Konstrukcijos „tai yra / to jest“ semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo „Punktais sakymų“ (1629, 1644))

KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA Vilnius University ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0002-5789-9972 Research areas: language contacts from synchronic and diachronic perspectives, textual and linguistic studies of old writings, studies of the linguistic worldview. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all87-03 KONSTRUKCIJOS TAI YRA / TO JEST SEMANTIKA RELIGINIAME TEKSTE (REMIANTIS KONSTANTINO SIRVYDO PUNKTAIS SAKYMŲ (1629, 1644))¹ Semantics of the Construction tai yra / to jest in a Religious Text (Based on Punktai sakymų by Konstantinas Sirvydas (1629, 1644))² ABSTRACT The article analyses the constructions tai yra / to jest in the text of Sirvydas’s sermons. In contemporary studies of syntactic semantics, these units are described as concluding constituents and assigned to the group denoting equivalence, while their semantic representation is presented as the schema TR1 tai yra R2. In the schema, R1 and R2 are linked by explicit equivalence based on the truth of the proposition, while R2 may be a conclusion, generalisation, or specification. In the religious text, metatextual fragments inserted using the conjunction tai yra, ¹ The article was prepared as part of the project Tekst religijny jako narzędzie komunikacji międzykulturowej [Religious text as a tool of intercultural communication]. NAWA, Poland, POLONISTA Programme, Project No. PJP/PON/2021/1/00005. ² The article is part of the project Tekst religijny jako narzędzie komunikacji międzykulturowej [Religious text as a tool of intercultural communication]. NAWA, Poland, Programme POLONISTA, Project No: PJP/PON/2021/1/00005. 64 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) have much in common with lexical parallelisms, but stand out through greater vividness and richness of content, and perform an important stylistic function. Metatextual insertions beginning with the construction tai yra are quite frequent in Sirvydas’s Postilė (approximately 1,000 occurrences); therefore, it may be assumed that this is a characteristic feature of this Baroque author’s stylistic manner. They are repeated within a single sentence or in a longer passage consisting of several compound sentences. Their functions are highly varied: a) restorative, auxiliary information; b) explanatory; c) rhetorical. Allegorical explanation of concepts and phenomena predominates in Sirvydas’s text. In pursuit of vividness, the author skilfully combines word and image, while metatextual insertions introduce clarity and become a powerful rhetorical figure in the process of educating believers and shaping moral attitudes. KEYWORDS: metatext, lexical parallelisms, allegoresis, sermons, Konstantinas Sirvydas. ANNOTATION The article addresses the constructions tai yra/to jest in the text of the sermons by Konstantinas Sirvydas. In the contemporary research of syntactic semantics, these units are termed ‘conclusive components’ and are attributed to the group denoting equivalence. Meanwhile, their semantic representation is expressed by the scheme TR1 tai yra R2 (TR1 that is R2). In the scheme, R1 and R2 are linked by the relation of open equivalence based on the correctness of the statement, whereas R2 may express a conclusion, generalization, clarification. The metatextual fragments used in a religious text, which are inserted by means of the phrase tai yra, have much in common with lexical parallelisms. However, they stand out by their greater vividness and richness of the content and play an important stylistic function. The metatextual inserts starting with the construction tai yra are rather widespread in Sirvydas’ Postil (circa 1,000 cases). It can therefore be assumed that it is a characteristic feature of Sirvydas’ baroque style. They recur in a single sentence or in a longer passage composed of several compound sentences. Their functions are varied: a) information restoration, auxiliary; b) explanatory; c) rhetorical. The text by Sirvydas is dominated by the allegorical interpretation of concepts and phenomena. To achieve vividness, the author skillfully combines a word and an image, whereas metatextual inserts add transparency and become a powerful stylistic device in the process of educating the believers and shaping their moral values. KEYWORDS: metatext, lexical parallelisms, allegoresis, sermons, Konstantinas Sirvydas. INTRODUCTION The analysis conducted in this article is considered interdisciplinary and is associated with several methodological approaches belonging to semantic syntax, stylistics, Straipsniai / Articles 65 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA biblical studies (allegorical interpretation), and ethnotheology³, and its principal aim is to reveal the role of metatext in religious text (limiting the analysis to the semantics of one type of combination—constructions with the combinations tai yra / to jest). At the same time, the article seeks to demonstrate the importance of allegorical interpretation within religious text and to discuss the foundations of its formation. The objectives are multifaceted: a) on the basis of existing research, to present the principles governing the insertion into the text of constructions with the combinations tai yra / to jest and to examine their semantics in standard Lithuanian⁴ and Polish; b) to reveal their functions in Bible translations (existing research has so far permitted only fragmentary reliance); c) on the basis of a specific text, to identify the principal functions of the constructions under investigation (Sirvydas’s Postilė is analysed); d) where possible, to trace Sirvydas’s individual biblical interpretations of concepts, determined by ethnic tradition and cultural context. 1. STUDIES OF SPECIFYING (EQUATIVE) CONSTRUCTIONS IN LITHUANIAN AND POLISH Various metatextual elements, including the combination tai yra, have already attracted scholarly attention. Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatikoje, similar constructions are called specifying words or expressions that specify or explain in a sentence the meaning of words performing the same function. They are attached to nouns, adverbs, adjectives, numerals, or pronouns (DLKG 1997: 633). Contemporary researchers of Lithuanian syntax use the term ekvacija to describe constructions of this type. Jonas Balkevičius, in Predikatinių konstrukcijų sintaksėje (1998: 102), writes: “since an equality sign can be placed between two antecedents with the same denotation, that is, between adpositions, these constructions [may be called] equative constructions.” Rolandas Mikulskas describes them similarly: “[...] this construction, like Lat. id est, introduces a specification of an earlier sentence, phrase, or word. From the standpoint of logic, the entire phrase containing the insertion tai yra could be analysed as a distinctive variety of equative construction, in which this syntactic element would then perform the function of a conjunction. For example, in the sentence Prelatas Jonas Mačiulis, tai yra poetas Maironis, buvo įdomi ³ The term is very new; Anna Werzbicka proposes using it to reveal ethnic elements in religious text (2021: 254–261). ⁴ The author of the article sincerely thanks Dr Loreta Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė and Dr Rolandas Mikulskas for discussions and valuable consultations concerning the state of research on the constructions tai yra in contemporary Lithuanian. 66 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) personality such an equative connective construction may be discerned in the complex subject Prelatas Jonas Mačiulis, tai yra poetas Maironis, but strictly syntactically the phrase tai yra poetas Maironis is in an appositional position and does not form a finite sentence with the phrase Prelatas Jonas Mačiulis, as is the case with a typical connective construction”⁵. The term įterpiniai, which entered Lithuanian grammars from the Grammars of Jonas Jablonskis⁶, is also still used by scholars; their function is described quite specifically: “insertions [...] intervene in various ranks of the sentence and even of the text—they are both a means of forming modality and elements expressing the discursiveness of the sentence, while in the text they are also a means of sentence cohesion, that is, grammatical connectedness” (Akelaitis 2010: 57). In his articles, Gintautas Akelaitis also uses the term išraudų, and, when examining the stylistic functions of such formations, describes them as parentezės konstrukcijas⁷ and draws on Regina Koženiauskienė’s Retorika, which discusses the laws of the stylistics of eloquence. There the author proposes applying parenthesis as a means of specifying and explaining complex rhetorical figures such as metaphor, catachresis, hyperbole, or licentia, with the aim of achieving clarity and simplicity (Koženiauskienė 2001: 176–178, 189–190, 209, 219, 240, 341). Juozas Pikčilingis also particularly emphasises the clarity and precision achieved in this way in the text as “style features acknowledged and valued by everyone” (Pikčilingis 1971: 43). The relevance and necessity of research into constructions of this type, as well as its complexity, are also discussed in connection with punctuation problems. In an article published on the VLK website, Albinas Drukteinis (2021) states that the boundaries between, for example, tai yra constructions as explanatory or specifying sentence parts (attributes, predicates, etc.) and as insertions may be blurred: “The relationship and features of certain insertions and explanatory sentence parts are not always easy to recognise and distinguish because their communicative purpose is similar. Both arise from the author’s wishes and motivations—to supplement the content being expressed with other, clearer content when communication is suspected of being unsuccessful, or to intervene with a personal attitude, an evaluation of what is being said, and the like. This close common basis for their presence in language creates difficulties in assigning a particular case to one or another punctuation rule.” ⁵ I sincerely thank Dr R. Mikulskas for his expressed opinion and the reflections provided in writing. ⁶ Gintautas Akelaitis (2010: 63), having examined J. Jablonskis’s description of insertions, concludes that he presented two conceptions of these formations: a) the narrow conception, set out in academic descriptions of Lithuanian syntax (LKG III 1976: 701–713; DLKG 1997: 641–644), in which insertions are regarded as fixed, standard words and expressions (DLKG 1977: 645); and b) the broad conception of insertions, in which he also includes constructions grammatically related to the words of the sentence (cf. the studies of Balkevičius (1963: 267–281) and Labutis (2002: 343–353)). ⁷ This term has long also been used by researchers of Polish syntax; cf. Pisarkowa (1984: 130–137). Straipsniai / Articles 67 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA A detailed account of the state of research on equative constructions in Lithuanian and the range of terms used to describe them makes it possible to conclude that, until now, these linguistic phenomena have been studied in general terms; specific attention has not been devoted to metatextual specifying constructions with the combination tai yra or to synonymous constructions with the combination išmanyk. No more detailed studies based on historical Lithuanian texts have been conducted at all. Constructions inserted by means of the combination tai yra have been discussed somewhat more extensively in the works of Polish scholars. The syntactic functions of these elements have been analysed, and the question of which grammatical class they should belong to has been considered (Wiśniewski 1990: 91–119). Researchers have analysed various types of texts: contemporary, old, and only partly religious. Anna Wierzbicka, one of the first to study these phenomena in Polish, presents these elements in an article devoted to “second-plane text”—metatext—as units “which indicate equivalence or quasi-equivalence in the text, while the insertions they introduce may be described as having the modal structure ‘I will say the same thing differently’” (Wierzbicka 1971: 117–118). In contemporary studies of syntactic semantics, these units are described as concluding constituents and assigned to the group denoting