he
imagis ic mode o eligiosi y can be disp o ed. Su i b o he hoods like any o he
Islamic g oups expe ienced e o m(s). Among he p ac ices in Su ism ha we e a ely
pe o med (imagis ic modes o eligiosi y) became pa o he doc ine i sel . The use
o d ums (
bandi i
) was in oduced by la e Sheikh Nasi u Kaba a, he Qādi iyya leade
in Kano, and became a c ucial elemen in he Qādi iyya-doc ine.
782
Two c ucial
aspec s p oposed by Whi ehouse when i comes o imagis ic modes o eligiosi y a e:
low equency and high emo ional a ousal. This assump ion can be igh ully
obse ed du ing celeb a ions like he bi hday o he P ophe o ha o he
ṭa īqa
ounde Sheikh ʿAbd al-Qādi al-Jilānī. These celeb a ions ake place once a yea and
a e widely dis inguished wi h a lo o emo ions. Ne e heless, he heo y can be
con adic ed by he ac ha he daily and weekly p ac ices o Su is a e pe o med
equen ly wi h high emo ional a ousal. Tijānī‘s eci e hei li anies (A abic:
aw ād
)
wice a day. They pa icipa e daily in so-called
waẓī a
, o cong ega ional eci a ion o
a Tijānī o mula. Also he Qādi iyya ollowe s o ganize he so called
ḥaḍ a
(in A abic:
cong ega ional i ual) and
dhik
ei he on Thu sdays o F idays. The use o d ums
and he epe i ion o eligious songs ei he in he
zāwiya
o in he mosque go oge he
782
Fo he
bandi i
pe o mance in mosques by he Qādi iyya, see La kin, B ian (2004): Bandi i Music,
Globaliza ion, and U ban Expe ience in Nige ia, in: Social Tex 81, Vol. 22(4), pp. 91-112; also Buba,
Malami and G aham Fu niss (1999): You h Cul u e, bandi i, and he Con inuing Legi imacy Deba e in
Soko o Town, In: Jou nal o A ican Cul u al S udies, Vol. 12 (1), pp. 27-46.

358
wi h a e y high le el o emo ion. Whi ehouse iden i ies “emo ional bonds be ween
pa icipan s”
783
esul ed om he high emo ional a ousal in he con ex o he
imagis ic mode. In ac , hese “emo ional bonds” can be obse ed on a daily basis
du ing he cong ega ional mee ings o Su is. I would a gue ha hese emo ions a e
ela ed o he doc inal con lic be ween Su is and Izala. Any eligious p ac ice
pe o med can be a place o showing emo ions and dis ancing om o he g oups.
Du ing my ield wo k I obse ed ha Su is o ganize om ime o ime
walīma
(in
A abic: ga he ings like ma iage o bi h). In many cases, i is accompanied wi h ood
and celeb a ions. The Izala g oup also ini ia ed such a
walīma
as an answe o he
Su i b o he hoods. Izala makes a poin o only eci e he Qu ’ān. This is also a way o
show high emo ions and dis ance om Su i p ac ices.
783
Whi ehouse (2002), p. 307.
359
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Abs ac (English)
The Izala Mo emen in Nige ia: I s Spli , Rela ionship o Su is and Pe cep ion o
Sha ia Re-Implemen a ion
Ramzi Ben Ama a
Abs ac
The eligious landscape o No he n Nige ia is e y he e ogeneous. Ne e heless wo
Su i B o he hoods, he Tijāniyya and he Qādi iyya domina ed he eligious ield un il
he 1970s. This si ua ion changed in 1978 wi h he appea ance o
Jama’a ul Izala zul
Bid’a wa Ikama is Sunna
(Socie y o Remo al o Inno a ion and Rees ablishmen o
he Sunna). This e o m mo emen was es ablished o igh he so called
bidac
(in
A abic: non-Islamic inno a ions) on he basis o he adi ion o he P ophe . The long
Islam adi ion in Nige ia has o be “pu i ied” and he model o
al-sala al-ṣāliḥ
(in
A abic: he pious p edecesso s) should be ollowed. This c ea ed nume ous ensions
be ween Izala and Su i B o he hoods.
In 1999 and du ing he p ocess o ansi ion o he Fou h Republic Nige ia, Islamic
Penal Law was e-implemen ed by he Go e no o Zam a a S a e Ahmad Sani
Ye iman Baku u. This s ep was ollowed by ele en no he n s a es. This mean
amongs o he s he in oduc ion o
ḥudūd
-punishmen s – co po al punishmen s like
lashing, hand ampu a ion, o s oning o dea h. The e-implemen a ion p o oked a
deba e in and ou side Nige ia. Many obse e s aised ques ions ela ed o he
cons i u ionali y o Sha ia-laws, human igh s, eligious eedom and o he
democ a ic p ocess. Opinions on his p ocess we e di ided.
Almos all Islamic o ganiza ions o Nige ia s ood o he e-implemen a ion o Islamic
Law. Izala was among hose who suppo ed ha p ojec . Sha ia goes side by side
wi h Izala doc ine o “islamizing he socie y”. Izala was eady o comp omise wi hin
he Sha ia con ex and a kind o “domes ica ion” o he long-going Izala-Su i s uggle
seems o ha e aken place. Du ing he Sha ia- eimplemen a ion, no Islamic
o ganiza ion (excep o Shii e mo emen ) isked opposing Sha ia. Islamic Law was
s a ed by a single poli ician wi hin a poli ical campaign and a e him he masses
pushed in ele en s a es o ha e Sha ia e-implemen ed.