XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu

PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8679-3253 Research areas: Lithuanian terminology, history of Lithuanian medical terminology. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all83-05 ON THE ISSUE OF THE POLYSEMY OF MEDICAL TERMS IN THE LATE 19TH – EARLY 20TH CENTURIES On Polysemy of Medical Terms of Late 19th – Early 20th Century 10 th 20 th ABSTRACT The article discusses polysemous medical terms used by Lithuanian physicians in popular texts on medical and health issues in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There are few such terms in the medical terminology of the period under study. The different meanings of such terms are revealed in context or by comparing the same terms used in different contexts. Most terms with different medical meanings—both primary and secondary—were taken by physicians from the living language by terminologizing words of that language. Authorial polysemy may be attributed to cases in which different medical meanings were assigned to a term by the physician or physicians who used it in their text or texts. Terms are most often used with two different medical meanings. In discussing polysemous terms from the initial stage of the formation of medical terminology, the article also reviews theoretical insights into the issue of polysemy. KEYWORDS: polysemy, homonymy, polysemous term, medical term, terminology. 98 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiiareikšmiškumo klausimu ANNOTATION The article discusses the polysemous medical terms used by Lithuanian doctors in the texts on medical and healthcare topics written in popular scientific style at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Such terms are not numerous in the medical terminology of the period in question. Different meanings of such terms reveal in the context or when comparing the same terms used in different contexts. Most of the terms with different medical (both primary and secondary) meanings were taken by doctors from general language by transforming its words into terms. The so called author’s polysemy includes such cases when a doctor(s) attribute(s) different medical meanings to the term in his/her/their text(s). Terms are usually used in two different medical meanings. In addition to the discussion on the polysemous terms dating back to the initial stage of the formation of medical terminology, the article also reviews theoretical insights on the topic of polysemy. KEYWORDS: polysemy, homonymy, polysemous term, medical term, terminology. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The prominent Lithuanian philosopher Stasys Šalkauskis wrote as early as 1925 in a work Theory of Terminology and Lithuanian Philosophical Terminology published in the Logos¹ journal: “If a word acquires particular significance in relation to a certain context, the main condition for it to acquire a new, more specialized meaning is created. In this way […] a semantic manifestation occurs, […] called by the name of polysemy. […]. This is ‘the power words possess—to appropriate various meanings according to their different uses and to remain established in the language with these meanings’ (Šalkauskis 1991: 44). As is known, one of the main requirements imposed on a term is precision, and this is associated with monosemy, which has been treated as a fundamental principle of terminology (see Laurén, Myking, Picht 1998: 246): one term must be used to designate one concept; otherwise, such a term is regarded as deficient and imprecise. In practice, however, this requirement is difficult to implement. ¹ Logos is a journal of religion, philosophy, comparative studies, and art. It was published by the public organization Logos. It printed articles on philosophy, theology, religious studies, art studies, and cultural studies; translations of works by classical philosophers and writers; and reproductions of works of art. The editorial board consisted of Lithuanian and foreign scholars and clergy. It began publication in Kaunas in 1921, and 30 issues were published by 1939 (publisher and editor P. Dovydaitis) (Stančienė 2008: 573). Straipsniai / Articles 99 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Polysemy² is an important issue not only in lexicology but also in terminology³. Its phenomenon has been considered more or less extensively in various historical periods, beginning with antiquity (see Tperyбов 2011: 179). The abundance of opinions, often contradictory, has determined the relevance of polysemy research (see Ходakова 2009: 121). Polysemy, or polysemy⁴, arises as the semantic boundaries of a word change and its primary meaning broadens or narrows (see Маркович 2017: 74; Вольберг 2017: 75), when several concepts—especially concepts belonging to one subject field—are designated by the same lexeme. Polysemy could be represented graphically as follows⁵: And the more frequently a term is used, the greater the likelihood that new meanings will arise, that is, that polysemy will emerge (see Маркович 2017: 75). It is believed that polysemy is more characteristic of a word with a simple morphological and derivational structure than of a borrowing or a less frequently used word with a more complex derivational structure (see Маркович 2017: 75). Some have thought that polysemy complicates communication among specialists and scholars, since terminological lexicon, as mentioned, is characterized by monosemous relations: one sign—one meaning (see Кожанов 2014); therefore, polysemy has traditionally been regarded as one of the main problems and shortcomings of terminology (Гринев 1993: 99; Киселева, Росянова 2013: 116; Нащиванько 2013: 139). Nevertheless, polysemy exists in terminology and, apparently, this semantic phenomenon must be permissible, although, on the one hand, the nature of a term as a sign determines unambiguous relations between the sign and the thing designated, while, on the other hand, terms, being words of the living language, undergo the influence of all of that language’s ² Another semantic phenomenon inseparable from polysemy is homonymy (see Даниленко 1977: 70; Суперанская et al. 1989: 45; Прохорова 1996: 8; Татаринов 1996: 177; Laurén, Myking, Picht 1998: 244; Емельянова 2003: 390; Марузо 2004: 216; Ахманова 2005: 287; Jakaitienė 2009: 101–111 for more), but it is not discussed in greater detail in this article. ³ Polysemous folk construction terms have been studied by Robertas Stunžinas (Stunžinas 2009: 68–92). ⁴ Polysemy is also called semantic variation (see Татаринов 1996: 178; Кожанов 2014: 354). ⁵ The scheme was drawn by Christer Laurén, Johan Myking, and Heribert Picht (see Laurén, Myking, Picht 1998: 244). 100 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII On the issue of the polysemy of medical terms in the late 19th – early 20th centuries lexical-semantic processes (see Даниленко 1977: 65). In real, rather than “ideal,” terminologies, polysemous terms are not uncommon. Polysemy is neither an anomaly nor an accident—it performs certain functions. It was long believed, however, that a polysemous lexical unit was non-terminological and could not have the status of a term (Киселева, Росянова 2013: 115). Polysemy is understood and defined similarly by many scholars—it is: • the ability of a word to have several meanings (Даниленко 1977: 65); • a phenomenon in which the same word has several interrelated meanings, usually arising as the primary meaning of that word changes and develops (Головин, Кобрин 1987: 48); • the use of the same word with two or more meanings (Суперанская et al. 1989: 42); • a phenomenon in which a word or word combination has several meanings (Gaivenis, Keinys 1990: 44); • the ability of a language unit to have more than one meaning (Емельянова 2003: 486); • the ability of a word to have different meanings (Марузо 2004: 216); • the ability of the same word to have several interrelated meanings, usually arising as a result of the change (modification) and development of that word’s primary meaning (Ахманова 2005: 335); • the functioning of terms with several terminological meanings within one field (Татаринов 2006: 177); • a phenomenon in which a term designates concepts from different areas within one or several related fields (Ходакова 2009: 121); • the ability of one lexical unit to have several meanings (Chromá 2011: 46); • a phenomenon in which a word has several interrelated meanings (Киселева, Росянова 2013: 115); • the property of a term to have two or more meanings (Нашиванько 2013: 138). Usually, a polysemous word (term⁶) has a primary meaning from which additional⁷ meanings branch out (see Суперанская et al. 1989: 43). Polysemy is believed to be determined by the flexibility of the structure of a lexical unit, which helps it acquire new content (see Даниленко 1977: 65). Polysemous terms may arise because of the polysemy of common-language words, metonymy—that is, the transfer of the name of one thing to another thing connected with the first by certain associative (e.g., whole-and-part, genus-and-species) relations or by manner (see Головин, Кобрин 1987: 49). The causes of polysemy are also sought in the economy of language: linguistic elements are used “economically”—a minimum number of terminological units can convey a maximum semantic load (see Gangemi et al. 2000: 285, 289; Киселева, Росянова 2013: 116–117; cf. Гончарук, Гущина 2009: 123). Polysemous lexical units may also arise from different interpretations of the same phenomenon (so-called authorial polysemy) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 116–117). ⁶ A term from whose primary meaning new meanings branch out is called a donor term (термин–донор) (Бекишева, Грошева 2017: 43). ⁷ Also called secondary meanings (Jakaitienė 2009: 89). Straipsniai / Articles 101 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ relations, or manner (see Головин, Кобрин 1987: 49). The causes of polysemy are sought in the economy of language—linguistic elements are used “economically”: a minimum number of terminological units can convey a maximum semantic load (see: Gangemi et al. 2000: 285, 289; Киселева, Росянова 2013: 116–117; cf. Гончарук, Гущина 2009: 123). Polysemous lexical units may also arise from different interpretations of the same phenomenon (so-called authorial polysemy) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 116–117). Quantitative and qualitative terminological polysemy are distinguished. The former is understood as the number of terminological meanings, for example, binary polysemy (a term has two meanings) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 117), ternary polysemy (a term has three meanings), and quaternary polysemy (a term has four meanings) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 118). Qualitative terminological polysemy is characterized by the following cases: 1) interdisciplinary polysemy (when terms are used in different fields, but are united by a direct or mediated relationship between their meanings); 2) conceptual polysemy (when the same phenomenon is understood differently within one subject field); 3) categorical polysemy (when the same term designates a process and a result, an action and a state, a general and a specific entity) (see also Skujina 2002: 46); 4) intradisciplinary polysemy (when a term is polysemous within one subject field) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 118); 5) multisystem polysemy (when the same term results from interscientific borrowing, that is, the same term is used, for example, in technology, sport, printing, medicine, and so on); 6) implicit polysemy (when a monosemous term in one language corresponds to two or more terms in another language that are close in meaning but different) (see Киселева, Росянова 2013: 119). The term polysemy is sometimes used as a synonym for the term non-univocality. However, in Viktor Tatarinov’s view, polysemy is merely one form of non-univocality. The terminologist introduced into scholarly usage the concepts ambisemy⁸ ir eurisemy⁹ as specific concepts of non-univocality. ⁸ Ambisemy (амбисемия) is one of the types of term non-univocality. V. Tatarinov substantiated the concept of ambisemy in 1987. Ambisemy (Latin ambi- ← Greek ἄμφι “around, about” + σῆμα “sign”) is the property of a term to function in language with different semantic scopes, a property determined by many extralinguistic factors (the term is used by different schools, scholars, and during different stages of scientific development) (Татаринов 2006: 14; cf. also Naščianko 2013: 141–143). This phenomenon is also called conceptual polysemy (концептуальная многозначность) (Сакаева 2017: 114). ⁹ Eurisemy (эврисемия) is one of the types of term non-univocality. V. Tatarinov began using the term in 1987. Eurisemy (Greek εὖρος “broad” + σῆμα “sign”) is understood as the property of a term to be associated with an indefinite number of denotata. Eurisemy is usually characteristic of general 102 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu meaningfulness. Ambisemy is understood as indeterminacy of content, eurisemy as the property of a term to be associated with an indefinite number of denotata, and polysemy as the property of a term to have two or more meanings reflecting logical relations among interrelated concepts. The concepts mentioned are arranged as follows: monosemy – ambisemy – polysemy – eurisemy (Татаринов 2006: 44). Thus, over time, after a struggle among conflicting opinions, polysemy came to be viewed somewhat differently—as a “regular phenomenon of the language system that reveals the semantic dynamism of language and people’s ability to systematize non-linguistic reality economically” (see Jakaitienė 2009: 87). Monosemy in terminology also came to be understood more freely—as merely a tendency, a desirable property, or a rational requirement imposed on terms (see Науциванько 2013: 139; cf. Keinys 1982: 89–90). For monosemy is not a property of a term, but only a requirement imposed on it. Aleksandr Reformatsky wrote that the monosemy of a term must be understood only within the boundaries of a terminological field, that is, a particular terminology (see Суперанская et al. 1989: 44, 47). Object: medical terms with more than one meaning found in use in popular texts on medical and health issues written by Lithuanian physicians in the late 19th and early 20th centuries10. Several principles guided the selection of sources. First, booklets or newspaper articles written by prominent Lithuanian physicians (Antanas Vileišis, Kazys Grinius, Stasys Matulaitis, Juozas Bagdonas, Kazimieras Jokantas, Vincas Kudirka, and others) were selected; one or two articles were taken from calendars. Second, texts on medicine and health written by the aforementioned physicians in a popular style and intended for ordinary people to read were selected. The works of physician A. Vileišis and K. Grinius stand out for the abundance of texts. A. Vileišis published especially many popular booklets and newspaper articles. K. Grinius wrote mostly in the newspaper Sveikatos, which he edited. Among the nonspecialized periodicals that published physicians’ medical articles, the following may be mentioned: Ūkininkas, Varpas, Šaltinis, Vilniaus žinios, Artojas, Gydytojas, Sveikata. Aim and objectives. The aim was to investigate polysemous terms from the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set: 1) to collect medical terms with more than one meaning from popular texts of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; 2) to identify the meanings of those terms on the basis of context and describe them; 3) to examine what characterizes these terms and what assumptions underlie their origins in medical terminology. scientific terms and general technical terms. The composition of the semes of such terms allows a term to be infinitely polysemous (Татаринов 2006: 247). This phenomenon is also called broad meaning (широкозначность) (Гончарук, Гущина 2009: 123). 10 For a more detailed review of the medical sources of this period, see Zemlevičiūtė 2009: 71–83. Straipsniai / Articles 103 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Methodology. The discussion of polysemous medical terms is based primarily on descriptive-analytical, as well as interpretive and comparative, methods. The latter is applied by comparing the meanings of medical terms with the meanings recorded in the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽ) and the Dictionary of Medical Terms (hereafter MedŽ), examining commonalities and differences, as well as cases of coincidence or divergence. Much attention is paid to the context of medical terms: illustrative sentences are provided in the original language, because the content of a term is fully revealed only in context (see Гончарук, Гущина 2009: 125; Маркович 2017: 76; Вольберг 2017: 75; Соколов, Кириллова 2017). The material under study is discussed as if in separate entries: the term is written in large bold letters, followed by a dash, its meanings and their discussion, and Latin equivalents. For clarity, the terms and their meanings are presented in tables. The sources under study contain mostly two-meaning terms (there is one three-meaning term and one four-meaning term) designating body parts and organs, disease names, and a few names designating other medical concepts. The following section discusses a set of medical terms used with more than one meaning, collected from various popular texts in this field. They are presented in three groups according to the number of meanings the terms have. POLYSEMous MEDICAL TERMS IN TEXTS FROM THE LATE 19TH – EARLY 20TH CENTURIES 1. Binary polysemous medical terms. This is the largest group of medical terms—most often, the terms were found in texts used with two different medical meanings. FACE—“face” (Latin facies) and “cheek” (Latin zygoma). Lithuanian physicians used the term veidas with the usual meaning of “face” (the whole) (primary) and “cheek” (a part) (secondary). With its primary meaning, veidą was used by virtually all physicians of the period in question: Adomas Sketeris (1890, 1893), Antanas Vileišis (1895, 1899, 1901, 1903–1915, 1918, 1924), Eliziejus Draugelis (1914), Jonas Basanavičius (1898), Jonas Šliūpas (1885, 1887), Juozas Bagdonas (1890, 1892, 1913, 1921), Kazimieras Jokantas (1912–1914), Kazys Grinius (1909–1911, 1913, 1920, 1921), Petras Avižonis (1900 (1899), 1911, 1913, 1920), Petras Matulaitis (1888), Pranas Matulaitis (1911), Stasys Matulaitis (1895–1897, 1902), Vincas Kudirka (1889, 1895): 104 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu […], when smallpox appears, the entire body breaks out in pimples, which sometimes also appear on the face, disfiguring it, and then everyone can see what disease has afflicted the person. BL 1904 6 On about the third day, look, the body begins to break out, mostly from the face and head, at first with red spots, pimples, then with pustule heads. Svk 1910 8 1 The term veidas was used in the meaning “cheek” by physician J. Bagdonas (1890) and St. Matulaitis (1902). It should be noted that in this meaning veidas is most often used in the plural: We feel sweat only when, while working hard or being in warm air, so much sweat begins to flow from our body that it does not immediately manage to evaporate and large drops of water form on our skin, which begin to roll over our faces, shoulders, and arms. ŽK 1902 133 Likewise, the protruding to the sides cheeks, characteristic of the world of lower classes […]. Vrp 1890 3 39 Term Meanings veidas veidas cheek ABDOMEN—“abdomen” (Latin venter) and “stomach” (Latin gaster). Physicians used the term pilvas with the meanings “body part containing the digestive organs” (primary) and “the widest part of the digestive tract—the stomach” (secondary). Pilvą in its primary meaning was used by almost all physicians: A. Sketeris (1893, 1910, 1911), A. Vileišis (1895, 1899, 1901–1910, 1912, 1914, 1915), E. Draugelis (1915), J. Bagdonas (1892, 1913), J. Basanavičius (1898), J. Šliūpas (1885), K. Grinius (1890, 1909, 1913, 1920, 1921), K. Jokantas (1910, 1912), P. Avižonis (1898, 1900 (1899)), P. Matulaitis (1888, 1890), St. Matulaitis (1896, 1902, 1913), V. Kudirka (1889, 1895): The sick person develops a rash not only on the outside but also in the mouth, on the palate, in the throat, even, they say, in the abdomen and intestines. U 1892 6/7 233 Excessive use of tobacco constricts the stomach and intestines, which it brings into motion, whereby in the abdomen it becomes digested in due time. LB 1885 2 6 A. Vileišis called the stomach pilvų (1895, 1905, 1924): Therefore, it is not advisable to drink or eat excessively hot things, because they can harm the teeth and the stomach (abdomen). VŽ 1905 289 4 Straipsniai / Articles 105 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ This physician often provided two synonymous names for this digestive organ side by side: pilvas (skilys) NG 1924 85, pilvas (skrandis) SG 1905 16, skilys (pilvas) NG 1924 78, sklivys, or pilvas NG 1924 78, skrandis (pilvas) VŽ 1905 289 4, KU 1906 55: Therefore, it is not advisable to drink or eat excessively hot things, because they can harm the teeth and the stomach (abdomen). VŽ 1905 289 4 Other physicians also called the stomach pilvu—K. Grinius (1890), St. Matulaitis (1896, 1913), P. Avižonis (1899): The path is as follows: the mouth, the esophagus (the throat into the abdomen), abdomen, the small [...] intestine and the large intestine, which end at the anal opening. U 1890 3 39 How to treat stomach (abdomen) and intestinal diseases. U 1896 4 28 Term Meanings pilvas pilvas stomach PILVELIS—“heart ventricle” (Latin ventriculus) and “stomach” (Latin gaster). The term pilvelis designated organs belonging to different systems—the cardiovascular and digestive systems. A. Vileišis used the term pilvelis in the meaning “heart ventricle”: Then both atria contracted instantly. The openings of both great veins and the pulmonary veins closed; the valves located at the entrance to the ventricles (chambers) opened, and the blood passed from the upper chambers to the lower ones. But not even a second had passed when the ventricles contracted as well. GŽK 1902 54 A. Vileišis also called the stomach pilveliu (1899, 1902, 1903, 1905, 1907, 1909–1911, 1915): When these bacteria enter a person’s stomach (ventricle), if they do not perish from its acidic fluid, they pass into the intestines, where, having multiplied abundantly, they cause diarrhea (dysentery) and vomiting. LimpPL 1915 109–110 These bacteria enter the intestinal tract from the stomach (ventricle). ChK 1907 3 A. Vileišis often provided two synonymous names for this digestive organ side by side: pilvelis or skilvelis Dž 1903 24, skilvelis (pilvelis) Gdt 1915 4 13, 106 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII On the issue of the polysemy of medical terms in the late 19th – early 20th centuries skilvelis (pilvelis) LimpL 1915 110, skilŷs (pilvelis) ChK 1907 3, skrandis (pilvelis) Šlt 1911 39 460: If small creatures, the eggs of nest-worms (lisninkai), or bacteria enter its stomach (ventricle), it will not necessarily become ill. Šlt 1911 39 460 Other physicians also called the stomach pilveliu—A. Sketeris (1911), K. Jokantas (1912, 1913), M. Kuprevičius (1919), St. Matulaitis (1913): People with hernias do not feel entirely healthy: a hernia always reduces their working capacity, and the larger the hernia, the more it harms a person’s health; people with hernias often complain that their stomach does not digest food properly, that their bowels are hard, bloated, and full of colic. Svk 1911 11 3 With a full stomach of food, you will not fear the cold for long, because your stomach will be a furnace for you, from which warmth will spread throughout the body through the bloodstream. BK 1913 61 Term Meanings pilvelis heart ventricle stomach NOSE—“nose” (Latin nasus) and “nostril” (Latin naris). Physicians used the term nosis with the meanings “organ of smell” (the whole) and “nasal cavity” (a part). Almost all physicians used the term nosis in its primary meaning: K. Grinius (1897, 1909–1913, 1920, 1921), A. Vileišis (1895, 1901–1915, 1918, 1924), St. Matulaitis (1896, 1902), P. Avižonis (1900 (1899), 1904, 1907, 1911, 1920), V. Kudirka (1889), A. Sketeris (1912), J. Basanavičius (1880, 1883, 1898), K. Jokantas (1912, 1913), E. Draugelis (1915, 1918), P. Matulaitis (1890), J. Bagdonas (1890, 1892, 1913, 1914, 1921), Pr. Matulaitis (1911): The disease varies greatly: in one patient it affects the lungs, throat, and nose more severely; in another, the abdomen and intestines; in a third, it causes pain in the bones or muscles. TS 1918 36 14 There is no runny nose, the lips do not break out, and blood often flows from the nose. KMŠK 1915 9 In the sense of “nasal cavities,” the nose was used by A. Vileišis (1901–1903, 1905, 1907), St. Matulaitis (1902), and K. Grinius (1909): Breathing through the nose is also beneficial because, as it passes from the air through the nose, most of the dust and other harmful substances that would otherwise enter the lungs settle on the moist mucous membranes. ŽK 1902 55 […] the current of air then rushes into the lungs, passing through the nose, mouth, and windpipe. GŽK 1902 34 Straipsniai / Articles 107 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Term Meanings nose nose nostril B L O O D Y D I A R R H E A – “dysentery” (Latin dysenteria) and “bloody diarrhoea” (Latin diarrhoea cruenta). The term bloody diarrhoea was used by St. Matulaitis in the sense of “dysentery” in the 1897 article “Dysentery or Bloody Diarrhoea.” However, this Lithuanian term was mentioned only in the title of the article, while in the article itself the physician used the loanword dysentery. A. Vileišis used the term bloody diarrhoea (1908) to designate another disease—bloody diarrhea. In The Domestic Doctor booklet, he explained how bloody diarrhoea differs from dysentery: Bloody diarrhoea¹¹. This is a dangerous intestinal disease. The stool contains black, clotted blood, and sometimes red blood. It differs from dysentery in that the sufferer feels no pain and does not need to run outside so frequently. NG 1908 75 Term Meanings bloody diarrhea dysentery bloody diarrhea Since these are isolated cases of using bloody diarrhea with the aforementioned meanings, this may be an accidental or individual phenomenon. Thus, one could speak here of authorial polysemy. DRUGYS – “malaria, drugys” (Lat. malaria) and “intermittent fever” (Lat. febris intermittens). The term drugys was used with the meanings “malaria” and “intermittent fever.” The terms denoting these diseases share the semantic feature of chills. Physicians A. Sketeris (1893), A. Vileišis (1892, 1895, 1901, 1905, 1906, 1908, 1909, 1911–1915, 1924), E. Draugelis (1914, 1915), K. Grinius (1889, 1911, 1920, 1921), P. Avižonis (1908, 1920), and P. Matulaitis (1890) most often used the term drugys in the meaning “malaria”: There are very many damp and swampy places and stagnant water in the world; therefore it is not surprising that drugys affects many people. Gdt 1914 11 62 ¹¹ Italics in the original. 108 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu In the Italian districts where the disease called drugiu constantly prevails, the most dangerous places are those where there is no sun; there are puddles there that never dry out, and countless mosquitoes of various kinds that spread the drugio toxins. A Wallachian proverb says: “Where the sun does not enter, the doctor enters.” KU 1906 11 It should be noted that the drugio term was also used with another meaning. For example, in an 1897 article, M. Kuprevičius wrote the Latin equivalent febris intermittens alongside drugio. In present-day medical language, the Lithuanian equivalent of this Latin term is intermittent fever (temperature alternating every 1–2 days) MedŽ 200. In this sense, drugys may also have been used in the works of E. Draugelis (1914, 1915) and A. Vileišis (1903), cf.: When afflicted with bloody diarrhea, the bowels are loosened, drugys begin to shake the patient, and sometimes vomiting continues. KMŠK 1914 14 But such warming of the patient, when he is shaken by drugys, is entirely useless, because this chill-induced shivering means that there is great heat within his bowels. PP 1903 105 Term Meanings drugys malaria intermittent fever DUSULYS – “dyspnea, shortness of breath” (labored breathing) (Latin dyspnoea) and “bronchial asthma” (Latin asthma bronchiale). The term dusulys was used with the meanings “dyspnea” and “bronchial asthma.” The terms naming these diseases share the seme of suffocation. For the physicians J. Šliūpas (1885), V. Kudirka (1895), St. Matulaitis (1902), A. Vileišis (1903, 1905, 1907, 1908, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1924), K. Grinius (1910, 1921), and Pr. Matulaitis (1911), the term dusulys was used in the meaning of “dyspnea”: People living in such huts complain of weakness while still young, shortness of breath, coughing, dizziness, and other discomforts caused by breathing polluted air. ŽK 1902 128 M. Kuprevičius dusuliu named another disease; this is attested by the Latin equivalent given alongside it: dusulys – astma bronchiale Vrp 1897 3 41. Today asthma bronchiale is bronchinė astma MedŽ. Straipsniai / Articles 109 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Term Meanings shortness of breath dyspnea bronchial asthma VABALĖLIS – “parasite, pest” (Latin parasitus) and “microbe, microorganism” (Latin microbium). Doctors wrote extensively about diseases, so they needed terms to name the causative agents of diseases. It is important to note that they were not content with borrowings long known in medical science, but searched for their own Lithuanian words to designate those causative agents. One such word they terminologized was the diminutive vabalėlis, which doctors used with more than one meaning. In physicians’ writings, the term vabalėlis is recorded with two meanings—“parasite” and “microbe.” In the first case, it denotes a creature visible to the naked eye, a parasite; in the second, a creature invisible to the naked eye, a disease pathogen; these terms are united by a common infectivity seme. E. Draugelis used the term vabalėlio when writing about body lice, which spread epidemic typhus: The latest word of science says that the microbes of typhus fever are found in the blood and that infection occurs through body lice. Although it has been proved that other bugs do not spread typhus, they must all be exterminated, because they may be harmful in other cases (fleas spread smallpox and the like). KMŠK 1915 11 A. Vileišis used the term bug in his 1903 book in the sense of an “invisible-to-the-naked-eye disease-causing agent”; this is indicated by the modifying element diseases: It has recently been discovered that the action of the sun, over a long period, can even kill the disease bugs, through which healthy people become infected with the patient’s disease. PP 1903 98 Term Meanings little beetle parasite, pest germ, microorganism SĖKLA – “the germ of diseases” and “sperm, seed” (lot. sperma). The term sėkla was used with two different meanings—“the germ of diseases” and “sperm.” It has a common seme of the germ of life: in the first case, the life of a new human being; in the second, a disease. Sėklos was the term used by K. Grinius, J. Basanavičius, and St. Matulaitis for the germs of diseases: 110 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu Cholera seeds already remaining at the site, may very well spread further with even more terrible ferocity [...]. A 1883 4 111 Most of those who have already developed measles, while still feverish, walk around for several more days and sow measles seeds all around. Svk 1909 5 2 It should be noted that the LKŽ does not record the word sėkla in this meaning. In his article “A Few Words about Bacteria” (1910), K. Jokantas also used the term sėkla to refer to the reproductive cell of bacteria: Bacterial seeds¹² withstand much more heat, the so-called spores¹³. Art 1910 15 54 Some pathogenic bacteria perish while drying in the air and therefore cannot infect. Others, however, are more resilient: when greater dryness sets in or conditions otherwise become unfavorable, they release the so-called spores, which can already survive in the environment [...]. Art 1910 25 93 In the sense of “sperm,” K. Grinius (1910–1912), P. Matulaitis (1890), and Pr. Matulaitis (1915) used the term seed. In K. Grinius’s articles, the terms male seed (1910) also occur, while in the writings of K. Grinius (1911) and A. Vileišis (1899) one finds man’s seed: Syphilis is one of the few diseases that are transmitted from parents to children, directly through the seed. LytL 1915 14 From this inflammation, the seminal ducts become blocked, and from the testicles sperm no longer comes out, and without male sperm a woman cannot become pregnant. Svk 1911 11 3 Term Meanings sperm semen the onset of diseases 2. Trinary polysemous medical terms. Only one term used with three different medical meanings was found in the material under investigation. DIEGLIAI – „dieglįai“ (lot. colica), „nerviniai diegliai“ (lot. colica nervosa) ir „neuralgija, nerviniai skausmai“ (lot. neuralgia). Terminas diegliai ¹² Italics in the original. ¹³ Italics in the original. Straipsniai / Articles 111 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ was used in three senses—“abdominal pains,” “nervous colic,” and “neuralgia.” It denotes ailments of different kinds, yet there is one common seme: stabbing, stabbing pain. In contemporary medical language, colic usually means “abdominal pains.” K. Grinius (1921), A. Sketeris (1911), and A. Vileišis (1907, 1908, 1911, 1914, 1915, 1924) used the term colic in this sense: Hard water is not as suitable for drinking as soft water. It has an unpleasant taste and sometimes causes colic in the abdomen [...]. Šlt 1911 39 460 Who, in fact, does not know that ordinarily sour milk made from raw milk upsets the bowels not only of the sick but even of the healthy, causing severe pains, colic and diarrhea. VŽ 1907 101 2 Doctors used the term diegliai (1889, 1892, 1895, 1902, 1905, 1910, 1911, 1920, 1921) also when writing about colic of a different kind, that is, colic in various other parts of the body: Having carefully examined the children and Kabailienė herself, who increasingly complained of diegliai spreading into her legs, the doctor advised Kabaila to move out of that hovel and settle in a healthier place. SG 1895 3 It has happened to more than one person that the wind blew through them and the nape stiffened like a wolf’s; or, when a person in a single shirt had warmed up, the wind blew diegliai into the lower back: one could neither sit down nor straighten up, and there was terrible diegliai along both sides of the lower-back bone. Svk 1910 5 7 A. Vileišis coined compound terms: diegliai pilvo gale PatM 1899 8, diegliai kairiame šone VŽ 1905 118 4, diegliai viduriuose NG 1908 93, diegliai šone Art 1910 28 105, diegliai tarp pečių Art 1910 28 105. In his 1920 article and 1921 book, K. Grinius defined the term diegliai and also used it as a synonym for neuralgijos: Diegliai (neuralgijos) occur in various places. Most often, dieglys strikes: 1) the sides, 2) either side of the face, 3) the back of the head, 4) the arms, 5) the legs, and other places. It arises from nervous agitation or inflammation. ŽL 1921 10 But K. Grinius’s diegliai in this article could also mean nervinius dieglius (Lat. colica nervosa MedŽ 113). M. Kuprevičius also wrote the Latin equivalent neuralgia alongside dieglys in his article: dieglys – neuralgia Vrp 1897 3. 112 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII On the issue of the polysemy of medical terms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Term Meanings diegliai stitches (abdominal pains) nervous stitches neuralgia, nervous pains 3. Fourfold polysemous medical terms. One term was found in the research material that had been used with as many as four different medical meanings. GYDYKLA – „medicament, medicine“ (Latin medicamentum), „health resort“ (German Kurort), „hospital“ (Latin hospitalium), and „sanatorium“ (Latin sanatorium). The term gydykla was used in the meanings of “medicine,” “health resort,” “hospital,” and “sanatorium.” These terms share the common seme of treatment. K. Grinius (1910), A. Sketeris (1906), and J. Šliūpas (1885) used the term gydykla to mean medicine: He states that doctors should have distributed gydyklas to the patients according to their sensitivity and insensitivity, so that the “sensitive ones” would have enough of a small dose of the appropriate medicine. A 1885 10/11 325 It is often necessary to take them when there is constipation, gydyklų to loosen the bowels […]. Svk 1910 11 5 A locality with natural healing resources and functioning health resorts was called by A. Vileišis in a 1908 booklet by the term health resort: It was noticed that one of the doctors engaged in private practice at the health resort (spa), to which consumptives used to be sent, observed that tailors who came to this town to earn money and repaired the patients’ clothes very frequently fell ill with consumption themselves. VŽ 1908 96 4 A. Vileišis used the term What to Do to Be Healthy and Live Long in the sense of “hospital” in the first edition (1895) of the book, health resort: Nevertheless, nothing will help the patient so much and protect others from infectious diseases as placing the patient in a separate health resort. SG 1895 32 A medical facility where treatment was provided using natural remedies was called gydykla by St. Matulaitis in a 1913 article: Straipsniai / Articles 113 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Many patients, before entering the gydykla, had already been treated with bromine [...]. MG 1913 1 16. St. Matulaitis used a specific term with the principal gydyklos (“sanatorium”) component: Dr. Amman describes [...], how he treats epileptics at the Zürich epileptikų gydykloj. MG 1913 1 16 Term Meaning dispensary medicine hospital resort sanatorium In conclusion, it is important to note that Lithuanian doctors, when writing about medical and health issues, first sought terms in the living language. This was their main source of words for naming the medical concepts they needed. Doctors adapted most of the words of this language to the needs of medical terminology—they terminologized those words. Thus, it can confidently be stated that the medical terminology of the period under investigation is the least removed from the living language and has therefore also inherited all its characteristic features, including polysemy. Doctors used words with the medical meanings known to ordinary people, since the latter were the main readers of their writings. They did not create or borrow terms if they found them in the living language. Therefore, if a word was used among the people with more than one medical meaning, doctors likewise used it in their writings with those meanings. This is confirmed by comparing the medical terms and their meanings with LKŽ. It can be seen that most medical meanings are recorded in the living language. The study confirms the theoretical claim that semantic derivation—the naming of a concept with a word from the common language—was the most accessible, simplest, and most convenient method (Прохорова 1996: 13–14) at the initial stage of the formation of many terminologies, because there was no broad choice of linguistic means for naming special concepts. As can be seen from the discussion of the material under investigation, this method was also characteristic of the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology. It should be noted that the reviewed texts from the period under investigation contain relatively few medical terms that name more than one concept. This confirms the claim of some researchers that polysemy is rare in medical terminology (Сакаева 2017: 111; cf. Соколова, Кириллова 2017; Бекишева, Грошева 2017). 114 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII On the issue of the polysemy of medical terms at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century GENERAL CONCLUSIONS Polysemy is not particularly characteristic of the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology: from a fairly large body of sources (98 popular medical and health-related texts of varying length and by different physician authors from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century were examined), only eleven terms were found that physicians used with more than one medical meaning. It was established that the boundaries of some medical terms during the period under study were not very strict. Such terms lack the principal features characteristic of scientific terms, such as precision; they are subject to the laws of the living language, since physicians adopted them from that language. The different medical meanings of the terms are fully revealed only in context or by comparing the same terms used in different contexts. Thus, one can agree with the claim that context is highly significant in recognizing polysemous terms, since without context it would be difficult to determine in what sense a term has been used. According to the data of LKŽ, the medical meanings of most of the terms used by physicians in their popularizing texts are known in the living language. Words from the living language function as polysemous medical terms, and physicians adopted these meanings from that language. Thus, it can be stated that the terms examined had not yet become detached from the living language, and their polysemy arose in the process of terminologizing the words of that language; in other words, the polysemy of medical terms arose from the polysemy of words in the living language. On the other hand, when used in texts concerning medicine, they are no longer words of the living language but terms. Thus, as terminologization proceeds, polysemy decreases. This refutes the claim that polysemy is widespread in terminology. The study conducted refutes the theoretical insight that a term with a simple morphological and derivational structure tends toward polysemy. Most of the medical terms discussed are derivatives, while one of them is a compound term. It has been observed that in some cases the same term has been used with different medical meanings by more than one physician. It is possible that the physician authors of later texts were familiar with their colleagues’ works and simply adopted the terms with those meanings. In terms of quantitative polysemy, binary polysemy predominates in the texts studied, that is, terms are most often used with two different medical meanings. Ternary and quaternary polysemy are not characteristic. Straipsniai / Articles 115 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ With regard to qualitative polysemy, intradisciplinary polysemy is characteristic, i.e. terms are used with different medical meanings within one and the same subject field (medicine). There are manifestations of authorial polysemy. For it happens that the use of terms with more than one meaning can be regarded as an individual or accidental phenomenon. This is also evident in cases when the medical meanings of terms are not recorded in LKŽ; therefore, it may be assumed that those meanings were assigned to the term by the physician(s) who used it in his/her (their) text(s). The medical terms used with more than one meaning indicate that, at the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology, some medical concepts had not yet become established and crystallized. One cannot agree with the claim that a polysemous term is non-terminological. The terms discussed from the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology should be regarded as terms, because they clearly designate specific medical concepts. ABBREVIATIONS A – Aušra Art – Artojas BK – Biržų kalendorius BL – About the Bad Disease or Syphilis (in French) ChA – About Cholera and How to Protect Oneself Against It ChK – Cholera and the Fight Against It Dž – Tuberculosis Gdt – Physician GŽK – How Vitality Manifests Itself in the Human Body KMŠK – Cholera, Plague, Fevers, and Dysentery KU – How to Keep Well in Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter LB – The Lithuanian Voice LimpL – Contagious Diseases and How to Protect Oneself Against Them LytL – Sexually Transmitted Diseases and How to Protect Oneself Against Them MG – Medicine and Nature NG – The Household Physician PP – First Aid in Accidents PM – Advice for Women Who Wish to Be Healthy RČ – Smallpox Vaccination RP – Professor Mechnikov’s Sour Milk SG – What to Do to Stay Healthy and Live Long 116 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu Svk – Sveikata Šlt – Šaltinis U – Ūkininkas V – Varpas Vlt – Viltis VŽ – Vilniaus žinios ŽK – How the Human Body Is Repaired ŽL – Human Diseases ŠALTINIAI [A. S.] 1906: Nešvarumas ir užsikrėtimas. – Lietuvos ūkininkas 19, 253–254. [A. V.] 1905: Apie vidurių šiltinę ir kaip nuo jos apsisaugoti. – Vilniaus žinios 118, 4. [A. V.] 1905: Ką valgyti žiemą? – Vilniaus žinios 289, 3–4. [A. V.] 1909: Kaip apsisaugoti nuo užsikrėtimo piktąja šiltine. – Šaltinis 10, 148–151. [A. V.] 1909: Kaip gydyties prakaitavimu? – Šaltinis 14, 212–215. [A. V.] 1905: Kaip privalo seni žmonės žiemą užlaikyti savo sveikatą? – Vilniaus žinios 286, 3. [A. V.] 1909: Nuo ko dažniausia žmonės miršta. – Šaltinis 1, 4–7. [A. V.] 1905: Saulės šviesos vertybė sveikatai. – Vilniaus žinios 225, 4. [A. V.] 1915: Ta liga lot. azgaena faetido vadinama [...] (Klausimai ir atsakymai). – Gydytojas 1, 3. [B.] 1896: Ką daryti nusideginus. – Ūkininkas 17, 131. [B.] 1896: Kaip gydyti skilvio (pilvo) ir žarnų ligas. – Ūkininkas 4, 28–30. [Bendraitis] 1895: Apie pasuitimą. – Ūkininkas 21, 165–167. [D.] 1896: Kaip apsieiti sergant šiltine? – Ūkininkas 24, 188–189. [daktaras A. V.] 1903: Dr. Fr. Esmarch. Pirmoji pagalba nelaiminguose atsitikimuose, išvertė daktaras A. V., Tilžė. [Dr. A. V.] 1909: Kaip privalo užsilaikyti sergantis džiova, ir kas daryti, kad neužsikrėstų jąja sveikieji? – Šaltinis 20, 308–310; 21, 324–325. Straipsniai / Articles 117 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ [Dr. A. V.] 1899: Patarmės moterims, kurios nori būti sveikos, pagal Zielčaką parašė Dr. A. V., Tilžė [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Apie kolerą ir perspėjančias ją priemones. – Artojas 118, 65–66; 19, 69. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Apie kūdikių auginimą. – Šaltinis 48, 756; 49, 772. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1912: Apie lisninkus. Pagal d-rą Mankauskį. – Artojas 37, 145–147. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Apie maudymąsi atlapame ore. – Artojas 33, 125–126. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1913: Apšvietimo ir vaikų marumo skaitmenė įvairiose šalyse. – Šaltinis 46, 730. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1915: Difteritas. – Gydytojas 3, 9–12. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1914: Kaip privalo užsilaikyti sergantis džiova, ir kas daryti, kad neužsikrėstų jąja sveikieji? – Gydytojas 8, 29–32. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Kaip reikia užlaikyti sveikos ir sergančios akys, Seinai. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1909: Kaip reikia užlaikyti sveikos ir sergančios akys. – Šaltinis 39, 612–614; 46, 723–724; 49, 772–773. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1918: Kas tai yra influenca ir iš ko ji atsiranda? – Tėvynės sargas 34, 4–8. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1912: Kokia privalo būti sergančių vaikų priežiūra. – Šaltinis 17, 264–266. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1911: Kova su vabzdžiais (vabalais), užsikrėčiamųjų ligų platintojais. – Šaltinis 6, 62–63. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1913: Oras ir klimatas ir jų svarbumas žmogaus sveikatai. – Artojas 27, 105–107; 28, 109–110; 32, 125–126. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Plaučių džiova. – Artojas 28, 105. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1915: Rauplės arba Raupai. – Gydytojas 2, 5–8. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1913: Sibiro žaizda (Karbunkulas). – Artojas 47, 186–188. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1911: Skorbutas. – Šaltinis 30, 351–352; 31, 364–365. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1908: Suteikimas žmogui pirmosios pagalbos paprastų smalkčių apniktam. – Šaltinis 45, 707–708. [Dr. A. Vileišis] 1911: Vanduo. – Šaltinis 39, 459–461. [Dr. E. Draugelis] 1918: Naujoji liga. – Tėvynės sargas 36, 13–14. 118 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiiareikšmiškumo klausimu [Dr. F. Matulaitis] 1911: Džiova. Alkohol(is), Chicago, Ill. [Dr. J. Basanavičius] 1898: Medega musu tautiškai vaistinykystai, parupino Dr. J. Basanavičius, atspauda isz „Dirvos“, Shenandoah. Pa. [Dr. J. Basanavičius] 1913: Follikulinas kaip purgatyvas (Nauji vaistai). – Medicina ir gamta 2, 20–21. [Dr. K. Grinius] 1921: Žmonių ligos. – Sveikata 1, 1–4; 2, 1–3. [Dr. K. Jokantas] 1912: Apie lavonų puvimą. – Šaltinis 21, 328–329. [Dr. K. Jokantas] 1912: Kaip reikia maitinti vaikai nuo 3-čių metų. – Šaltinis 14, 211–212. [Dr. K. Jokantas] 1910: Keletas žodžių apie bakterijas. – Artojas 15, 53–54; 25, 93–94. [Dr. K. Jokantas] 1912: Mirtis. – Šaltinis 20, 312–313. [Dr. K. Jokantas] 1912: Sušalimas ir atšalimas. – Šaltinis 8, 116. [Dr.] 1897: Dizenterija arba kruvinas viduriavimas. – Ūkininkas 9, 131. [Dr.] 1897: Rachitas arba angliškoji liga. – Ūkininkas 12, 183. [D-ras A. Medinietis] 1905: Apie kudikių auginimą. – Vilniaus žinios 19, 2–3. [D-ras A. Sketeris] 1910: Karštinės (Šiltinės, Karštligės, lot. Typhus). – Sveikata 4, 1–8. [D-ras A. Sketeris] 1911: Kila (hernia). – Sveikata 11, 1–7. [D-ras A. Sketeris] 1912: Švarumas ir sveikata. – Pasiuntinys 5, 149–150. [D-ras A. V.] 1909: Apalpimas ir pirmoji pagalba. – Žemdirbys 12, 9–10. [d-ras A. V.] 1904: Apie blogają ligą arba syfilį (prancus), pagal d-ro M. Členovo veikaliėlį sutaisė d-ras A. V., Tilžė. [D-ras A. V.] 1905: Apie cholerą, ir kaip apsisaugoti nuo jos. – Vilniaus žinios 77, 2–3. [D-ras A. V.] 1905: Apie vidurių šiltinę ir kaip nuo jos apsisaugoti. – Vilniaus žinios 118, 4. [D-ras A. V.] 1905: Atsakymas tiems, kurie per laiškus prašo ligonims atsiųsti vaistų. – Vilniaus žinios 29, 3. [D-ras A. V.] 1907: Cholera ir kova su ja. – Vilniaus žinios 125, 2–3; 126, 2. [D-ras A. V.] 1907: Difteritas, Vilnius. [D-ras A. V.] 1907: D-ras Bor. Oks. Raupų čiepijimas, vertė D-ras A. V. – Vilniaus žinios 133, 2. Straipsniai / Articles 119 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ [D-ras A. V.] 1907: Ivan Tarchanov. Rūgštasai pienas prof. Mečnikov’o. – Vilniaus žinios 101, 2; 102, 2; 103, 2; 104, 2; 105, 2; 108, 2. [D-ras A. V.] 1902: Kaip apsireiškia gyvastis žmogaus kūne?, sutaisė pagal Lunkevyčių D-ras A. V., Tilžė. [D-ras A. V.] 1906: Ligonių gydymas senovėje. – Vilniaus žinios 281, 1–2. [D-ras A. V.] 1905: Meningitis cerebrospinalis epidemica. – Vilniaus žinios 163, 3–4. [D-ras A. V.] 1905: Vaisių vertenybė iš pusės hygienos. – Vilniaus žinios 192, 4. [D-ras A. V.] 1909: Vaistai nuo uodų įkandimo. – Žemdirbys 12, 10. [D-ras A. Vileišis, Dr. A. Vileišis] 1910: Aklybė, jos priežastis ir perspėjimo priemonės. – Artojas 39, 149–150. [D-ras A. Vileišis, Dr. A. Vileišis] 1918: Kokia privalo būti sergančiųjų vaikų priežiūra. – Tėvynės sargas 21, 11; 26, 11–12. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1912: Apie drugio ligą. – Šaltinis 46, 727–728. [Dr-as A. Vileišis] 1914: Apie ligą, drugiu vadinamą. – Gydytojas 11, 62–64. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1912: Apie niežus. – Šaltinis 49, 776. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1918: Apie plaučių džiovą. – Tėvynės sargas 7, 14–15. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1908: Apie plaukų slenkimą. – Vilniaus žinios 8, 4. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1908: Cholera. – Vilniaus žinios 154, 2–3; 155, 2–3; 159, 2–3; 160, 2–3. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1907: Dantį ir jų higijena. – Vilniaus žinios 217, 2. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1908: Džiova, jos priežastis ir išsiplėtojimas. – Vilniaus žinios 96, 4; 97, 3–4. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1918: Kaip gyventi, kad sveikam būti. – Tėvynės sargas 4, 14–15; 5, 15. [d-ras A. Vileišis] 1906: Kaip užsilakyti pavasarį, vasarą, rudenį ir žiemą, pagal D-rą Med. L. Volbergą sutaisė d-ras A. Vileišis, Vilnius. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1905: Kas daryti kad sveiki butume ir ilgai gyventume, vertė iš lenkų kalbos D-ras A. Vileišis, Vilnius. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1915: Kas yra influenza ir iš ko ji atsiranda? Influencos gydymas. – Gydytojas 6, 22–24. 120 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu [d-ras A. Vileišis] 1915: Limpamosios ligos ir Kaip nuo jų išsisaugoti?, parašė d-ras A. Vileišis, Kaunas. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1924: NamInis gydytojas. Trumpas paprasčiausių ligų aprašymas ir jų gydymas, antrasis pataisytas leidimas, Kaunas. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1908: Naminis gydytojas: Trumpas aprašymas prasčiausių ligų ir prasčiausių vaistų kovoje su jomis: / D. 1. Apie žmonių ligas ir jų gydymą, sutaisė D-ras A. Vileišis, Seinai. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1913: Oras ir klimatas ir jų svarbumas žmogaus sveikatai, Seinai. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1918: Rožė. – Tėvynės sargas 10, 14. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1914: Sveikatos dalykai. Apie žmogaus džumą. – Šaltinis 29, 435–437. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1912: Šaltos kojos – įvairių peršaldymų priežastis. – Šaltinis 1, 11. [D-ras A. Vileišis] 1910: Tikrieji raupai (raup­lės). – Artojas 12, 42–43. [D-ras E. D.] 1915: Užkrečiamosios ligos. – Viltis 70, 2–3. [D-ras F. Antaniukas] 1895: Ką daryti, kad sveiki būtume ir ilgai gyventume, vertė iš lenk. kalbos D-ras F. Antaniukas, Tilžė. [D-ras F. Matulaitis] 1915: Lytiškos Ligos ir Kaip nuo jų apsisaugoti, parašė D-ras F. Matulaitis, antra, peržiūrėta ir pagerinta laida, So Boston, Mass. [D-ras K.Grinius]1910: Rauplės (lot. Variola vera). – Sveikata 8, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1911: Apie drugio ligą. – Sveikata 2, 1–5. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1911: Apie kurtumą. – Sveikata 8, 1–5. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1910: Apie onanizmą. – Sveikata 12, 1–6. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1909: Difteritas. – Sveikata 6, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1910: Influenca (Inmėdė, Kaulalilgė). – Sveikata 11, 1–5. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1910: Kokliušas (Didysis Kosulys, lot. Pertussis arba Tussis Convulsiva). – Sveikata 7, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1910: Nuomarius (Epilepsia). – Sveikata 1, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1910: Reumatizmas. – Sveikata 5, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1911: Sifilis ir „606“. – Sveikata 1, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1909: Skarlatina. – Sveikata 4, 1–8. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1909: Tymai (Jedra, Blusinės; lot. Morbilli). – Sveikata 5, 1–8. Straipsniai / Articles 121 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ [D-ras K. Grinius] 1911: Triperis. – Sveikata 3, 1–7. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1921: Žmonių ligos, Kaunas. [D-ras K. Grinius] 1920: Žmonių ligos. – Sveikata 5–6, 1–4. [D-ras K. Jokantas] 1910: Kam reikalingos pirtys. – Šaltinis 44, 694. [D-ras med. P. Avižonis] 1920: Kova su limpančiomis ligomis, Raseiniai. [D-ras P. Avižonis] 1913: Aklumas ir trachoma Lietuvoje. – Lietuvių tauta 2(2), 181–190. [D-ras P. Avižonis] 1907: Keletas žodžių apie šundaktarius. – Vilniaus žinios 185, 2–3. [Dr–as P. Avižonis] 1911: Pasigelbėjimas nelaiminguose atsitikimuose. – Ūkiškasis kalendorius 1911 metams, Brooklyn, N. Y., 62–66. [D-ras S. Matulaitis] 1913: Anatomijos, fiziologijos, patologijos bei chemijos lietuviška terminologija. – Medicina ir gamta 2, 9–12. [D-ras V. A.] 1901: Trumpi šneka apie limpančias ligas ir kaip nuo jų apsiginti, parašė D-ras V. A., Tilžė. [Draugaitis] 1891: Apie rauples. – Ūkininkas 2, 77–84. [D-ro P. Avižonies] 1913: Aklumas ir trachoma Lietuvoje: referatas skaitytas 1912 m. Lietuvių mokslo dr-jos visuot in. susirinkime, atspausdinta iš „Lietuvių tautos“, Vilnius. [Drs. J. Bs.] 1883: Keli žodžiai apie kolerą. – Auszra 4, 110–113; 5, 138–143. [G. K.] 1892: Kaltunas (lotynizškai Plica polonica). – Ūkininkas 1, 18–21. [Gydytojas K. J., Dr. K. J.] 1913: Žmogaus amžiaus ilgumas. – Vadovas 16, 62, 158–173; 16, 63, 274–281. [Gydytojas] 1896: Skarlatina. – Ūkininkas 20, 153–156. [Hygijėjos tarnas] 1889: Hygiena. I. Arbata. – Varpas 1, 8–9. [Hygijėjos tarnas] 1889: Hygiena. III. Tabakas. – Varpas 3, 40–41; 4, 60–61; 8, 120. [Hygienos tarnas] 1895: Alkogolis ir alkoholizmas. – Varpas 9/10, 155–157. [J. S. Kū́kštis] 1885: Hypnoskopas. – Auszra 10/11, 319–325. [J. Slibinas] 1892: Dif­teritas, smauginyczia, kaklinė (lotynizškai – diphteritis). – Uki­nikas 8, 293–297. [J. Slibinas] 1892: Prancuzligė arba piktoji liga (lotynizškai – syphilis). – Ūkinikas 6/7, 230–237. [J. Szl.] 1885: Ar kenkia rūkymas tabako. – Lietuwiszkasis Balsas 2, 6–7. 122 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu [J.] 1890: Gražumas žmogaus gymyje, pagal H. Spencer’i išvertė J. – Varpas 3, 37; 4, 53–55; 5, 68–70. [K. Gr.] 1890: Dizenterija (arba Raudonoji, Kruvinoji, Greitoji). – Ūkininkas 3, 39–40; 4, 53–55. [K. Gr.] 1920: Niežai (Lot. Scabies). – Sveikata 2, 1. [Kagė] 1920: Apie plaukų slinkimą ir triušimą. – Sveikata 4, 2. [Karo gydyt. E. Draugelis] 1915: Kai-kurios užkrečiamosios ligos. – Viltis 85, 2–3. [Kg.] 1921: Pasenėjimas. – Sveikata 6, 1–2. [M. Sk-ra] 1897: Lietuviški ligų vardai. – Varpas 3, 41–42. [P. A.] 1899: Apie vaikų viduriavimą. – Ūkiškas Kalendorius ant metų 1900, Vilnius, 34–44. [P. A.] 1898: Kaip užlaikyti vaikų sveikatą? – Ūkininkas 3, 39–41. [Paulius] 1890: Du nuodingų augalų. – Varpas 2, 20–21. [Paulius] 1890: Mikroorganizmai. – Varpas 7, 105–107; 8, 122–124; 10, 153–154. [R.] 1889: Influenzа. – Varpas 12, 184. [S. M.] 1913: Bismutum subnitricum hyperchlorhydrijoj ir ulcum ventrikuli. – Medicina ir gamta 1, 18–19. [S. M.] 1902: Kaip sutaisytas žmogaus kūnas, parašė S. M. Plymouth, Pa. [Vaistininkas (Daktaras)] 1893: Apie kolerą. – Kaip atsiginti nū Koleros ir kiti Naudingi skaitymai, Tilžė, 14–27. [Vaistininkas] 1890: Apie džiovą. – Ūkininkas 5, 74–75. [A. V.] 1915: Kaip reikia užsilaikyti, kad apsisaugojus nuo kruvinosios (dizenterijos) ir nuo koleros. – Aušra 31, 399–401. Aklumas, jo priežastis ir perspėjimo priemonės. – Vilniaus žinios 28, 1909, 2–3. Ankstybas chroniškų ligų gydymas. – Vilniaus žinios 222, 1906, 3. Apie Augimą Kudikėlių. – Naujasis Keleivis 20, 1880, 119. Apie cholera ir kaip nuo jos apsisaugoti 77, atspausta iš „V. Ž.“, Vilnius, 1905. Apie homeopatiją. – Sveikata 9, 1912, 33–34. Apie kirmėles pas vaikus. – Ūkininkas 8, 1897, 120–121. Apie kolerą ir kaip nuo jos apsisaugoti. – Gydytojas 4, 1915, 13–16; 5, 1915, 17–18. Straipsniai / Articles 123 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Apie kraujo pludimus. – Sveikata 10, 1913, 37–38. Apie neurasteniją. – Sveikata 11–12, 1912, 41–43. Blėdis nėščioms ir žindančioms moterims nuo alaus vartojimo. – Vilniaus žinios 240, 1906, 3. Būto pravėdinimas vasarą. – Vilniaus žinios 127, 1906, 4. Cholera ir kova su ja, vertė D-ras A. V., Vilnius, 1907. Difteritas. – Vilniaus žinios 93, 1907, 2; 94, 1907, 2. Dr. Fr. Esmarch 1903: Pirmoji pagalba nelaiminguose atsitikimuose, išvertė daktaras A. V., Tilžė. D-ras Bor. Oks. 1908: Raupų čiepijimas. (Šneka su jauna motina), Vilnius. D-ras Bor. Oks. 1907: Raupų čiepijimas. (Šneka su jauna motina), vertė D-ras A. V. – Vilniaus žinios 133, 2; 134, 2; 135, 2; 136, 2. Droper John Willam 1887: Ugis Žmogaus. – Lietuviszkasis Balsas 5/6, 57–60; 8, 98–98. Dr. S. A. Knopf 1903: Džiova ir kova su ja: populiariškas konkursinis darbas apdovanotas ant kongreso Berlyne (24–27 gegužė 1899 m.) susirinkusio apsvarstyti kovos įrankius su džiova, sutaisė D-ras A. V., Tilžė. Džiova Lietuvoj ir kova su ja: D-ro J. Bagdonavičiaus paskaita L. M. D-jos susirinkime. – Viltis 144, 1914, 1–2. Girtuoklybė – mūsų rykštė, Vilnius, 1907. Ką daryti, kad sveiki būtume ir ilgai gyventume, vertė iš lenk. kalbos D-ras F. Antaniukas, Tilžė, 1895. Kaip apsieiti su ligoniu, vidurių šiltine susirgusiu? – Vilniaus žinios 122, 1905, 3–4. Kaip apsireiškia gyvastis žmogaus kune?, sutaisė pagal Lunkevyčių D-ras A. V., Tilžė, 1902. Kaip užsilaikyti pavasarį, vasarą, rudenį ir žiemą, pagal D-rą Med. L. Volbergą sutaisė d-ras A. Vileišis, Vilnius, 1906. Kas daryti kad sveiki būtume ir ilgai gyventume, vertė iš lenkų kalbos D-ras A. Vileišis, Vilnius, 1905. Kas reikia žinoti apie dž،ovą, iš vok. klb. vertė d-ras Bagdonavičius. – Viltis 62, 1913, 2–3. Kas reikia žinoti apie džiovą, iš vokiečių kalbos vertė D-ras Bagdonavičius, Vilnius, 1913. 124 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu Kas reikia žinoti apie dizovą, iš vokiečių kalbos vertė D-ras Bagdonavičius, Vilnius, 1920. Kas reikia žinoti apie lyties ligas, vertė iš vokiečių kalbos D-ras J. Bagdonas, Kaunas, 1920. Kas tai yra liga gumbas? – Ukininkas 4, 1896, 28. Keli žodžiai apie niežus. – Zwiesa 3, 1888, 78–83. Keli žodžiai apie alaus ir degtinės vartojimą. – Biržų kalendorius, 1913, 60–64. Kolera, maras, šiltinės ir kruvinoji, parašė Karo gydytojas E. Draugelis, Vilnius, 1914. Kolera. – Viltis 159, 1914, 2–3. Kūdikių žindymas ir penėjimas, vertė Atgalainis, Tilžė, 1904. Limpamosios ligos ir Kaip nuo jų išsisaugoti?, parašė d-ras A. Vileišis, Kaunas, 1915. Mokykla ir užkrečiamosios ligos. – Šaltinis 3, 1912, 36. Naminis gydytojas. Trumpas prasčiausių ligų aprašymas ir jų gydymas, antrasis pataisytas leidimas, Kaunas, 1924. Naminis gydytojas: Trumpas aprašymas prasčiausiu ligu ir prasčiausiu vaistu kovoje su jomis: / D. 1. Apie žmonių ligas ir jų gydymą, sutaisė D-ras A. Vileišis, Seinai, 1908. Nemalonus kvapsnys. – Šaltinis 23, 1911, 267–268. Nuomario (epilepsijos) gydymas bromu (Referatai). – Medicina ir gamta 1, 1913, 16–18. Pamokinimas kaip nūg cholieros gintiesi, vertė A. Sketeris, Tilžė, 1893. Patarimai sveikatos dalykuose: [atsakymai į skaitytojų klausimus]. – Šaltinis 9, 1914, 140. Patar mės moterims, kurios nori būti sveikos, pagal Zielčaką parašė Dr. A. V., Tilžė, 1899. Patar mės moterims, kurios nori būti sveikos, pagal Zielčaką parašė Dr. A. Vileišis, 2-oji laida, Vilnius, 1906. Perkaitimas nuo saulės spindulių ir stabligė nuo tvanko arba kaitros. – Vilniaus žinios 184, 1905, 4. Rožė. – Aušra 32, 1915, 418–419. Sveikatos reikalai. – Šaltinis 17, 1914, 258–262. Šaltos kojos kaip priežastis įvairių peršaldymų. – Vilniaus žinios 146, 1906, 4. Šiltinės. – Gydytojas 10, 1914, 37–40; 11, 1914, 61–62. Škarlatina. – Vilniaus žinios 219, 1906, 3. Straipsniai / Articles 125 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Taisyk­lės palaikyti mokinių sveikatą namie ir mokykloje. – Šaltinis 43, 1913, 680–681. 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Straipsniai / Articles 129 PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ On Polysemy of Medical Terms of Late 19th – Early 20th Century SUMMARY The article discusses the polysemous medical terms used by Lithuanian doctors in medical and healthcare publications written in popular scientific style at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. It was found that polysemous terms were not very common at the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology – out of a rather large number of sources (98 medical publications of different scope and different authors/doctors were reviewed), only eleven terms used in multiple meanings were found, e.g., veidas “facies” and “zygoma”, pilvas “venter” and “gaster”, pilvelis “ventriculus” and “gaster”, nosis “nasus” and “naris”, kruvinas viduriavimas “dysenteria” and “diarrhoea cruenta”, drugys “malaria” and “febris intermittens”, dusulys “dyspnoea” and “asthma bronchiale”, vab a lelis “parasitus” and “microbium”, sėkla “ligų užuomazga” and “sperma”. It was established that the boundaries of certain medical terms of the period under analysis were not very strictly defined. They followed the laws of general language, as they were taken from it by doctors themselves. Different medical meanings of terms fully reveal in the context only or when the same terms used in different contexts are compared. The words of general language taken by doctors with different meanings associated with them are used as polysemous medical terms. Consequently, the terms under discussion had not yet departed from general language, and their polysemy originated from it in the process of terminologization or, in other words, the polysemy of medical terms derived from the polysemy of general-language words. On the other hand, when used in medical texts, they are no longer general-language words but terms. Hence, we can say that polysemy reduces as we move along the road of terminologization. It denies the assertion that polysemy is widespread in terminology. The study rejects the theoretical insight that the term of simple morphology and formation is prone to polysemy. A greater part of the medical terms in question are derivatives, one of them is a composite term. It was observed that in some cases several doctors used the same term in different medical meanings. It is likely that the authors/doctors of later texts were familiar with the works of their colleagues and simply took those terms with the meanings associated with them. The texts under analysis are dominated by binary polysemy, i.e., the terms are usually used in two different medical meanings. Ternary and quaternary polysemy is not a characteristic feature, though isolated cases of such polysemy were found as well. 130 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIII XIX a. pab. – XX a. pr. medicinos terminų daugiareikšmiškumo klausimu The terms are used in different medical meanings in the domain of the same subject (medicine). Certain manifestations of the so called author’s polysemy were identified. There are cases when the use of terms in multiple meanings may be considered an individual or random phenomenon. It is commonplace in such cases when the medical meanings of terms are not established in the Lithuanian academic dictionary, and we can thus assume that the doctor(s) using the term in the text(s) assigned those meanings to the term at his/her/their discretion. Occasional use of medical terms in several meanings shows that at the initial stage of the formation of Lithuanian medical terminology certain medical concepts were not yet established and crystallized. The theoretical assumption that polysemous terms should not be considered terms cannot be supported. The medical terms under discussion should be considered terms, because they clearly indicate specific medical concepts. Įteikta 2020 m. rugsėjo 7 d. PALMIRA ZEMLEVIČIŪTĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 131