equivalence, while their semantic representation is presented in the schema TR1 tai yra R2. In the schema, R1 and R2 are linked by explicit equivalence based on the truth of the proposition, while R2 may be a conclusion, generalisation, or specification. Such units are characterised by an invariable internal relation, marked by postposition with respect to R1 and preposition with respect to R2 (Grochowski et al., 2014: 163–164; Kisiel 2013: 73–82). It may be assumed that in religious text, based on interpretations of biblical statements or other sources (the Church Fathers, writers of Antiquity), such combinations have distinctive semantics and functions, and that these matters can be defined more precisely. The commentaries to the Bible translations of Jakub Wujek, Simon Budny, and Stanisław Murzynowski helped reveal the characteristic features of the scholarly style developing in the language of Polish Humanism’s golden age. In analysing the specifying constructions used in the commentaries of these three famous translators, Joanna Sobczykowa sought to reveal the authors’ intentions, describe the features of the commentaries’ style, and provide examples. In Bible commentaries, many explanations and specifications of concepts begin simply with the combinations to jest, to się rozumie, to się znaczy, mianowicie, while the combination to jest is most often used when quoting or translating certain Latin fragments into Polish. The author states that the mentioned combinations have no particularly marked stylistic function in the text (Sobczykowa 2012: 172, 265). Returning to the first study of the functions of Polish metatext and to some of Anna Wierzbicka’s claims, attention should be drawn to this author’s view. She writes: “Our utterances, heterogeneous in various respects, are heterogeneous also in that authorial text and metatext are constantly interwoven within them. The threads of metatext may perform a wide range of functions, enlivening the authorial 68 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII The semantics of the constructions tai yra / to jest in religious text (based on Konstantinas Sirvydas’s Punktai sakymų (1629, 1644)) text’s “semantic fabric”, linking, highlighting, and combining its various elements. Sometimes they can be removed without disrupting the whole. Sometimes they cannot. [...] Probably the quantitative and qualitative “contribution” of metatext to the text is one of the essential markers of stylistic differentiation” (Wierzbicka 1971: 121). Metatextual fragments used in religious text and inserted by means of the combination tai yra have much in common with lexical parallelisms, about which Polish (Bieńkowska 1994: 5–17; Kuraszkiewicz 1986: 619; Zarębski 2015: 281–296) and Lithuanian (Kruopas 1960: 223–254; Rutkovska 2016; Vasiliauskienė 2016) researchers have written, but they stand out through greater vividness and more varied content, and perform an important stylistic function. Combinations of this kind may be regarded as one of the elements of the so-called rhetoric of spoken language, characteristic of sermons intended to explain complex matters to ordinary listeners. This has been discussed on the basis of examples from Old Polish texts (Hrabeс 1960: 409; Bieńkowska 1998: 291–298; Umińska-Tytoń 2021: 225–230); such features have been identified in the text of Mikalojus Daukša’s Postilė (1599) (Lebedys 1963; Rutkovska, Jachimovič 2022), and they are also characteristic of Sirvydas’s sermons. 2. ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS DENOTING QUASI-EQUIVALENCE USED IN KONSTANTINAS SIRVYDAS’S POSTILĖ To reveal the semantics and functions of the constructions under investigation in religious text, Konstantinas Sirvydas’s sermon text was selected (Punktai sakymų nuo advento iki Gavenios, 1629 – PS/PK I, Punktai sakymų Gaveniai, 1644 – PS/PK II). Metatextual insertions beginning with the construction tai yra / to jest are quite frequent in the Postilė (they occur approximately 1,000 times; synonymous forms—išmanyk / rozumiej⁸—are somewhat less frequent), so it may be claimed that this is a characteristic feature of this Baroque author’s style. They are repeated within a single sentence or in longer passages of text consisting of several compound sentences. The functions of the metatextual insertions are highly varied: a) restorative information—information is inserted by restoring fragments omitted from the preceding sentence; b) explanatory—the meanings of concepts, most often biblical names, microtoponyms, and more complex theological terms, are explained vividly; c) rhetorical—the rhetorical expressiveness of the text is intensified in order to foreground and highlight particular content. Because of the article’s ⁸ More precise quantitative data can be provided using the recently published K. Sirvydo Punktų sakymų Indeksą (see http://seniejirastai.lki.lt/db.php?source=91). The article presents approximate calculations, since the qualitative analysis of these combinations is regarded as the most important aspect of this study. Straipsniai / Articles 69 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA limitations of scope, most space is devoted to examples from the second and third groups⁹ In Sirvydas’s text, metatextual insertions are used to explain unfamiliar words and biblical terms, present statements by the Church Fathers, and create vivid comparisons. They also constitute a method of teaching the faith, consistent with the principles of Holy Scripture, bringing its content and rhetoric closer to the audience, grounded in fidelity to the faith and in the desire to cultivate and strengthen it. It is also important to mention Sirvydas’s own stance and personal interpretations. When presenting essential biblical statements, it was important to take into account the provisions of the Council of Trent (1545–1563); all preachers had to conform to them, while choosing the mode of argumentation most personally acceptable to each. Let us examine several combinations of this type, taking into account how their content and form were determined by the preacher’s intentions. These were undoubtedly connected with the cultural and historical context in which his works took shape, intended for listeners and priests, to address their current life questions and adapted to their level of education and preparedness to understand and further interpret the word of God¹⁰ 2.1. Explanation of the meanings of proper nouns In Sirvydas’s Postilė, as in many other parabolic works, proper nouns are explained. This is a characteristic feature of texts of this kind, widely disseminated as early as the Middle Ages and eventually becoming established in old Polish religious writing (cf. Pisarkowa 1984: 130–131). Various authors explained concepts incomprehensible to ordinary people without specialised theological education in their own ways. In his explanations, Sirvydas relies on Holy Scripture or on his own conception of the vividness of proper names. For example, when explaining the place name Babiloniją , he relies on the Apocalypse, in which Babel¹¹ is one of the most shocking biblical images, a harsh punishment at God’s judgement for the godlessness, pride, and depravity of this city (Słownik symboliki biblijnej – SSB 27–28). In Sirvydas’s text, the explanation is based on a metaphorical generalisation of all the condemned, and the punishment assigned to them is called a “sea of torments”; cf.: ⁹ It may be meaningful to provide here only a few illustrative examples from the first group: Per kuri (tay ira Iezu Chriſtu) łabay didžius ir brungius mumus žadeimus dowanojo // Prʒe3 ktorego (to ieft Chriſtu sà) naweikſbę y koßtowne obietnice nam darował (PS I 89–90); Kurigi wayſiu tureiote tuo metu iuofe (tay ira nu ſidideimuofe) įzkuriu dabar giedites? // Któryžėsićie pożytek mieli w nich (to ieft w grzechách) ʒá ktore się teraz widʒićie? (PS I 153). ¹⁰ For more on the importance of cultural context, see Rutkovska 2020; 2022. ¹¹ The form “Babelė” is used in the Rubšys and Kavaliauskas translation of the Biblijos (Apr 18, 1–21). 70 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) ‹Aniełs «Apreyßkimi Jonof βwynto parode / kad» pakėlęs drutu akmenį kayp melničios didi imete mariafna tardamas. Tuo lekimu bus imeta Babilonia mier̄tas anafay didis (Apr 18,21)». Babiloniai tay ira wiſų pakundintuiu daugybe bus imēta mariafna kunčiū galø ne turinčiū (PS I 53). ‹Anioł «wobiāwieniu Łaná S. wyraźił / gdy» podnióßβy mocny kamień iákoby młyńki wielki wrzucił w morze mówiąc. Tym pędem będzie wrzuconá Babiloniá miásto ona wielkie (Ap 18,21)». Babiloniá to ieſt wßytkich potępionych mnoſtwo będzie wrzucone w morze mąk niekóńczonych (PK I 53). In another sermon, Babel is called a mixture of sins. The author uses this description on the basis of the Bible and the sermons of St Hugo12, which speak of eternal damnation; cf.: Come out of Babylon / that is / come out of the bondage of sins / and from the occasions leading to them (PS I 168). Come out of Babylon / that is / from the entanglement of sins / and from the occasions close to them (PK I 168). As the examples show, there are no specific historical or geographical explanations of the proper noun here; a symbolic conception predominates. Babel emerges as a symbol of disorder, sin, and the Fall. Its opposite is Jerusalem, called Christ’s beloved in the Apocalypse (SSB 26–27). Thus, clear reliance on biblical symbolism and its traditional interpretation can be seen here, a phenomenon characteristic of other preachers as well. 2.2. Explanation of words of foreign origin When loanwords are inserted into the sermon text, Sirvydas does not limit himself to a literal translation but provides their interpretation. For example, after using the Aramaic expression Maranatha, meaning ‘Our Lord is coming’ or ‘Come, our Lord!’ (BT, 1 Cor 16,22), he explains it by using the construction tai yra, after which he expands the reasoning with a synonymous sentence containing išmanyk / rozumiej. Thus the author connects the explanation of the foreign expression with the entire sermon section, in which he speaks of the true reason for the Lord’s coming—the condemnation of unbelievers. A two-layered explanation of the foreign expression can be seen here, removed from the meaning of the expression contained in the quoted sentence from 1 Cor 16,22; cf.: 12 A widely known fifteenth-century work cited by preachers; cf. Hugon de Sancto Caro. In Postillam super Ieremiam Prophetam, Cap. L. Straipsniai / Articles 71 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA ‹Jey «tieg» kas ne milij Wießpaties muſu Iefaus Chriſtaus / tegul bus prakieykimu / Maran Athaa (1 Kor 16,22)› / tay ira Wießpats atayt / ißmanik vnt ſudo kuria-mi iſdidos prakieykimu tardamas (PS I 66). ‹Ieſli kto nie miluie Paną naßbego Iefusa Chryſtuſa / niech bėdźie prżekłęt wtem / Maranatha (1 Kor 16,22)› / to ieft Pan przychodzi / rozumiey ná ſąd / ná kto-rym prżekłętſtwo wyda [...] (PK I 66). The following examples show that words of foreign origin may also be translated more freely. For the author, they serve as certain rhetorical figures that become a basis for vivid reflections. Having chosen the myrrh image to convey the difficulty of Christ’s Passion, Sirvydas also recalls the original meaning of this word in Semitic and Aramaic languages—‘bitter’ (Klein 1987: 380); cf.: ‹My hands drip with myrrh (Song 5:5)› / that is in my works there is much bitterness (PS I 225). ‹My hands drip with myrrh (Song 5:5)› / that is in my deeds there is much bitterness (PK I 225). The word echo is explained, and it is used to characterise the significance of St John’s teaching. Sirvydas does not translate it literally (cf. Echo Gr. Ἠχώ Ēchō, Lat. Echo ‘echo’, ‘reverberation’, ‘sound’), but provides an expanded explanation in which echo emerges as a rhetorical figure denoting a voice spreading through the wilderness and returning to those calling for help and seeking salvation; cf.: As the echo / especially clearly responds to the sound / that is another sound, bouncing back and as if returning to the one calling, from those trees or rocks against which it strikes (PS I 139). As the echo awakens to a voice / in the wilderness responding to a shout / that is another voice, echoing it and as if returning to the one calling, from those trees or rocks against which it falls (PK I 139). The Latin expression nervus belli ‘the sinew of war’, taken from a speech by Marcus Tullius Cicero against Mark Antony13 (Cyceron 2002) and meaning ‘indeterminate financial resources allocated to war’, is associated with people hired to fight and generously rewarded, and in the text is contrasted with people who reject the goods of this world and overcome the evil one. The author uses the symbolism of Roman texts, gives it a religious hue, and understands war as a struggle against spiritual evil; cf.: 13 Quoted on the basis of Filipika V, 5 (Cyceron 2002). 72 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) A great deal of money is needed for war with people who are called Neruus belli, tay ira / the strength of war / who firmly restrain the soldiers so that, taking their pay, they complete the war and do not desert or disperse (PS II 20). A great deal of money is needed for war with people / who are called / Neruus belli, to ieft: the strength and power of war / who firmly restrain the soldiers / so that, taking their pay, they do not abandon the war / and do not scatter (PK II 20). As the examples show, in Sirvydas’s sermons, words of foreign origin, sometimes poorly adapted, may be translated literally but subsequently interpreted more freely. This makes it possible to speak of the author’s education and, even more, of his ability to use elements of foreign origin to create symbolic images. 2.3. Explanation of Certain Concepts Performing a Symbolic Function In his sermons, Sirvydas often explains biblical narratives based on everyday events, simultaneously revealing a multilayered symbolism conveyed through everyday objects and actions. For example, this is shown by an excerpt from the song in the Book of Isaiah about the ungrateful vineyard (Isa 5,2–6), which in this episode of Holy Scripture symbolises Israel. The author explains specific concepts abstractly, seeking to show their religious significance. Metatext often encompasses the entire quotation. Thus the stones of the vineyard become gods worshipped by pagans, the fence around the plot becomes the law, God’s right, and the rain falling on the vineyard becomes the teaching of the faith, the word of God; cf.: ‹He threw stones out of it (Is 5:2)› / that is idols and other created things / which the Synagogue had as God and praised. ‹He fenced it in (Is 5:2)› that is he protected it with his commandments and law; ‹He built a tower in its midst (Is 5:2)› / that is a church built through Solomon / or he set holy Angels before them. He gave clouds and ‹hail (Is 5:6)› / which would sprinkle and water it, that is his teaching and word / through which / he taught them through the prophets, like rain descending from clouds upon them (PS I 332–333). ‹He removed stones from it (Is 5:2)› / that is idols and other created things / which the Synagogue had and praised instead of God. ‹He fenced it in (Is 5:2)› with a fence / that is he protected it with his commandments and law. ‹He built a tower in its midst (Is 5:2)› / that is a church through Solomon, or he set Angels before them; he gave clouds and <hail (Is 5:6)> which would sprinkle and water it, that is his teaching and word, through which he taught them partly through the prophets, sprinkling the teaching upon them from the clouds (PK I 332–333). Straipsniai / Articles 73 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA Specific concepts are also explained independently in the sermons. This is not a metatextual explanation inserted into a quotation from Holy Scripture. The phrase that is, used to introduce a certain explanation into the text, becomes a kind of preamble, a statement, while the quotation is used as an argument confirming the explanation presented earlier. For example, the phrase to awaken the Lord is explained quite simply—it means to pray fervently while asking for grace and help; cf.: When storms and waves of the sea fall upon the ship: then one must awaken the Lord: that is pray to him fervently and sincerely: As the Apostles did / they cried out to the Lord / and awakened him by asking: Lord, save us / we are perishing (Mt 8:25)› if you do not save us (PS I 278). When winds and storms at sea attack the ship: at that time one must awaken the Lord / that is pray to him fervently and sincerely: as the Apostles did / they called to the Lord / and awakened him by asking: Lord, save us× / we are perishing (Mt 8:25)› if you do not rescue us (PK I 278). The manner of speaking characteristic of Holy Scripture—not directly, but by employing various figures—may have encouraged different interpretations of the same expression, depending on the context and the preacher’s intentions. For example, Sirvydas calls cockle sin and Christians who have rebelled against the faith, heretics, and all this does not contradict the traditional understanding of this plant. Various harmful or poisonous plants were called by this name; metaphorically, it denoted criminal inactivity deserving God’s punishment, like sin (SSB 875–877), cf.: [...] and cockle / that is heretics (PS I 289). [...] but cockle that is heretics (PK I 289). Four especially [plants of] cockle, that is the causes of sin (PK I 293). Four especially visible [plants of] cockle, that is the causes of sins (PK I 293). The word thorn is interpreted in two ways: as bodily pleasures or depravity, and as a body that suffers, hungers, and labors. Rose bushes and their thorns evoke unpleasant associations for people working in the fields, but they are entirely appropriate when referring to more abstract concepts related to faith. In Holy Scripture, the thorn is inseparable from suffering, punishment or torture, judgment, and expulsion. From the Book of Genesis to the New Testament, the authors of Holy Scripture used the image of thorns when speaking of punishment sent down and abandoned values (SSB 112–113), cf.: Other lands are full of thorns / that is bodily pleasures and ugly debauchery (PS I 345). Other countries are full of thorns / that is bodily pleasures / and ugly debauchery (PK I 345). 74 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) In Sirvydas’s text, the biblical symbol of the thorn, frequently used through the image of the suffering person—the person accepting and submitting to suffering—“the aching body” (cf. LKŽ: sopulingas ‘afflicted with aches, painful’; sopulys ‘aching, pain’) acquires a somewhat different meaning, also encompassing the cares of everyday life. In Holy Scripture, people are called thorns by St Luke: “those who have heard but, as they go on their way, are choked by cares, riches, and pleasures of life, and bear no fruit” (Lk 8:14), cf.: ‹Fell upon thorns (Lk 8:7)› that is bodies afflicted with pain, or those that suffer greatly / hunger / thirst / sweat / labor, etc. (PS I 342). ‹Fell upon thorns (Lk 8:7)› / that is in a suffering body / or one in which there was much suffering / hunger / thirst / sweating / labor, etc. (PK I 342). 2.4. Explaining theological concepts Sirvydas’s texts also contain a phenomenon opposite to the one just discussed, in which theological concepts are explained through concrete concepts from everyday life. Thus, seeking to help believers better understand the complex terminology of the Bible, the author makes use of the metaphorical expression characteristic of the creators of religious texts of that period. For example, in the following passages, the church may be interpreted in two ways—as the beloved and as humanity hungering for faith: The Church / that is Christ’s bride, was poor / possessing nothing good / without property / wretched (PS I 230)¹⁴. The Church was poor / possessed nothing good / without possessions / without wealth / wretched (PK I 230). But Christ the Lord did not take the church in such a way / that is he took the souls of people (PS I 229). But Christ the Lord did not take the church in this manner / that is he took human souls (PK I 229). The author often inserts such an explanation into biblical quotations: he describes the phrase do not lead us into temptation quite precisely, using other religious concepts as well—as avoidance of sin, to which spiritual enemies (the devil) entice; the gates of hell—as the forces of human tyrants and the devil; the Word of God—as his Son, his eternal wisdom. Even through explanations inserted into quotations, Sirvydas attempts not only to bring closer 14 In the Lithuanian text, the construction that is was not used, so a Polish example is proposed for analysis. At the same time, this makes it possible to assess the superiority of a text with a metalinguistic specification, its greater degree of expressiveness. Straipsniai / Articles 75 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA more difficult biblical words, but also seeks expressiveness, since they are full of expression and their content is not merely explanatory, cf.: ‹Do not lead us into temptation (Mt 6:13)› / that is / do not allow us to fall into sin / into which the enemy of our souls tempts us (PS II 57). ‹Lead us not into temptation (Mt 6:13).› / that is / do not let us fall into sin / into which the cunning enemy tempts us (PK II 57). ‹The gates of hell› «that is the powers of the tyrannical people / but also of the devil» «shall not prevail against it (Mt 16:18)› (PS I 275). ‹The gates of hell› / «that is all demonic forces, not only human / but also devilish» / «shall not overcome it (Mt 16:18)› (PK I 275). ‹The seed is therefore the word of God (Lk 8:11)› that is his Son / who is his eternal wisdom (PS I 341). ‹The seed, then, is the word of God (Lk 8:11)› / that is his Son / who is his eternal wisdom (PK I 341). 2.5. Teaching the truths of faith Elements introduced into the text of the Postil with the conjunction that is include more detailed explanations of the fundamental truths of faith, revealing the author’s moral and didactic principles. We encounter not only metaphrases but also entire extended constructions comprising several sentences, most often sequences of sentences of one type, specifying the statement set out in the first sentence after that is, cf.: Every soul now must follow Christ / that is truly believe in him / and enter his church / be baptized / and receive the other sacraments / that is follow Christ / after death no one will be able to do this (PS I 228). Every soul now must go after Christ / that is through true faith adhere to him / and enter his church / be baptized and receive the other Sacraments / that is go after Christ / after death no one will be able to do this (PK I 228). From creation, then, let us learn to obey God according to the natural law that is by fulfilling his ten commandments / which are according to our nature / and are called the natural law / or law born with us / which we have written in our own understanding (PS I 265). From creation, then, let us learn to obey God according to our nature / that is by fulfilling his ten commandments / which are according to our nature / and are called the natural law / which we have written in our own understanding (PK I 265). 76 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII The semantics of the constructions that is / to jest in religious texts (based on Konstantinas Sirvydas’s Punktai sakymų (1629, 1644)) 2.6. A distinctive approach to biblical symbolism When explaining biblical symbolism, the author often interprets the text of Holy Scripture in his own way. This can also be seen in several examples already discussed here. Sometimes these distinctive features are very pronounced. When a particular symbol begins to be explained anew, a new text is created alongside the new interpretation, with conceptually different content. This phenomenon is very interesting and deserves researchers’ attention; here only two examples will be mentioned. Using the image of the rainbow / bow, which in the Book of Genesis signifies the new covenant between God and humanity, Sirvydas also speaks of Christ’s crucifixion. Such an image is absent from the biblical text. In Holy Scripture, the rainbow appears in the sky after the Flood, when Noah and his family land on the shore. The Hebrew word qe_et, meaning ‘rainbow’, was also used when speaking of a weapon. The basis of this image is the idea that God hung a bow in the sky, which he would use when judging humanity. In this passage, the rainbow symbolizes God’s mercy and peace, emerging after judgment—the storm (SSB 1010). For Sirvydas, Christ is such a sign of reconciliation. This is undoubtedly a new and rather original interpretation of a biblical symbol, cf.: ‹Those who are drowning in the flood of wickedness should look upon the rainbow, which God stretched across the clouds (Gen 9:13)› / that is upon Christ crucified / whose suffering and death the Church presents to them on these days / so that they may restrain themselves and cease from debauchery (PS I 370). ‹Those who are drowning in the flood of wickedness should look upon the rainbow (Gen 9:13)› / which God stretched across the clouds / that is upon Christ crucified / whose suffering and death the Church presents to them on these days / so that they may restrain themselves and cease from debauchery (PK I 370). A different conception of the image of Christ is also revealed by the interpretation of the quotation from the Book of Isaiah (Is 53:1–12), in which his merits for humanity, his imprisonment and trial, his death for people’s sins—all that the listeners themselves might not have understood—are enumerated. Here Sirvydas presents a very concrete image of Christ’s humiliation, torture, and suffering. Presumably, such a concrete account of suffering and self-sacrifice was expected to be not only more understandable but also more likely to affect people’s feelings, cf.: ‹We saw him, and there was nothing to behold (Is 53:2)› / that is so cruelly disfigured that from the terrible wounds it was impossible to tell whether he was a human being or something else; his face did not appear human because of the ugly wounds, the terrible beating and laceration. His eyes did not appear to be eyes either, for they were covered with blood and tears. Thus also the other parts of his most holy body (PS II 220). ‹We saw him, and there was nothing to behold (Is 53:2)› / that is / so cruelly wounded that from the terrible wounds it was impossible to tell whether he was a human being or something else; he Straipsniai / Articles 77 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA seemed to be a man at that time: for his face did not appear human, because of the ugly wounds, the terrible beating and wounding of it. His eyes did not appear to be eyes, for they were covered with blood and tears. Thus also the other parts of his most holy body (PK II 220). 3. CONCLUSION As can be seen from the several examples examined with the conjunctions that is / to jest, understand / rozumiej, in Sirvydas’s sermon texts these are most often figures of speech that directly highlight and reinforce essential aspects of biblical and religious content. Since such conjunctions are often redundant in sermons, they become a characteristic feature of the author’s style. Explanations of biblical names and concepts are vivid interpretations based on the symbolic and figurative meanings of biblical expressions and statements. They are often not directly connected with the explanation of biblical insertions or words, but are used more freely in the process of argumentation. Explanations of this type give the religious narrative simplicity and appropriately bring the preacher’s authorial thought closer to believers. On the other hand, the author often uses allegoresis to achieve vividness, skillfully joining word and image. Figures of this type abound in the biblical text, so many authors used them in their works, giving them numerous meanings and combining them into invented constructions that considerably exceed the interpretations encoded by the hagiographer of the biblical books (Bardski 2006: 19), while in the Bible the figurative meaning is prior to and “more powerful” than the literal meaning (Ališauskas 2011: 21). Such figures also occur in the poetry of this period; they were vividly conveyed by the famous Baroque poet Sarbiewski, whose works “cover the biblical source with layers of new intertexts; sometimes the object of imitation is no longer the primary source but, in terms of temporal distance, its much closer interpretations” (cf. Daukšienė 2014: 128). Recognizing the scale of the interaction of cultural codes in Sirvydas’s Postil and examining their layers, one may state that the preacher sought to follow and explain the teaching of Holy Scripture and the Church Fathers. This is also reflected in his chosen method of writing sermons. According to Jesuit principles, the foundation of these texts was to be Holy Scripture and the works of the Church Fathers (Panus 2001: 188–198); it was also necessary to rely on sources recurring in many other works, as shown by the “registers” of works appended to the texts (for the registers of Wujek’s Lesser Postil and Catholic Postil, see Cybulski 2014: 99–119; 2019: 303–317). Another reason for recurring motifs and interpretations of biblical symbols was the so-called homogeneity of the preachers’ estate. This was reinforced by the closely integrated educational network, especially the Jesuit one, learning from the same textbooks and public statements of the Church. It can then be observed that Baroque sermons 78 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Konstrukcijos tai yra / to jest semantika religiniame tekste (remiantis Konstantino Sirvydo Punktais sakymų (1629, 1644)) have numerous similarities demonstrating the cultural unity of a large part of Europe (Pawłak 2005: 27; 2012: 316–334). However, when preachers are considered individually, the originality of their interpretations can also be discerned. Even constrained by the rigorist requirement to follow authorities, preachers were able to offer personal interpretations. Undoubtedly, these minor deviations from requirements and traditions were motivated by the desire to reach and influence believers. This article is only the beginning of more extensive research devoted to discussing the expression of Sirvydas’s authorial thought and the features of his style. Analyses of his texts already conducted clearly show that the Lithuanian preacher sought to interpret Holy Scripture differently and looked for a way to convey important doctrines of faith clearly and accessibly. Comparisons of his texts with Daukša’s Postil (cf. Rutkovska 2020; 2022), which he may have followed, only strengthen the conviction regarding the independence of his thinking and the originality of his religious thought, while simplicity and allegoresis become two of the most important instruments of this expression; their principles of formation were partly revealed through the study of syntactic constructions with that is / to jest. The analysis of the texts of Konstantinas Sirvydas’s Postil undertaken in this article may become a reliable methodological tool for revealing the role of metatext in the formation of biblical style in Lithuanian and Polish; these approaches may also be applied to the study of other important religious works. Metatextual insertions are not treated as an imperfection, but rather as a certain maturity of language syntax (cf. Pisarkowa 1984: 136); therefore, the relevance of their study is beyond doubt and becomes an important task for researchers of early writings. ŠALTINIAI BF – Biblia w przekładzie ks. Jakuba Wujka z 1599, transkrypcja typu „B”, opracował ks. J. Frankowski, Warszawa: Oficyna wydawnicza „Vocatio”, 2013. BRK – Biblija, arba Šventasis Raštas: ekumeninis leidimas, Senąjį Testamentą iš hebrajų, aramėjų ir graikų kalbų vertė prel. prof. A. Rubšys, Naująjį Testamentą iš graikų kalbos vertė kun. Č. Kavaliauskas, Vilnius: Lietuvos Biblijos draugija, 1999. BT – Pismo Święte Starego i Nowego Testamentu w przekł. z jęz. oryg., oprac. zespół biblistów polskich z inicjatywy Benedyktynów Tynieckich, red. nauk. A. Jankowski et al., tł. ksiąg W. Borowski et al., wyd. 3 na nowo wydane i popr., Poznań: Wydawnictwo Pallottinum, 1997. Hugo de Sancto Caro 1482: Postilla super evangelia, Basel: Bernhard Richel. Klein Ernest 1987: A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English, Carta, Jerusalem: The University of Haifa. Straipsniai / Articles 79 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA LKŽ – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20, 1941–2002, red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008 (atnaujinta versija, 2018). Prieiga internete: www.lkz.lt. PS/PK I: Konstantinas Sirvydas, Punktai sakymų nuo advento iki Gavėnios = Konstanty Szyrwid, Punkty kazań od Adwentu do Postu: kritinis leidimas, par. V. Vasiliauskienė, K. Rutkovska, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. PS/PK II: Konstantinas Sirvydas, Punktai sakymų Gavėniai = Konstanty Szyrwid, Punkty kazań na Wielki Post: kritinis leidimas, par. V. Vasiliauskienė, K. Rutkovska, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. 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Ambrazas, 3-iasis patais. leid., Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Drukteiṅis Albinas 2021: Keblesni skyrybos ir sintaksinės interpretacijos atvejai (1): įterpiniai ir aiškinamosios sakinio dalys. Prieiga internete: https://vlkk.lt/naujienos/pakomisiu-naujienos/albinas-drukteinis-keblesni-skyrybos-ir-sintaksines-interpretacijos-atvejai-1-įterpiniai-ir-aiškinamosios-sakinio-dalys [žiūrėta 2022–07–19]. Grochowski Maciej, Kisiel Anna, Żabowska Magdalena 2014: Słownik gniazdowy partykuł polskich, Kraków: PAU. Hrabec Stefan 1960: O języku Bazylikowego przekładu De republica emendanda Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego. – Odrodzenie w Polsce. Historia języka, t. 3, cz. 1, Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 396–424. Kisiel Anna 2013: O ekwiwalencji: to jest, znaczy się. – Przegląd Humanistyczny 5, 73–82. Koženiauskienė Regina 2001: Retorika: iškalbos stilistika, 2-asis patais. leid., Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. 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Wiśniewski Marek 1990: Formalnogramatyczny opis leksemów TO. 2. Słowo TO w funkcji spójnika, partykuły lub czasownika niewłaściwego. – Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici. Filologia polska 31, 91–119. Zarębski Rafał 2015: Nagromadzenia leksemów współfunkcyjnych jako element stylu XVI-wiecznej prozy pamiętnikarskiej (na materiale diariusza Mikołaja Krzysztofa Radziwiłła). – Rozprawy Komisji Językowej ŁTN 61, 281–296. Župerka Kazimieras 2012: Metalingvistika: nekalbininkų kalbotyra, Šiauliai: Šiaulių universitetо leidykla. Straipsniai / Articles 83 KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA Semantics of the Construction tai yra / to jest in a Religious Text (Based on Punktai sakymų by Konstantinas Sirvydas (1629, 1644)) SUMMARY Various metatextual elements, including the phrase tai yra, have already drawn the attention of researchers. The syntactic functions of these elements have been analysed; the grammatical class they should be attributed to has already become the subject of discussion. In the texts of standard language, these elements designate equivalence or quasi-equivalence, whereas the inserts introduced by them can be described as having the modal structure “I will tell the same in different words”. The study revealed that they play a slightly different function in a religious text; they manifest greater vividness and content richness and perform an important stylistic function. The sermons by Konstantinas Sirvydas (1629, 1644) constituted the empirical basis of the research. As illustrated by a dozen examples with the phrases tai yra/to jest, išmanyk/rozumiej analysed in the study, in Sirvydas’ sermons they are mainly stylistic devices helping to highlight and strengthen the major aspects of biblical and religious content in a direct manner. The clarifications of biblical names and concepts are vivid interpretations of the symbolic and figurative meanings of biblical phrases and statements. They are often not directly linked with the interpretation of biblical inserts or words but are more freely used in the process of reasoning. The phrases of this type can be considered a stylistic device of the colloquial language, which is characteristic of the sermons that intended to explain complex matters to the general public. It was previously discussed by referring to the examples from the texts in Old Polish: such features were also found in the 1599 Postil by Mikalojus Daukšta; it is also a characteristic feature of Sirvydas’ sermons. The interpretations of such type convey simplicity to the religious narrative and appropriately render the preacher’s original thought to believers. Įteikta 2022 m. liepos 10 d. KRISTINA RUTKOVSKA Vilniaus universitetas, Polonistikos centras Universiteto g. 3, LT-01513 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] 84 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII