Sąvokos „sąjūdis“ įsišaknijimas lietuvių kalboje

VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research interests: morphosyntax, semantics, typology, grammatical hierarchies, secondary predicates. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONCEPT SĄJŪDIS IN THE LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE Establishment of the Concept movement in Lithuanian ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to examine the renewed relevance and dissemination of the concept movement in contemporary Lithuanian. Using the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian compiled by the Centre for Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas, it was established that 28 words derived directly from the noun movement or from its derivatives are used in Lithuanian: 14 nouns, 12 adjectives, and one verb and one adverb. The article discusses these words from the perspective of their use, indicating their meanings and forms, frequency of use, and sources. For comparison, examples found using the internet search engine Google are presented. KEYWORDS: derivatives of the word sąjūdis, suffixal derivatives, prefixal derivatives, compound words, degree of productivity. ANNOTATION The aim of this study is to analyse the growing relevance of the concept sąjūdis and its spread in contemporary Lithuanian. By referring to the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language developed by the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Kaunas Vytautas Magnus University, it was established that 28 words that were formed from the noun sąjūdis directly or from the formations of this word are used in Lithuanian: 14 nouns, 12 adjectives, one verb, and one adverb. These words are discussed from the perspective of word formation in the article by providing their meanings, forms, frequency of usage, and sources. For the sake of comparison, examples found through the web search engine Google are provided. KEYWORDS: word formations sąjūdis, suffixal derivatives, prefixal derivatives, compound words, level of word formation. 144 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsisąkinijimas lietuvių kalboje 1. INTRODUCTION “As long as it is alive and serves as the most important means of communication among members of society, language gradually continues to change. These changes immediately affect only a very small part of the language as a whole and manifest themselves in the disappearance, alteration, or emergence of individual elements. Of all language changes, the emergence of new words is the fastest and easiest to notice” (Urbutis 1978: 27). The main reason for the emergence of new words is new phenomena, new values, and changes in culture and the world. One such important phenomenon was the Lithuanian Reform Movement Sąjūdis. On June 3, 1988, during an event held in the hall of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences to discuss the draft Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR, a proposal was put forward to form an initiative group for the Lithuanian Reform Movement Sąjūdis. Before long, Sąjūdis, widely supported and backed by all sections of society, became a real political force. On October 22–23, 1988, the founding congress of the Lithuanian Reform Movement Sąjūdis took place in Vilnius, formalizing Sąjūdis as a public movement. On August 23, 1989, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Lithuanian Sąjūdis, together with the Estonian and Latvian Popular Fronts, invited the inhabitants of the occupied Baltic states to take part in the Baltic Way event. During it, two million people demanding independence joined hands to form an unbroken human chain from Vilnius to Tallinn. This event showed that the independence of the three Baltic states was sought not only by national movements but also by the nations themselves. On March 11, 1990, the Lithuanian Reform Movement Sąjūdis, taking advantage of the formal democracy of the Soviet SSR and the openness and democratization proclaimed by perestroika, succeeded in peacefully restoring Lithuania’s independence1. From that time onward, the word sąjūdis came into widespread use in Lithuanian. The Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language, compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas (hereafter DLKT)2, contains 9,084 examples of the word sąjūdis in different forms. The aim of this study3 is to examine the entrenchment of the concept sąjūdis in Lithuanian, investigate the word-formation nest of the word sąjūdis, and determine which word-formation devices 1 For more details, see genocid.lt/UserFiles/File/Atmintinos_datos/2013/201306_sajudis.pdf. 2 Available online: http://donelaitis.vdu.lt [accessed 2018 01–2018 05]. 3 This topic is examined as part of the long-term programme carried out by the Semantic and Economic Linguistics Group of the Centre for Standard Language Research at the Institute of the Lithuanian Language, in the course of research on the ideological narrative of modern identity. The programme aims to investigate lexical and semantic changes and their causes, as well as structural changes, in order to determine which linguistic changes are relevant to the ideological narrative of modern identity, and thereby enable the compilation of a corpus of journalistic texts and a new database of the vocabulary of modern identity. Straipsniai / Articles 145 V E S L A V A Č I Ž I K - P R O K A Š E V A which are most commonly used in creating new words, which forms are most frequently used, how often and in which sources they are used4. After describing the cases found, the semantic fields of words with the stem sąjūd- are identified. The aim is thus to contribute to research on the current state and tendencies of neologism formation. In examining these words, the descriptive-analytical and reverse-analysis methods will be applied, as well as word-formation and semantic analysis. By means of generalization, the entrenchment of the concept sąjūdis in the Lithuanian language will be established, while the research data will be summarized statistically and presented in a table and diagrams. The article draws primarily on examples from DLKT. If a word occurs only once in DLKT, examples found using the internet search engine Google are provided for comparison. A total of 441 examples were collected: 380 from DLKT (from fiction, nonfiction, administrative literature, and journalistic sources) and 61 from the internet. 2. WORD-FORMATION TYPES OF SĄJŪDIS Changes related to word-formation types best reflect changes in the entire word-formation system. Although word-formation devices change very little, the productivity of certain word-formation types develops, providing language researchers with valuable information about general laws of language development. Recently, more attention has been devoted to specific areas of word formation. Saulius Ambrazas examined the development of noun formation (Ambrazas 1993, 2000). Giedrius Subčius investigated neologisms in Simonas Daukantas’s Great Polish–Lithuanian Dictionary (Subčius 1993). Stasys Ke nys focused on term formation and, in the book Word Formation in Standard Lithuanian (1999), presents a systematic synchronic account of word formation. Jolanta Vaskelienė devotes considerable attention to word-formation synonyms (Vaskelienė 2000, 2002, 2004; Vaskelienė, Kvašytė 2006; Vaskelienė, Kūčinskienė 2012). Jūdita Džežulskienė (2001) is interested in mobile nouns. The formation of potential and occasional derivatives has been discussed by Jurgita Mikelionienė (2002), while Gražina Akelaitienė (1996) describes morphological vowel alternation in word formation. Jurgita Girčienė investigates equivalents of new loanwords and neologisms (Girčienė 2005, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2013). Neologisms are also studied by Dava Murmulaitė (2014, 2016a, b) and the Lithuanian Neologism Database (available online: 4 I am sincerely grateful to the reviewers for their very valuable comments, especially to the reviewer who offered advice on word-formation matters. 5 Searches were conducted for words in various cases and forms. 146 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje http://naujazodziai.lk.lt) sudaryta Rita Miliūnaitė (2014, 2015). Naujųjų skolinių veiksmažodžių morfologija domėjosi Jurgis Pakerys (2013). The noun sąjūdis is not a simple word; it is a derivative, more precisely, a derivative formed with the ending -is, derived from the prefixed verb sujunti or sujudėti. The electronic version of Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ) gives three meanings of the word sąjūdis: 1. a public commotion, movement: Sąjūdis is a collective movement; 2. a disturbance, commotion, confusion: Such a commotion arose that everyone ran out; 3. movement: The first ice movement (Ulydas, chief ed., 1981: 17t). The Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (hereafter DLKŽ) gives only two meanings of the word sąjūdis: 1. a concentrated public movement: National (ethnic) movement; 2. a commotion, disturbance: The greatest commotion in the whole village (Keinys, chief ed., 2000: 670t). This word not only changed the history of all Lithuania, but also enriched the Lithuanian language with new words6. In this article, the words under discussion are first classified according to their word-formation method7. Suffixal derivatives are discussed first8, followed by prefixal derivatives, 6 “The role of word formation can be described as the principal means of enriching the lexicon, through which new words arise from existing ones by modifying their morphological structure” (Urbutis 1978: 29). 7 This article follows the classification of word-formation methods presented in Lithuanian Grammar and Grammar of Contemporary Lithuanian: only suffixal, prefixal, and ending derivatives, as well as compounds, are distinguished. Some linguists, for example Vincas Urbutis and Stasys Keinys, in addition to the four aforementioned “principal,” “pure” word-formation methods, also identify a pair of secondary mixed methods, namely prefix-suffix and compounding-suffixation. “We have a mixed method of word formation when two different methods of word formation operate simultaneously in forming a word. Prefixation-suffixation includes derivatives with a prefix and a suffix for which there are no corresponding derivatives formed with only a prefix or only a suffix” (Urbutis 1978: 289). It is debatable whether it is useful to distinguish a mixed word-formation method, especially when among the examples given for prefix-suffix formations are items alongside which corresponding suffixal derivatives alone are widely used (e.g., povestuvinis and vestuvinis—Google gives 4,800 and 23,900 occurrences, respectively, for all sales uses), and, as the linguists themselves state, the role of these word-formation methods in Lithuanian word formation is very minor (see Urbutis 1978: 290; Keinys 1999: 23). Some of the words described in the article have both a prefix and a suffix, or have a suffix and are compounds. This might suggest that they are formed by a mixed method, but the very widespread use of the corresponding form containing only a suffix indicates that the word is a suffixal derivative or a compound, with the compound simply being of a higher degree (on degrees of word formation, see footnote 10). 8 “A derivative is a formation made from a single base word with an affixal formant. Its type is determined by the nature of its affix. The suffix is the principal word-formation device, while the ending is secondary. The formant of prefixal derivatives consists either of a prefix alone or of a prefix together with a specific ending, which in this case is a secondary word-formation device. Since prefixes are historically related to prepositions, the classification of formations established in traditional historical word formation is sometimes still followed, according to which words formed with prefixes are classified as compounds” (Morkūnas, ed., 2008: 590). For example, Aldona Paulauskienė believes that the concept of compounding should be broadened to include prefixal nouns among compounds (Paulauskienė 1994: 49, 88). Straipsniai / Articles 147 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA then compound words9 (this classification is established in Lithuanian linguistics; see Ulvydas, ed. in chief, 1965: 253ff.; Urbutis 1978: 283ff.; Paulauskienė 1994: 48ff.; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 86; Keinys 1999: 22ff.; Ružė 2008: 12ff.; Morkūnas, comp., 2008: 121), and finally words that, for certain reasons, could not be assigned to a specific word-formation group are discussed. The words in each group are described in alphabetical order; for each one, its meaning, derivational level10, the word-formation affix used to form it, the forms in which it occurs in Lithuanian, and the sources in which they are attested are indicated. 2.1. Suffixal derivatives Examples found in DLKT show that most derivatives formed from the word sąjudis are suffixal derivatives—9 words; 6 of them are third-level derivatives and 3 are fourth-level derivatives11. sąjūdis12 – a third-level derivative, formed with the suffix -ėlis from the noun sąjūdis. It occurs 3 times in DLKT: the masculine plural nominative form occurs twice, and the genitive form once. Derivatives with the suffix -ėlis denote the same thing as the base word, but usually of a different size (most often smaller), or at least describe it in a way that conveys an evaluation of the thing and emotions associated with it (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 87), for example: 9 “A compound is a derivative formally and semantically based on two independent words. Its word-formation formant is the formal joining of two words into one, while its derivational base consists of two constituents, which may be word stems, whole words, or inflected forms of words. Compounds belonging to a single part of speech can be further grouped according to the parts of speech to which the base words of one or the other constituent belong” (Morkūnas, comp., 2008: 148ff.). 10 V. Urbutis proposes using the terms first-, second- or third-level derivatives when discussing derivatives, to indicate how many stages of word formation make up a word (see Urbutis 1978: 89ff.). Compare these with the terms primary, secondary (etc.) suffixes proposed by Adelė Valekienė: “A word may contain not one but two or more derivational suffixes, but they are not of the same order. In forming a word, only one suffix is added at a time. If a word is formed from an underived word, the suffix added to its root is called primary. When a word is formed from a derivative that already has one suffix, the new suffix is placed after the primary one and is called a secondary suffix, and so on” (Valekienė 1998: 301). Also compare A. Paulauskienė’s use of the concept of the same (not a single) word-formation step (see Paulauskienė 1994: 49) and S. Keinys’s proposal to specify the number of word-formation stages (see Keinys 1999: 31, 106). This article adopts the terms proposed by V. Urbutis because they indicate the course of a word’s formation more precisely and allow the level of different word-formation methods to be designated with a single term. 11 It should be recalled that the word sąjūdis is itself a second-level derivative. 12 In the text, derived words (nouns and adjectives) are presented in the neutral form—the singular masculine nominative (the exception is the word desjudizacija, which is a feminine noun and cannot be presented otherwise). 148 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje 1) Jie tik jaučia sąžinės įpareigojimą, arba visuomeninės sąmonės bėldimas, ar- ba tautinės atsakomybės šūkį, kartais lyg dangus belsą: eik, dark, judink. Tokie randą panašiai jaučiančių, galvojančių, nerimstančių, buriasi į sąjū-dėlius ir imasi darbo: keičia gyvenimą – skaidrina, tobulina, kelia, kuria naują atmosferą. DLKT 2) Historically, the ateitininkai took shape as a movement and became an organization. Small movements were present, sometimes more prominently, sometimes less so, as the organization developed. DLKT All the examples are drawn from a single journalistic source—Gediminas Mikėlaitis’s book „Tolyn į laiką, glyn į gelmę... kun. Stasys Yla raštuose ir atsiminimuose“. Since Father S. Yla lived before Sąjūdis came into being, the word used in the source should not be associated with the Lithuanian Reform Movement. This interpretation is also supported by examples of the noun sąjūdis found on websites: 3) The main obstacle to this, both then and now, has been our fragmentation into associations, little associations, into movements and little movements. (http://www.draugas.org/archive/1964_reg/1964-09-25-DRAUGAS.pdf) 4) —Now, I dare say, this is happening without malice. It is connected with certain regional movements and with trends in Europe, matters defined by the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. And it is clear from history that the aim was to partition Lithuania, and that was all. (https://kultura.lrytas.lt/literatura/2008/04/18/news/lyt-as-lt-paskaita-2-istorikas-a-bumblauskas-kas-kaip-ir-kodel-manipuliuoja-zemaitijos-istorija--590820). sąjūdis is a third-degree derivative, formed with the suffix -ietis from the noun sąjis. It occurs 32 times in DLKT: 3 times in the feminine singular nominative form, twice in the masculine singular nominative form, once in the genitive form, 10 times in the masculine plural nominative form, 8 times in the accusative form, twice in the dative form, and 3 times each in the genitive and instrumental forms. Of the examples found in DLKT, 29 occur in journalistic sources, 2 in literary sources, and 1 in an administrative source. These derivatives denote a person’s affiliation, on the basis of ideology or activity, with some group of people (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 140): 5) The delegates to the founding congress represented 180 thousand people. At that time, at least a million residents of Lithuania called themselves members of the movement. DLKT 6) Pirmadienį į iniciatyvų sąjūdiečiai pristatė Prezidentui V. Adamkų. DLKT In one instance, this noun is used with a different meaning—as the name of a self-expression group: Straipsniai / Articles 149 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA 7) The cultural self-publication “Sąjūdiečiai” seeks to have public representatives—lay judges—appointed to the courts. DKT DKG states that derivatives denoting a person’s affiliation, on the basis of ideology or activity, with some group of people are generally agent nouns, while the usual meaning of words formed with this suffix is designations for people derived from the names of the towns, small towns, and villages where they live (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 139t). Sąjūdis-like – a fourth-degree derivative, a derivative formed with the suffix -iškas from the noun Sąjūdis. In DKT this adjective occurs 8 times: the feminine singular nominative form occurs 3 times, the genitive form once, the masculine singular nominative form once, the accusative form twice, and the masculine plural instrumental form once. Five examples were found in journalistic sources, 2 in nonfiction sources, and 1 in an administrative-literature source. This adjective is used with two meanings: • in a figurative sense of similarity, denoting not “like what,” but “like whom or what” (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 8) It was not possible to attract any “deceived voters” to the Homeland Union. Unless some of the votes were “won back” from other, Sąjūdis-like terminology, “lawful” parties, relying on the argument for a two-party system that “votes must not be split.” DKT • denotes an essential property of a thing, when the thing named by the base word constitutes the essence or foundation of the thing expressed by the modified word (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 9) At that time it was only theory, since the entire press was totally ideological, Sąjūdis-like. We understood our mission as writing something important and significant for the history of Lithuania. DKT DKG indicates that “the most characteristic productive meaning of the denominal adjective suffix -iškas, -a is ‘similar to the thing denoted by the base word’” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207). The adjectives found with this meaning, Sąjūdis-like, do not have this meaning. Sąjūdis activist – a third-degree derivative, a derivative formed with the suffix -ininkas from the noun Sąjūdis. In DKT this noun occurs as many as 234 times. Only 4 feminine nouns were found: the singular nominative form occurs 3 times, and the instrumental form once. Masculine forms are much more widespread. Singular forms are used much less often than plural forms. This noun is used in all case forms (except the locative): the singular nominative form occurs 28 times, the genitive 6, the dative 2, the accusative 5, and the instrumental 2 times. The plural nominative form occurs 78 times, the genitive 73 times, the dative 13 times, the accusative 17 times, and the instrumental form 6 times. 210 examples were found in journalistic sources, 150 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsišaknijimas lietuvių kalboje 18—in literary sources, and 5 examples were found in administrative literature; one—in a non-fiction source. These derivatives denote a person (or persons) by reference to the person (or group of persons) whose supporter and follower the person using the derivative is (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 114). The noun sąjūdininkas denotes a person who is a member, supporter, or follower of Sąjūdis: 10) The only thing that is clear is that today’s Lithuanian state is governed not by its citizens, and still less by sąjūdininkai. By “governed,” I mean not the presence of specific people in power, but what actually determines the nature and direction of the country’s life and development. DLT 11) Pipinė learns that Sąjūdis already has its own people in the Supreme Council, publishes a newspaper, and appears on television screens. When, after the lecture, an envelope was handed to the sąjūdininkui, pain gripped Jonas Pipinė’s heart. DLT The noun sąjūdininkas often has a modifying word and is made more specific, e.g.: Kaunas / Klaipėda Sąjūdis activists, the first / most prominent / true Sąjūdis activists, ordinary / persistent / steadfast Sąjūdis activists, University Sąjūdis activists, young / old Sąjūdis activists, present-day / former Sąjūdis activists. Like the noun sąjūdietis, such derivatives are considered neologisms (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 114). sąjūdininkiškas is a fourth-degree derivative, formed with the suffix -iškas from the noun sąjūdininkas. In DKT, this adjective occurs only once. In a journalistic source, it appears in the plural genitive form and means “characteristic of, customary for, attributed to the thing denoted by the base word, associated with that thing” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 12) Almost nothing has been done over the past month to deal with foreign policy matters. Sąjūdis-style statements in the East or the West, or the protection of correspondents, cannot be provided by a foreign policy representative. DLT More examples of this adjective can be found on websites, e.g.: 13) Many hoped they had come in order to change all this. To dare to do so, one really needs “Sąjūdis-like” resolve, the ability to acknowledge mistakes and set clear goals. (https://cyvas.wordpress.com/2009/06/08/neistarti-zodziai-didele-svente) 14) Prisimenu salėje buvusį Darių Kuolį, tada jis buvo vienas iš sąjūdininkiško literatūros almanacho „Sietynas“ bendraautorių, ar redaktorių. (https://www.facebook.com/marijampolesmuziejus.lt/posts/1224063731004328) sąjūdinis is a third-degree derivative, formed with the suffix -inis from the noun sąjūdis. In DKT, this adjective occurs 42 times: feminine singular Straipsniai / Articles 151 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA The v. form – 7 occurrences, the n. form – 1 occurrence, the g. form – 6 occurrences, the vt. form – 1 occurrence, the feminine plural v. form – 8 occurrences, the masculine singular v. form – 4 occurrences, k. – 10 occurrences, g. – 2 occurrences, vt. – 1 occurrence, and the masculine plural k. and g. forms – one occurrence each. Ten examples were found in journalistic sources, and one each in fiction and nonfiction sources. Several meanings of the adjective sąjūdinis as used in DLKT can be distinguished: “denoting something formed, performed, acquired, obtained, or arising in the manner expressed by the base word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 12): 15) Perhaps it is possible to trace in the work some signs of the time of the said [event]: pre-Sąjūdis tensions and the like? Hardly. In these countries, one can find anywhere from several to a dozen or so parliamentary and non-parliamentary groups deriving themselves from Sąjūdis structures. DLKT “belonging to the thing denoted by the base word, associated with that thing (person, collective, phenomenon, field, etc.)” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 211): 16) The Conservatives intend, after the first round of elections and depending on the situation, to support other people whom they call Sąjūdis-affiliated. DLKT “existing, occurring, or taking place at the time indicated by the base word; recurring or performed at the intervals of time expressed by the base word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 212): 17) V. Daunys’s aesthetics, oriented toward the harmony between the creator’s morality and the harmony of their creative work, had a major influence during the Sąjūdis-era upsurge and the first years of independence. DLKT “having a distinctive characteristic consisting of the thing denoted by the base word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 212): 18) Who else will write and sign, and who among them will still dare to engage in any activity of, say, a Sąjūdis-style kind? DLKT “intended or suitable for the thing denoted by the base word” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 211): 19) The leaflets of “Sąjūdis News” kept fuelling the people’s euphoria, multiplying the rotarians, as did the aforementioned “Rebirth”; in nearly every district, an alternative, Sąjūdis-oriented newspaper appeared alongside the usual local paper—right up to the Baltic Way, which drew millions and was a kind of mass gathering of Sąjūdis, after which, as the living chain dispersed, parties and small parties began to form. DLKT sąjūditas – a tertiary derivative, formed with the suffix -istas from the noun sąjūdis. It occurs three times in DLKT, in the masculine plural nominative form. One example each was found in a journalistic source, a fiction source, and 152 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsisąkinijimas lietuvių kalboje administrative literature. Words with the suffix –istas usually denote supporters or followers of a political or social tendency (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 123): 20) Since Dočys had not stamped the document “secret,” like an old Sąjūdis, open to publicity and restructuring, he decided to make the document known to the public. (http://archyvas.lietuvosarasas.lt/docio-skitis-programinis-dokumentas) The meaning of a derivational type can influence the meanings of individual words belonging to that type. Pranas Skardžius has drawn attention to the fact that variation in word meanings depends on the morphological grouping of words. He writes: “for example, the suffix –ala-, generally speaking, is entirely neutral in meaning – it mostly denotes the concrete result of an action, such as: patiekalas, tepalas, verpalas. But in some instances, having entered words with a pejorative or derogatory sense, this suffix itself has also acquired a pejorative meaning, e.g., giedalas, šnekalas and so on, which in some Samogitian dialects mean not simply singing and speech, but poor, bad singing and poor, contemptible, bad speech” (Skardžius 1996: 574)¹³. Words with the suffix –istas are also usually neutral in meaning and denote supporters or followers of philosophical, religious, scientific, artistic, or political and social tendencies, or people according to their inclinations, for example, humanistas, impresionistas, finalistas, humoristas (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 123); however, alongside words such as aferistas and teroristas, the word sąjūdis sometimes acquires pejorative and derogatory meanings, e.g.: 21) “Here are some interesting figures,” Ur. spread out several pages covered in writing, “which will vividly testify to how much the sąjūdžiai have declined and wrecked our industry and agriculture in a record-short time.” DKT 22) One used to be a Communist, another a Komsomol member, another a Sąjūdis member. It was precisely as Sąjūdis members that they used to call us, while deportees came up with even worse nicknames; some called them bandits. (http://kauno.diena.lt/naujienos/klaipeda/miesto-pulsas/v-lupeika-esu-vienas-vilkas-81736) 23) Yes, I admit it. Once, I too was a Sąjūdis member. Sąjūdis, as people used to say back then. (http://kauno.diena.lt/naujienos/nuomones/nuomones/sajudis-lietuva-istorija-564617) There is no apparent semantic difference between the words sąjūdetis, sąjūdininkas and sąjūdis. Only the word sąjūdis sometimes has a pejorative meaning. sąjūdiškai – a quaternary derivative, formed with the suffix -ai from the adjective sąjūdiškas. This adverb occurs once in DKT in a fiction 13 Dar plg. Girčienė 2003: 24. Straipsniai / Articles 153 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA in the source of the literature. Adverbs of manner define the manner in which an action takes place or is performed (see Ulvydas, ed. in chief, 1971: 431; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 422): 24) – And what will you say? You don’t write novels or read newspapers, after all. – Don’t fuss, pa-kaitės. They’re used to lying, – the sister-in-law interjected. Jonas Pipinė began his lecture in the spirit of the Sąjūdis. How everyone longed for freedom, how a little ray of hope began to shine, how a thousand-strong crowd sat in Vingis Park close to the nation’s leaders, who had come into the open… DKT Although the adverb sąjūdiškai occurs in DKT only once, it is used in contemporary Lithuanian. This is shown by examples from websites: 25) And quite plainly, “sąjūdiškai,” he says: we’ll do all the work, live on bread and water, take no pay at all, but work for you, good people! I need nothing more! (http://burgis.lt/„visi-i-rinkimus“) 26) There’s nothing wrong with this—it’s customary. After all, we agree to print an athlete’s surname without its ending on the front page, regardless of which party the athlete supports (preferably none), as long as they win medals. And it’s good that things are this way. A little more sport and we’ll reconcile; then we’ll be a “sąjūdiškai” united nation. Does anyone know a better way to unite a nation? (https://www.delfi.lt/news/ringas/politics/evreikis-nevisai-sportiski-pamastymai-olimpiaid-pabaigus.d?id=5934871). sąjūdiškas is a third-degree derivative, formed with the suffix -iškas from the noun sąjūdis. This adjective occurs six times in DKT: once each in the feminine singular nominative and accusative, the dative plural, the masculine singular genitive and plural genitive, and the neuter form. All examples were found in journalistic sources. In DKT, the adjective sąjūdiškas is used with different meanings: • in a transferred sense of similarity, i.e., as indicating not “like what,” but “like whose, what” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 27) Urbšys was a very grateful person both in life and in politics, so this correction of his is entirely understandable in the context of movement-oriented, somewhat fervently forward-moving spirit (laughs). DKT • “characteristic of, customary for, or attributed to the thing denoted by the base word, associated with that thing” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 28) He listened attentively, interacted in a friendly manner, was tolerant of radical sąjū-džiams supporters, and demonstrated solidarity and understanding. DKT • as denoting the essential characteristics of a thing, that is, indicating “that the thing denoted by the base word constitutes the essence of the thing expressed by the word it modifies,” 154 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsisąkinėjimas lietuvių kalboje foundation. This meaning is closely related to the meaning of a characteristic feature” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 207): 29) He was then chairman of the Artists’ Union. I had to take part in various movements campaigns. The writers proposed me as president of the association. DKT 2.2. Prefix derivatives Seven prefix derivatives have been formed from the word sąjūdis: one is a third-degree derivative, five are fourth-degree derivatives, and one is a fifth-degree derivative. Contemporary Lithuanian uses not only Lithuanian prefixes but also many international ones. DKG states that “there are quite a few international prefixes, but most of them occur only in one or another word borrowed from elsewhere, and are not used to form new nouns in Lithuanian” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 149). This is contradicted by the fact that almost half of the seven prefix derivatives found are formed with international prefixes14. antisąjūdinis is a fourth-degree derivative, formed with the prefix anti- from the adjective sąjūdinis15. The prefix anti- denotes opposition, antagonism to something, or being against something; this prefix corresponds to the Lithuanian prefixes prieš, priešais (see Kinderys, ed. in chief, 2001: 51). The adjective antisąjūdinis occurs twice in DKT: once in the feminine singular genitive form and once in the masculine singular nominative form. The examples were found in journalistic sources. These adjectives indicate a distinguishing feature of the phenomenon being described (see Ulvydas, ed. in chief, 1965: 571), for example: 30) The partisan interest in having its own wealthy people forced the LDDP not only to abandon many of its election pledges, but also to transform the party itself into an association of “red liberals.” Admittedly, anti-movement character and the tradition of communist discipline still keep the party from rebelling, even in the Seimas faction... DKT ¹⁴ The criteria by which some international prefixes are treated as prefixes in dictionaries of international words, while others are considered components of compound words, are unclear. For example, in the dictionary edited by Algimantas Kinderys, anti- is treated as a prefix (see Kinderys, ed. in chief, 2001: 51), whereas in the dictionary compiled by Valerija Vaitkevičiūtė it is treated as a component (understood to mean a component of a compound word; see Vaitkevičiūtė 2007: 86). In both dictionaries, de- is treated as a prefix (see Kinderys, ed. in chief, 2001: 145; Vaitkevičiūtė 2007: 216), while post- is treated in both dictionaries as the first component of compound words (see Kinderys, ed. in chief, 2001: 593; Vaitkevičiūtė 2007: 878). ¹⁵ At first, it seemed that the adjective antisąjūdinis was a suffix derivative of the noun antisąjūdis. However, a search on Google revealed that the adjective antisąjūdinis is used much more frequently than the noun antisąjūdis. It was therefore concluded that the adjective antisąjūdinis is a prefix derivative of the adjective sąjūdis. Straipsniai / Articles 155 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA 31) It is uncertain whether the Social Democrats will help the LDP, but it is clear that as the LDP loses its “anti-surge” form, its left-wing members will have somewhere to go, as if returning to restored old homes. DLKT Examples of this adjective can be found on the following websites: 32) The book separately discusses the anti-surge actions of the Soviet Union’s government institutions under review. (gs.elaba.lt/object/elaba:217204/217204.pdf) 33) The aim of this study is, drawing on archival and published sources and scholarly literature, to analyze the characteristics of the tactics employed by anti-surge forces in Lithuania during the period of national revival. (gs.elaba.lt/object/elaba:217204/217204.pdf) “Antisurge” is a third-degree derivative, formed with the prefix anti- from the noun sąjūdis. As just mentioned, the prefix anti- denotes opposition, hostility toward something, or being against something (see Kinderys, ed., 2001: 51). The noun antsižūdis occurs 4 times in published sources: the masculine singular nominative form 3 times and the plural genitive form once, for example: 34) There were various attempts to create a kind of anti-surges, to divide and unsettle people. Several such attempts failed. The last one tried to establish a “Forum of the Future.” DLKT 35) – This is a continuation of the same process of party formation. If the LKP were reorganized into the LDDP as an anti-surge (I see no other distinguishing feature, since in many cases it is more liberalist than the liberals and more conservative than the conservatives), then now, when its political potential has been exhausted by the authorities, its fate can be projected only in a definite form. DLKT “Pre-surge” is a fourth-degree derivative, formed with the prefix iki- from the adjective sąjūdis. Neither LKG nor DLKG mentions adjectives derived with the prefix iki-. LKG offers only the following information: “In contemporary literary language there are a number of adjectives with prefixes and suffixes. Such formations are most often derived from combinations of prepositions and nouns. They have the suffix -inis and various prefixes. All prefixed-suffixed adjectives retain meanings dependent on both constituent elements (the prefix and the noun), distinguish the things denoted from others, and indicate a type of thing, like the nominal prefixed adjectives of the second group. For example: boundless kindness, preschool age, postwar period, prewar life...” (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 591). Such derivatives cannot be considered compound words or derivatives formed by a mixed method. Compound words are formed from the stems of two independent words (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 228), whereas a preposition, as is known, 156 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje is “a non-independent part of speech consisting of indeclinable words that help express the syntactic and semantic relations of the oblique cases of nouns and pronouns to the forms of other independent words” (ibid.: 437). Therefore, adjectives of this type, such as pre-Sąjūdis, post-Sąjūdis, and anti-Sąjūdis, are regarded as derivatives formed with prepositions. LKE lists 17 adjectives formed with the preposition iki- and the suffix -inis, denoting a time that preceded or came before the time expressed by the base word, e.g.: pre-appointment, pre-revolutionary, pre-holiday. Thus, the adjective ikisąjūdinis also denotes a time before or preceding Sąjūdis. In DLKT this adjective occurs 6 times: the feminine singular locative form occurs once, the plural genitive form once, the masculine singular nominative and instrumental forms once each, and the plural genitive and instrumental forms also once each. Of the examples found in DLKT, 4 are from journalistic sources and 2 from administrative literature: 36) In response to J. Šorys’s observation that, now that borders have opened, the Schengen Area obliges us to cherish folklore and traditions even more than in pre-Sąjūdis times, J. Šemetaitė assures us that “the idea of solidarity among the Baltic countries has endured since then.” DLKT 37) Many heated meetings and discussions were held at the Writers’ Union even during the pre-Sąjūdis period. DLKT nesąjūdietiškas is a fifth-degree derivative, formed with the prefix ne- from the adjective sąjūdietiškas. As stated in LKG, “from every adjective it is possible to form a suffixed adjective with the negation particle ne. All these derivatives denote a quality opposite to that expressed by the base word” (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 589). In DLKT the adjective nesąjūdietiškas occurs only once, in a journalistic source in the feminine plural nominative form: 38) The United Sąjūdis faction was established in the Supreme Council. The point of this move is clear: the other factions are nesąjūdietiškos, and they began to be viewed as enemies. DLKT Only one example of this adjective was also found on the Internet—in the masculine singular genitive form: 39) We apologize to the citizens of Belarus for the disrespect and nesąjūdietišką conduct of the responsible officials of Lithuania’s highest institutions. (http://www.voruta.lt/ lietuvos-sajudzio-vilniaus-skyriaus-valdybos-pareiskimas-del-baltarusijos-pilieciu-neleidimo-i-lietuva) posąjūdinis is a fourth-degree derivative, formed with the prefix po- from the adjective sąjūdinis. LKG and DLK discuss adjectives formed with the prefix po-, but do not distinguish a temporal meaning for such adjectives (Ulvydas, ed. Straipsniai / Articles 157 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA red., 1965: 58; Ambrazas, red., 1996: 225). Laiko reikšmė skiriama tik priešdėlinių po- vedinių daiktavardžių: „Kai kurie priešdėlio po- vediniai žymi laiką, arba einantį tuojau po pamatiniu žodžiu pasakyto laiko, arba už jį kiek ankstesnį“ (Ambrazas, red., 1996: 148). Kaip jau minėta, visi priešdėliniai priesaginiai būdvardžiai išaugo nuo abiejų sudaromųjų dalių (priesėdžio ir daiktavardžio) priklausomą reikšmę (Ulvidas, vyr. red., 1965: 591), todėl turi būti skiriama ir priešdėlio po- vedinių būdvardžių laiko reikšmė (plg. su LKŽe pateikiamais pavyzdžiais: pobaudžiamis, pocarinis, pogimdyminis, pomokinis). Vadina, būdvardis posąjudinis ir žymi laiką, kuris eina, vyksta po laiko, pasakyto pamatiniu žodžiu. DKT šis būdvardis pavartotas 10 kartų: mot. g. vns. v. forma – 2 kartus, įn. ir vt. formomis, dgs. v. ir g. formomis, vyr. g. vns. v., n. ir g. formomis ir dgs. k. forma – po vieną kartą. 8 pavyzdžiai rasti publicistikos šaltiniuose, 2 – grožinės literatūros šaltiniuose, pvz.: 40) We are living not only in post-Soviet times, but already in post-Sąjūdis, post-revolutionary times. DKT 41) Tatuiruotėse persipina įvairios idėjinės sistemos, religiniai motyvai netrukdo šalia esantiems pasaulietiškoms banalėms, o daugelį įrašų būtų galima klasifikuoti „įsižaidiniam“ ir „posąjudiniam“ laikui. DKT postsąjudinis – a fourth-degree derivative, a derivative with the prefix post-, formed from the adjective sąjudinis. As noted, in derivatives, the prefix post- is treated in dictionaries of international words as the first component of a compound word (Kinderys, ed., 2001: 593; Vaicekaitė 2007: 87). Following the criterion of consistency, this article treats the word postsąjudinis as a prefix derivative. The prefix post- means “situated after something, subsequent, later” (see Kinderys, ed., 2001: 593). Its Lithuanian equivalent would be the prefix po-. The examples found denote a time that occurs after the time expressed by the base word. Only one instance of this adjective was found in DKT, used in a journalistic source in the masculine plural nominative form: 42) Clearly, Sąjūdis today has no content whatsoever apart from a brief but honorable history. Various and diverse postsąjudiniai phenomena act in its name; consciously or unconsciously, they have been fading away in the name of Sąjūdis, thereby merely wearing it out and discrediting it. DKT Examples of this adjective can be found online on the following websites: 43) Yes, disillusioned postsąjudinis, post-revolutionary idealism, which threatens to turn into a pan-Germanic virtocinizm as well. (https://www.scribd.com/doc/50487029/Jurga-Ivanauskaite-Plačebas) 44) Postsąjudinis... But very apt; these are the most striking signs of this celebration. Sometimes every effort is made not to notice this and to write differently. (https://www.gayline.lt/modules.php?op= 158 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje modload&name=Discussions&file=viewtopic&topic=457&forum=1...%2520-%25209&start=0) priešjudinis – a fourth-degree derivative, a derivative with the prefix prieš-, formed from the adjective sąjūdinis. LKG and DLKG do not classify adjectives with the prefix prieš-. Three examples (prewar life, pretrial cannons, pre-election days) are mentioned in LKG under prefix-suffix derivatives that retain the meaning of the prefix and derivation and denote a type of thing (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 591). Clearly, prewar life and pre-election days denote a time immediately preceding the time expressed by the base word (cf. also examples from LKŽ: pre-Advent, preschool, pre-noon). Four adjectives with this meaning, priešsąjūdinis, were each used once in DLKT. They occur in the feminine singular genitive, masculine singular genitive, plural genitive, and instrumental forms. Three examples were found in journalistic sources, and one in a non-fiction literary source: 45) A little easier when we talk about the last priešsąjūdinis decade—after all, we could already compare Algimantas Mackus, Alfonsas Nyka Niliūnas, and Liūnė Sutema with Judita Vaičiūnaitė, Sigitas Geda, and Marcelijus Martinaitis... DLKT Only one adjective has an oppositional prefixal meaning. LKG and DLKG note that rare nominal derivatives with the prefix prieš- denote something directed against the thing expressed by the base word (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 432; Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 148). Adjectives with this meaning are easy to find in LKŽ, for example: anti-school, anti-American, anti-serfdom, anti-church, anti-emigration. An adjective with this meaning was also found in DLKT—in the masculine singular accusative form: 46) Well-known facts tell a different story: the founder of the ethical school in Kelmė, which people flocked to by the hundreds during the national revival, as if to Mecca, is V. Rutūnas, and he brought the idea from an ethnocultural gathering that had formed in Rumšiškės priešsąjūdinio. DLKT 2.3. Compound words The DLKT contains 8 compound words formed with the word sąjūdis. “Lithuanian compound words are always formed from two independent words by combining them into one; in this respect they differ from derivatives, which are formed from a single base word using suffixes, endings, or prefixes” (Ūrtubis: 1961: 65). Of these compounds, 5 are fourth-degree formations and 3 are third-degree formations. They are all nouns. In 3 nouns, one of the constituents is the word sąjūdis; it is the second constituent in 2 compounds and the first in 1 compound. In the other 3 compounds, the second Straipsniai / Articles 159 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA constituent is the word sąjūdininkas; in 1 compound, it is sąjūdetis; and in 1 compound, it is the noun sąjūdetas. According to V. Urbutis, compound nouns with at least one constituent derived from a prefixed noun are rare, and “such formations (especially those with constituents bearing more prominent, longer prefixes) should be regarded as exceptions” (Urbutis 1961: 75). But the fact that the DLT uses as many as 5 of the 8 compounds found whose second constituent is a prefixed noun does not allow us to agree with this. antrasąjūdininkas is a fourth-degree formation consisting of the numeral antras and the noun sąjūdininkas. “In compound nouns formed from a numeral and a noun, whose lexical meaning roughly corresponds to their formation meaning, the second (nominal) constituent states what is meant, while the first (numeral) constituent indicates the number and order of that thing” (Urbutis 1961: 92). According to V. Urbutis, many compound nouns of this type are new (see Urbutis 1961: 91). This compound occurs once in the DLT, in a journalistic source, in the masculine genitive plural form. It denotes the “second generation,” that is, the Sąjūdis activists of a later period (no examples of this compound were found on websites): 47) Landsbergis’s “blathering,” turned by sycophantic journalists into a second-rate “...If I were offered a more responsible position, I would not refuse it...” Silence, because there are no such positions in Lithuania for now. Then Landsbergis’s cronies spring into action—the press, radio, and television paid for out of the state budget, and the second-generation Sąjūdis activists. They unanimously begin shouting: we need presidential rule! Well, there you have it, the positions have now appeared, but all around—no reaction whatsoever. DLT ekosąjudis is a third-degree formation consisting of a shortened form of the adjective ekologiškas and the noun sąjūdis. “In compound nouns formed from an adjective and a noun, whose lexical meaning roughly corresponds to their formation meaning, the first (adjectival) constituent highlights a characteristic feature of the thing denoted by the compound, distinguishing it from other things of the same kind or group (indicated by the second constituent)” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 154). This compound occurs once in the DLT. It appears in a journalistic source in the masculine singular nominative form and denotes a type of movement: 48) This lovely little family of young Vilnius residents lives in Užupis. So I was surprised that they wanted, together with like-minded people, to turn the Tymo quarter into an ecologically clean produce market. The young people’s ekosąjudis. When she learned that I use little cosmetics and choose them very carefully, Solveiga immediately sent me a list of notorious, widely used E additives that should be avoided. DLT 160 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX The expression of the concept sąjūdis in Lithuanian Two examples were found on websites: in one case ekosąjūdis is written as one word, in the other, separately. As the examples show, this word is not associated with the Lithuanian Reform Movement Sąjūdis: 49) Soon ekosąjūdžio, an interview with Rimantas Pilecas, forester of the Kapčiamiestis forestry district, will appear in the newspaper “Greenien.” It will introduce not only the Kapčiamiestis forestry district, but also the forestry enterprise’s tree nursery, where seedlings of trees and shrubs are grown. (http://dzukijos.lt/respublikos-spauda-apie-miskininkus) 50) Public institution “Eko Sąjūdis,” 6A Šermukšnių St., Vilnius, Vilnius municipality, LT-01106 (https://www.118.lt/imones/viesoji-istaiga-eko-sajudis/822058) liberalsąjūdietis is a fourth-degree formation consisting of the noun li-beralai and the noun sąjūdis16. “Compound nouns formed from two nouns are usually determinative in terms of the relationship between the meanings of their constituents: one constituent defines the other, narrowing its meaning; thus, the general formation meaning of such a compound noun is narrower than that of its main (defined) constituent” (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 151). The noun liberalsąjūdietis occurs 9 times in the DKT, used only in the masculine plural: nominative—5 times, genitive—2, dative and instrumental—once each. All examples were found in journalistic sources. The second constituent of these formations denotes a person’s ideological or activity-based affiliation with some group of people (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 140), while the first narrows the meaning by specifying a particular party, namely the Liberal Movement party, e.g.: 51) Last week, the Conservatives, liberalsąjūdiečiai, the Liberal Centrists, Social Democrats, Peasants and Greens, and the “Labourites” (hereafter TSLSLiCSSLS-DVLP) adopted a new Law on Higher Education in the Seimas. DKT 16 Initially, it was thought that the noun liberalsąjūdietis was a derivative formed from the noun liberalsąjūdis with the suffix -ietis (although the noun liberalsąjūdis is not used in the DKT, examples of it can be found on websites: The Liberal Movement launched a total offensive against the rival parties, since it seems there is no other way to win those few percentage points they need (http://www.ve.lt/naujienos/lietuva/lietuvos-naujienos/liberalsajudieciai-katina-politinius-konkurentus-juodosiomis-technologijomis/komentarai); The Liberal Movement, having become the conservatives’ claque (a claque is a group of hired spectators who noisily applaud or boo a performance), declares that the Minister of Culture is theirs. It could likewise be claimed that the Prime Minister is theirs (https://www.delfi.lt/news/ringas/lit/plasine-fnt-istorija-atsakymai-slypi-giliai.d?id=57125879)). However, the counts of the phrase Liberalų sąjūdis and the word liberalsąjūdis provided by Google search show that liberalsąjūdis is very rarely used compared with Liberalų sąjūdis. Therefore, it was decided to treat the noun liberalsąjūdietis as a compound. Straipsniai / Articles 161 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA 52) However, the post left by the Liberal Movements remains vacant, as it was established for the opposition, but none of the opposition representatives wants to work with those in power. DKT liberalasąjūdininkas is a fourth-degree derivative, formed from the noun liberalai and the noun sąjūdininkas. The noun liberalasąjūdininkas occurs in DKT only twice: in the masculine singular nominative form and the masculine plural genitive form. The examples were found in journalistic sources. The second component of these derivatives denotes a person (or persons) by reference to the person (or group of people) whose supporter and follower the person described by the derivative is (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 114), while the first narrows the meaning by specifying a particular party, namely the Liberal Movement party: 53) Following him, the conservatives Andrius Kubilius and Jurgis Razma (the latter had been the deceased man's fellow student) also spoke about the possibility of forming a Seimas investigative commission, or at least raising the issue in the Seimas Committee on National Security and Defence; so did Algis Kašėta, a member of the Seimas National Security and Defence Committee and a Liberal Movement supporter, who had become acquainted with V. Pociūnas while investigating the presidential office scandal. DKT 54) This is essentially because even the leaders of the front themselves—the conservatives and Liberal Movement supporters—are sorely lacking in the political integrity needed to carry out clearly defined reforms of the regime, while the gap between their emphatic declarations and actual conduct is even plainly visible to the naked eye. DKT The fact that this noun is widely used in Lithuanian is shown not only by examples on websites, but also by the fact that it is included in the Database of Lithuanian Neologisms. liberalasąjūdis is a fourth-degree derivative, formed from the noun liberalai and the noun sąjūdis. The noun liberalasąjūdis occurs in DKT only once; its masculine plural genitive form is found in a journalistic source. The second component of these derivatives denotes supporters or followers of a political-social movement (see Ambrazas, ed. 1996: 123), while the first narrows the meaning by specifying a particular party—the Liberal Movement party, for example: 55) But are there factors that could facilitate the course of coalition negotiations? Certainly. First of all, the willingness of smaller political forces (Liberal Movements, Liberal Centrists, Social Liberals, Civic Unionists, perhaps also Populists) to negotiate and work with both prospective coalition-negotiating blocs—the conservatives and the social democrats. DKT On websites, the noun liberalasąjūdis is used: 162 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje 56) Earlier, it was necessary to join forces with the Liberal Movement supporters, while both parties were still in power, but the leaders’ ambitions prevented it. But now the liberal centrists are simply no longer interested in the Liberal Movement supporters. (https://www.tv3.lt/komentarai/775061/kies-desmys-plunges-liberalcentristu-perejo-i-liberalu-sajudi) 57) The Liberal Movement supporters had never had their hands on the levers of power, so one might think that their fingers are itching to privatize something. (http://jura.diena.lt/lt/naujienos/nuomones/klaipedieciai-rytingai-kovos-pries-lavininkystes-privatizacija-268890/komentarai) As noted, the meaning of an entire derivational type can be affected by the meanings of individual words belonging to that type, and words with neutral meanings can sometimes acquire pejorative and derogatory meanings, e.g.: 58) Life will improve when you look at the LSDP list. Those who don’t believe this can wait until the list is submitted by the Conservatives and the Liberal Movement supporters. The lives of those who are elected to power will improve. (http://www.anyksta.lt/naujienos/savaitgalio-diskusija/3832-savaitgalio-diskusija-ar-jus-gyvenimas-pagerejo) 59) Frankly speaking, the person best suited to spend the funds allocated to a Member of the European Parliament from Lithuania would be a Liberal Movement supporter G. Navaitis. He took a taxi for 500 litas to Kaunas—to meet dentists. For 800 litas, he took a room at a Palanga hotel to meet Conservative P. Žėmio’s voters, while in Trakai he hid from the streetlights for 600 litas a night. Damn, G. Navaitis certainly would not have embarrassed us in the European Parliament. No one there would ever have asked him what on earth someone with that figure needed a gym membership costing half a thousand litas for, or why he needed A. A. Milne’s “Winnie-the-Pooh.” (http://www.ivaizdis.lt/znpr_det.php?id=24278) There is no obvious semantic difference between the words liberal movement, liberal movement supporter and Liberal Movement partisan. Only the word Liberal Movement partisan (like the previously discussed movement) can have a pejorative meaning. Liberal Movement supporter is a third-degree derivative, formed from the abbreviation of the noun liberals and the noun movement. In DLKT, this derivative occurs only once in a publicistic source—in the masculine singular nominative form—and denotes an abbreviated name for the Liberal Movement party: 60) Populist parties impose the rules of the game, much as large shopping centers make smaller retailers dance to their tune. Since that is how things are, the future of the Liberal Movement will depend entirely on Mr. Auštrevičius’s political acumen. DLKT Straipsniai / Articles 163 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA Examples of the compound libsąjūdis abound on websites, for example: 61) “Libsąjūdžio” The representative claims that behind the selected candidate stands Seimas member and former social liberal Gediminas Jakavonis, whose aide Arnoldas Butkus, owner of UAB “Verslo ratas,” also hired Algis Kasėta as No. 2. (https://www.alfa.lt/straipsnis/197029/kaseta-jakavoni-kaltina-naudojantis-technologijas) 62) The Liberal Movement rose in comparison with the previous elections. I cannot recall another instance of one of the ruling parties making such a leap—the electoral pendulum nevertheless does its work. And here we have an incredible success. In the previous elections Libsąjūdis received ~5 percent of the votes and barely cleared the electoral threshold, whereas now it received ~8 percent. (http://rokiskis.popo.lt/tag/libcentristai) naujasąjūdininkas (‘new Sąjūdis activist’) is a fourth-degree derivative formed from the adjective naujas (‘new’) and the noun sąjūdininkas (‘Sąjūdis activist’). As noted, the first constituent of such compounds expresses a characteristic of the referent named by the compound, distinguishing it from other things of the same kind or group (indicated by the second constituent) (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 154). In DKT, this compound occurs once in a journalistic source—in the masculine plural nominative form—and denotes “a new generation,” that is, activists of a later period (no examples of this compound were found on websites): 63) Her election program did not mention restitution either. However, these problems emerged after the restoration of independence. They were particularly escalated by naujasąjūdininkai, who, taking advantage of the situation and pursuing selfish goals, drew one another and a former Sąjūdis leader over to their side... DKT sąjūmetis (‘Sąjūdis period’) is a third-degree derivative, a compound of the nouns sąjūdis (‘movement’) and metai (‘years’). As already mentioned, in compounds of this kind one constituent defines the other, narrowing its meaning; consequently, the overall derivational meaning of such a compound noun is narrower than the meaning of its head constituent (Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 151). Only one such compound was found in DKT; it is used in a journalistic source in the masculine singular instrumental form and refers to the period of the Sąjūdis movement’s rise: 64) When you turn your head, your eyes slide along, as people still say, the Polish borderlands, diligently guarded to this day by Major Galūza and others from those times and structures, who have served in the border service for twenty years and whose surnames were recited at the deportees’ rally in Vilnius. They guard it well. Not like the porous eastern Lithuanian border, which Artūras Skūkas once wanted to mark all over with crosses during the Sąjūdis period, and across which illegal migrants now pour in from Asia; usually, only those carrying party membership cards are detained. DKT Examples of the compound sąjūmetis can be found on websites: 164 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje 65) Lukiškių aikštė yra svarbi Lietuvos istorijai kaip 1863 m. sukilimo prieš Rusijos carizmą – okupuantį kankinių – Z. Sierakausko ir K. Kalinausko mirties atminimo vieta. Tam pritaėję sąjūdmečiu 1988 m. buvo pastatytas kryžius, kurį maskolus tuoj pat sprogdino. (http://www.propatria.lt/2017/11/ludvikas-narcizas-rasas-kam-atiteko.html) 66) One and a half, two without the Russian, beautiful Lithuania—this is what the brave ones used to chant at the beginning of the Sąjūdis period, hoping that the good feeling about the approaching freedom of the state would continue to spread. (http://aidas.lt/lt/tautos-mokykla/article/8859-08-30-auo-kime-zaliasai) 2.4. Unclear cases This section discusses words that, for various reasons, could not be assigned to a specific derivational group. desąjūdizacija – the stages of formation of the noun desąjūdizacija are not entirely clear. It could be a fifth-degree derivative, a derivative with the prefix de-, formed from the noun sąjūdis17. In this case, the prefix de- would mean separation, removal, abolition; downward movement, decline (see Kinderys, ed., 2001: 145). It is also possible that this word was formed from the prefixed verb desąjūdizuoti(s). In that case, the word desąjūdizacija should be considered a suffixal rather than a prefixal derivative. Google provides no examples containing the words sąjūdizacija and desąjūdizuoti(s). Therefore, another possible explanation for the emergence of this noun is that it may have been formed by analogy with the word desovietizacija, which is widely used in Lithuanian (Google returns 1080 results). Only one example of the noun desąjūdizacija was found in DLKT—a singular genitive form, feminine gender. It is used in an administrative-literature source: 67) Please. Deputy B. Genzelis. B. GENZELIS. I propose repealing the so-called desovietizacijos law so that the next term will not have to pass “desąjūdizacijos” laws, since we know very well that the Sąjūdis has not yet purged itself of KGB agents, and many figures are compromising the Sąjūdis. DLKT 17 “Most of those international words that can be understood as abstract nouns derived from verbs have the suffix -acija. In some derivatives with this suffix, another meaning, other than that of an action, can also be distinguished, cf.: deklaracija, delegacija, demonstracija...” (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 302; see also Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 99). They are formed from verbs. Straipsniai / Articles 165 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA That this word is not accidental is shown by examples found on websites: 68) Well, that fresh breeze was very drastically stifled by the “first of all the firsts,” who, instead of de-Sovietization, carried out de-Sąjūdisization, and now is bored in the European Parliament! (https://www.tv3.lt/naujiena/615726/r-gajauskaite-prie-seimo-vartu-issirikiavo-partijos) 69) A very apt and significant description of the process in Lithuania: DE-SĄJŪDISIZATION, which, I would say, has surely already been completed in Lithuania, instead of de-KGB-ization. (https://www.tv3.lt/komentarai/615726/r-gajauskaite-prie-seimo-vartu-issirikiavo-partijos) de-Sąjūdisize should, according to the rules of word formation, be a fourth-degree derivative, a derivative with the prefix de-, formed from the verb Sąjūdisize18. However, it was not possible to find examples online with the verb Sąjūdisize(s). Therefore, it is entirely possible that this verb was formed from the noun just discussed, de-Sąjūdisization. This is the only verb form found in DKT; the verb was used in a journalistic source. It should be recalled that the prefix de- denotes separation, removal, elimination; movement downward, decline (see Kinderis, ed., 2001: 145). The following example was found: 70) Individualization is in itself a good process. But its end, which will certainly come soon, will be either radical atomization or an individualistic society that consciously protects and fosters the rights of the individual. Or, to put it another way, society begins to “de-Sąjūdisize.” The Soviet groundwork, which brought people together for a single purpose, served as a good technique for rallying the Sąjūdis movement around a common goal. DKT It was not possible to find examples on websites using forms of this verb. Two pronominal adjectives were found in DKT. As is known, pronominal adjectives are formed from simple adjectives by adding the pronoun jis, ji (Zinkevičius 1957: 5). Forms in some cases have retained the structure of their original formation to this day and are indistinguishable from the corresponding forms of the simple adjective and the pronoun jis, ji, for example, the masculine singular genitive and accusative forms. Therefore, pronominal adjectives could be considered compound words. Zigmas Zinkevičius uses the term compound words (see Zinkevičius 1957: 17 and the literature cited there). However, most forms have changed and diverged considerably from the corresponding simple adjective and 18 The suffix -izuoti is characteristic of verbs borrowed from other languages. “These verbs denote an action by which some quality is imparted to something or by which something is otherwise changed or affected” (Ulvydas, ed., 1971: 249). 166 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis išsakinėjimas lietuvių kalboje the inflection of the pronoun jis, ji; the pronoun jis, ji has become the second adjective ending. A pronominal adjective can be formed from every simple adjective denoting a variable property and from some adjectives denoting an invariable property; one need only add the ending19. Since adding the ending yields a pronominal form rather than a new word, pronominal adjectives cannot be assigned to any word-formation group. sąjudietiškasis is the pronominal form of the adjective sąjudietiškas. One such adjective was found in DKT; it is used in a journalistic source in the masculine singular genitive form: 71) Who can refute the idea that the sensation surrounding the 10-billion credit line was fabricated in order to: 1. Morally intimidate a bank that would not yield to pressure from domestic and foreign swindlers; 2. Finally discredit the LDDP, which has still not been brought to its knees; 3. Elevate in the eyes of the nation the denouncers of all evils—the Conservatives, who, because of their empty rhetoric and boundless nihilism, cannot regain their Sąjūdis-era popularity. DKT As is known, two principal meanings of pronominal adjectives are distinguished: identifying and emphatic. “Pronominal adjectives with an identifying meaning denote an object known to the speaker and definite, distinguishing it from other objects, showing its kind, or indicating a quality of it already known from before” (Ulvydas, ed., 1965: 505), whereas “pronominal adjectives with an emphatic meaning emphasize a characteristic, known quality of an object” (p. 509). “The nature of the meanings of identifying and emphatic pronominal adjectives is different: the former point to a known object, the latter to a known quality” (p. 510)20. In the example given, the pronominal adjective has an identifying meaning. Examples of this pronominal adjective can also be found on websites: 72) After Lithuania restored its national state, the stratification of political forces began as well. First, the entire Sąjūdis-era Seimas (then still the Supreme Council) was accused of… (guess of what?) of “moving to the left.” (http://www.greitas.eu/nuomone/gal-kas-gali-man-paaiskinti-ka-tokio-blogo-padare-prof-lansbergis-nes-as-kaip-ir-nesu-kazka-skaiciusi-apie-ji-kriminalinio-ir-neju-planbergis-blogesnis-uz-brauska-nors-ir-ne-i-tema-bet) 19 “The principal semantic difference between simple and pronominal adjectives is the distinguishing meaning of pronominal adjectives: simple adjectives express a quality of an object, whereas pronominal adjectives distinguish from other objects of the same class an object marked by a particular quality” (Jakaitienė, ed., 1976: 72). 20 Dar apie įvardžiuotinius būdvardžius žr.: Jakaitienė, ats. red., 1976: 72t; Paulauskienė 1994: 220t; Morkūnas, par., 2008: 230t. Straipsniai / Articles 167 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA 73) 1990–1991 m. Aukščiausios Tarybos sąjūdietiškoji dauguma įvykdė svarbiausius ir būtiniausius Lietuvos valstybingumo atkūrimo uždavinius: parengė ir priėmė pagrindinius šalies vidaus gyvenimo ir Tautos ūkio tvarkymo įstatymus. (www.lrs.lt/sip/getFile?p_fid=652) “Sąjūdis-related” is the pronominal form of the adjective “Sąjūdis”. This adjective occurs only once in DLKŽ; in the journalistic source it appears in the feminine singular form and has an attributive meaning: 74) LDDP ilgai svarstė, ar ją paskelbti opozicija, ar ne, ir dabar, atrodo, jau linkusi tai padaryti. Tokį aiškumą, kurio seniai pageidavo sąjūdžio parlamento dauguma, reiktų sveikinti. Aiškumas reikštų ir mūsų valstybės politinio gyvenimo brandą. DKT Examples of this pronominal adjective can be found on websites: 75) – Kai LTV „Klausimėlis“ dar buvo sudėtinė LTV2 „Laisvės alėjos“ dalis, klausėjai tik Kauno gatvėse. Tuomet sąjūdžio laikinosios sostinės valdžia buvo labai nepatenkinta, nes joki­us atsakymus žerdavo vien kauniečiai. Teko girdėti, kad dėl to tas vos neišmetė iš darbo. Tiesa? (https://www.lzinios.lt/lzinios/print.php?id=144684) 76) Nemaža salė buvo pilnutėlė, kai kas net ir stovėjo. Kažkodėl man visa tai priminė mūsų sąjūdiškąją jaunystę. (http://www.tekstai.lt/component/content/article/130-2006-nr-1-sausis/600-m-mar­tinaitis-j-bobrowskis-ties-brandenburgo-vartais) 3. SUMMARY LKŽ gives three meanings for the word Sąjūdis, whereas DLKŽ gives only two. This could mean that the word Sąjūdis began to be used with a narrower meaning and perhaps not much less frequently. However, the 380 examples found in DLKŽ show that 28 words have entered Lithuanian on the basis of the word Sąjūdis. They belong to different levels of derivation. Most are fourth-degree derivatives—13; somewhat fewer are third-degree derivatives—10; and the fewest, as might be expected, are fifth-degree derivatives—just one (see table). Of all the derivatives, the word Sąjūdininkas occurs most often in DLKŽ—234 times. The adjective Sąjūdinis is used much less frequently—it occurs 42 times. The noun Sąjūdietis is used even less frequently—32 examples were found; 14 words occur just once: ANTRASĄJŪDININKAS, DESĄJŪDIZACIJA, LIBERALSĄJŪDISTAS, LIBSĄJŪDIS, NAUJASĄJŪDININKAS, 21 The Microsoft Word spell-checking app recognizes only the three most frequently used of the 28 words found. 168 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsisąkinėjimas lietuvių kalboje EKOSĄJŪDIS, NESAJŪDĖTIŠKAS, POSTSĄJŪDIS, SĄJŪDININKAS, SĄJŪDIETIŠKAS, SĄJŪDIŠKAS, SAJŪDĖTIS, DESĄJŪDUOTIS, SĄJŪDŽIAI—used only once each (see Diagram 1). 1 TABLE. Derivatives of the word sąjūdis SĄJŪDIS (second-degree derivative) Third-degree derivative Fourth-degree derivative Fifth-degree derivative Suffix derivatives sąjūdelis sąjūdietis sąjūdietiškas sąjūdininkas sąjūdininkiškas sąjudinis sąjudistas sąjūdiškai sąjūdškas Prefix derivatives antisąjūdinis antisąjūdis ikisąjūdinis nesąjūdietiškas posąjūdinis postsąjūdinis priešsąjūdinis Compound words antrasąjūdininkas ekosąjūdis liberalsąjūdietis liberalsąjūdininkas liberalsąjūdistas libsąjūdis naujasąjūdininkas sąjūdetis The adjective sąjudinis is the word used with the greatest number of different meanings in DKT: it occurs with 5 of the 12 possible meanings of the suffix -inis. Three different adjectives with the suffix -iškas were found: sąjūdietiškas, sąjūdininkiškas and sąjūdiškas. The adjective sąjūdininkiškas occurs with only 1 meaning (characteristic or typical of the thing denoted by the base word); the adjective sąjūdietiškas with 2 meanings (figurative similarity and an essential property of the thing); and the adjective sąjūdiškas with 3 meanings (characteristic or typical of the thing denoted by the base word, figurative similarity, and an essential property of the thing). Straipsniai / Articles 169 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA 1 DIAGRAM. Frequency of use of derivatives of the word sąjūdis The nouns sąjūdininkas, sąjūdietis and sąjūdistas, as well as liberalsąjūdininkas, liberalsąjūdietis and liberalsąjūdistas, are used synonymously. The nouns sąjūdistas and liberalsąjūdistas are sometimes used pejoratively. In DLT, masculine nouns are used most often, while feminine nouns are rare: of the 294 instances found, feminine nouns occur only 8 times. This may indicate that masculine gender is the unmarked member in DLT and/or that women are underrepresented in politics. Adjectives are used equally often in each gender: of the 84 examples, 42 adjectives are masculine and 42 are feminine. 2 DIAGRAM. Distribution of noun cases 170 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX Sąvokos sąjūdis įsisąkinėjimas lietuvių kalboje 3 DIAGRAM. Distribution of adjective cases Nouns are most often used in the plural, that is, they most often refer to things in general (233 of 294 instances), whereas adjectives are more often used in the singular, that is, they refer to a property of a particular thing (59 of 84 instances). No nouns occurred in the locative case, whereas some adjectives did. Nouns are most often used in the singular and plural nominative and accusative, while adjectives occur most often in the singular and plural nominative and in the singular accusative and genitive. This again shows that grammatical cases are used much more often than semantic cases in Lithuanian22 (see Diagrams 2 and 3). Of the 28 words, 26 are associated with the events that took place in Lithuania in 1990, confirming that a word’s meaning is a reflection in human consciousness of generalized data about concrete reality. Only two words—ekosąjūdis and sąjūdelis—are unrelated to the restoration of Lithuania’s independence. Words are most often used in journalistic sources (340 of 380 examples) and much less frequently in other sources. Twenty-four examples come from literary sources, 11 from administrative texts, and 5 from non-fiction sources. 4. CONCLUSIONS Judging from the examples found in DLKT, 28 words used in contemporary Lithuanian are formed either from the noun sąjūdis or from its derivatives. Fourteen of them are nouns (1 diminutive), 12 adjectives (of which 10 are in the simple form and 2 are pronominal), and one each is a verb and an adverb. These words are formed in various ways. The largest group consists of suffixal derivatives—9, somewhat fewer 22 Plg. Savickienė 2005; Dabašinskienė 2009. Straipsniai / Articles 171 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA are compound words—8, fewer still are prefixal derivatives—7, while 4 words are not assigned to any type23. As is well known, suffixal derivatives are the most frequent type in Lithuanian, while compound words make up only a small proportion of all derivatives24. The fact that the number of compound words is almost the same as the number of suffixal derivatives may indicate that this word-formation pattern has become popular in contemporary Lithuanian. The words found are used not only with their usual meanings, but also as neologisms (for example, derivatives with the suffixes -ininkas, -ė and -ietis, -ė), as well as in figurative, less characteristic meanings (for example, the most characteristic derivational meaning of the suffix -iškas in adjectives is ‘similar to the thing denoted by the base word’, but rare derivatives with the suffix -iškas are not used with this meaning; alternatively, they may have meanings not specified in grammars (the temporal meaning of adjectives formed with the prefixes iki-, po-, prieš- is not indicated in Lithuanian grammar). Although DLKG states that international prefixes are not used in Lithuanian to form new nouns (see Ambrazas, ed., 1996: 149ff.), this claim is challenged by the fact that 3 of the 7 prefixal derivatives of the word sąūdis are formed precisely with international prefixes25. 4 DIAGRAM. Semantic fields of the derivatives of the word sąūdis 23 See section 2.4 for more details. 24 See: Ulvydas, ed.-in-chief, 1965: 252; Urbutis 1978: 286; Keinys 199: 22. 25 There would be more if we considered the noun desūzacija and the verb desūzuotis to be prefixal derivatives. 172 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX The Establishment of the Concept *sąjūdis* in Lithuanian Having summarized the meanings of words formed on the basis of the discussed word sąjūdis, the following semantic fields can be distinguished: size, an attribute of an action, action, type, name of an object, time, name of a person, and quality (see Diagram 4; the fields are presented in descending order according to the number of examples). The most fundamental and productive way of expanding, renewing, and enriching the lexicon is to form new words from existing ones. No fewer than 28 words based on the word sąjūdis are found in DLKT, and more are certainly used in Lithuanian. 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Zinkevičius Zigmas 1957: Lietuvių kalbos įvardžiuotinių būdvardžių istorijos bruožai. Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla. Straipsniai / Articles 175 VESLAVA ČIŽIK-PROKAŠEVA Establishment of the Concept movement in Lithuanian SUMMARY Based on the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language (CCLL) developed by the Centre of Computational Linguistics of Kaunas Vytautas Magnus University, the article seeks to determine how the concept sąjūdis established itself in Lithuanian. It was determined that 28 words originated in Lithuanian on the basis of the word sąjūdis: 14 nouns (one diminutive), 12 adjectives (10 adjectives of the short form, 2 adjectives of the pronominal form), one verb, and one adverb. These words were formed on the basis of different word-formation patterns. They are predominated by suffixal derivatives; the number of compound words is slightly smaller, whereas prefixal derivatives are even less common. The formations deriving from the word sąjūdis demonstrate a different level of word-formation: the formations of the fourth level are most common; third-level formations are less common, whereas the formations of the fifth level are least common. The word sąjūdininkas is most common; it was used for 234 times in the CCLL. The adjective sąjūdinis is much less common; it was used for 42 times. The noun sąjūdietis is even less common; 32 examples were found. Fourteen words were used only once in the corpus. Masculine nouns are most commonly used in the CCLL; there are few feminine nouns. The adjectives of both genders are used in equal proportions. Nouns are usually used in the plural, whereas adjectives are more commonly used in the singular. It should be noted that 26 out of 28 words originated after the events of 1990 in Lithuania and are connected to them. Only two words have no connection with the restoration of Lithuania’s independence. These words are usually used in the sources of opinion journalism (340 out of 380 examples); they are less common in other sources. After summarising all the words formed on the basis of the word sąjūdis, the following fields of meaning can be singled out: size, feature of action, action, type, name of object, time, name of person, peculiar feature. Submitted on 6 June 2018. Veslava Čižik-Prokaševa Institute of the Lithuanian Language 5 Petro Vileišio Street, Vilnius LT-10308, Lithuania [email protected] 176 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIX