Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje-geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis

DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0003-3060-4713 Research field: onomastics (research into the formation, nomination, motivation, and semantics of proper names). DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all88-04 THE STRUCTURE OF THE TOPONOMASTIC LAYER IN THE SOCIAL–GEOGRAPHICAL SPACE OF ŠEIMYNIŠKĖLIAI VILLAGE ACCORDING TO THE DATA OF THE ŽEMĖS VARDŲ QUESTIONNAIRE (1935) The Structure of Toponymic Layer in the Social-Geographic Space of Šeimyniškėliai Village Based on Land Names Questionnaire (1935) ABSTRACT Based on the collection of proper lexical items from the Žemės vardų questionnaire (1935) of Šeimyniškėliai village, Anykščiai district, Utena County, distinguished by its toponomastic diversity of 97 units, a comprehensive analysis was conducted and is presented in this article of the onyms recorded from living speech within the area of this settlement. The standardized questionnaire sheets record extralinguistic information obtained from informants through interviews about the structure of the settlement, landscape features, observations grounded in the experience of local inhabitants, as well as encyclopedic data about the region and its territorial landmarks—the Šeimyniškėliai hillfort (Vóruta), the Šeimyniškėliai old cemetery Kapaniča, the Šeimyniškėliai village, the Šventoji basin rivers Ełmė, Vó l upis, and the nomenclatural system of linear objects—roads and (cross-)lanes, otherwise ūlytėlės—typical of the linear village of Aukštaitija. This made it possible to view the space of the inhabited place both “from within” (from the namer’s position) and “from without,” that is, to assess the place names from a linguistic perspective, reconstruct a coherent identity of the locality and its names, and elucidate (interpret) the spatiotemporal content, orientational priorities, and communicative guidelines actualized in the usage of members of the speech community. Straipsniai / Articles 71 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ KEYWORDS: the meaning of place names in usage, motivation, onomastic reasons for naming, psychological reasons for naming, explication of multilayered toponomastic structures. ANNOTATION Based on the toponymically diverse 97-unit collection of proper names from Šeimyniškėliai village (Anykščiai district, Utena county) found in the Land Names Questionnaire (1935), a complex analysis of onyms collected from the spoken language in the area of the settlement was conducted and is presented in the article. The extralinguistic information on the structure of the settlement and the elements of its landscape collected from the informants in the course of the interview and recorded in the standardized sheets of the questionnaire, also the remarks based on the experience of local residents and the encyclopedic data on the region and its territorial markers Šeimyniškėliai hillfort (Vóruta), Šeimyniškėliai ancient burial site Kapanica, Šeimyniškiai village, the Šventoji River basin rivers Elmė and Vólupis, the nomenclature system of the linear objects, i.e. roads, (by)streets, otherwise known as ūlytėlės, of the so called linear village typical of Aukštaitija region, enabled us to take a glimpse at the space of the inhabited settlement from both “the inside” (the position of the informant) and from “the outside”, i.e., to evaluate place names from a linguistic perspective and to reconstruct a coherent identity of the area and its names, to interpret the content of the space-time expressed in the spoken language of the representatives of the linguistic community, their tentative priorities, and communicative guidelines. KEYWORDS: meaning of place names in language usage, motivation, onomastic reasons of naming, psychological reasons of naming, explication of multilayered toponymic structure. INTRODUCTION In linguistics, motivation is usually defined as the relationship of a word with other words, morphemes, or the like, which determines the selection of the word’s formal composition and its meaning (see Jakaitienė 1980: 26, referring to common nouns), or as the extralinguistic reason for selecting or creating the required proper word to name a particular object (see Podołskaja 1978: 87, referring to proper names). As the results of Lithuanian toponymy research show (LOFGN 2019, ed. Grasilda Blažienė, Laimutis Bilkis; Tamulaitienė 2021 et al.), proper lexis tends to renew itself by “making use” of the existing linguistic whole and of name-creation methods. Derivatives, compounds, and complex names thus arising, 72 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis larger complex-structured onyms with prepositional components have a basis in the language and are motivated. Research into the nomination and motivation of representatives of various semantic groups (phytonyms, zoonyms, myconyms, personal names, place names)1 has revealed the most typical features of the common and proper lexical units composing these groups, as well as the characteristic motivation determined by both objective and subjective causes2. Recently, topographic units of enclosed inhabited spaces and their groups have also entered the field of nomination research. Veslava Sidaravičienė (2018) studied the urban space of Vilnius with its authentic multilingual whole; Razumovas 2013; Mezenko 2015; 2017; Mezenko, Vasil’eva, Galkovskaja 2017 et al. studied the proper lexis of villages, cities, and garden communities. Onymy of the latter type has a separate term for designating the aforementioned thematic groups: conlocation (Latin conlocationem) ‘settlement name’. According to the studies conducted, the naming of specific topographic objects within settlement boundaries is characterized by numerous features identified at different language levels—lexical–semantic, nominative, structural, grammatical, and linguocultural. The features distinguishing the lexis of one group from another are as follows: the range of names corresponding to different nomination principles, the degree of productivity of the established models, the number and ratio of structural (derivational) name types, the set of nomenclatural terms, the orientation priorities of settlement inhabitants, and others. Having analyzed the nominata of inhabited places, it has been claimed that the aforementioned varieties of topographic-object names should be regarded as autonomous categories of names located within a settlement, representing the conlocation sector (see also Mezenko 2017). Thus, research into the names of topographic objects functioning in various types of settlements has future prospects: when used comparatively, such names provide additional material not only for identifying differences but also for determining general tendencies. Due to its specificity, the conlocation sector is especially suitable as an object of anthropocentrically oriented linguistics, since within the cognitive approach language is studied together with other components: an individual’s reaction to the environment, thought, memories, and imagination, which makes it possible to determine the role played by language forms in reflecting the specific features of these processes and the particular application of the results obtained (cf. Wulf 2000; Blanár 2004; Selivanova 2012; Wenzel 2014: 384–385; Skorupa 2021; Sviderskienė 2022 et al.). Moreover, in the latest toponymy research, the concept of the meaning of a linguistic unit has also changed; it is understood as the verbalization of a particular concept, an integral part of the system of all concepts. A multilayered conceptual system, the features of its structure, from which 1 For these studies, see also Sviderskienė 2022: 44. 2 For these reasons, see Butkus 1995: 25; Wenzel 2014: 188. Straipsniai / Articles 73 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ the definition of nomination particularly depends, also makes it possible to understand and explain the selection of one or another linguistic unit in the context of the entire semantic field to which it belongs. In Lithuanian toponymy, the names of small territorial units are called land names³; they are studied in regional research, but land names have not yet been included in the field of more detailed topographic research of the territorial sector. According to regional research, they have a spatial reference, tell about the nature and development of a settlement and the economic use of its territory, and reflect the natural features of a particular area. Land names make it possible to reconstruct the content of the previous century while also restoring the concerns of interwar rural society. A correct understanding of these onyms provides rich material for studying the landscape, the economic activity of inhabitants, ethnic affiliation, and so on. Land names record many terms that form these place names; their normative spelling is important both for linguistics and cartography. In addition to the reasons mentioned above that inspired this study of specific topographic objects within settlement boundaries, the danger of the loss of land names should also be noted. It is universally recognized that land names are special documents of language and history for onomastics, linguistics, history, geography, and other fields of science (Waser 2004: 349; Wenzel 2014: 167). Based on the collection of proper lexical items from the Žemės vardų questionnaire⁴ (1935) of Šeimyniškėliai village, Anykščiai district, Utena County, distinguished by its toponomastic diversity of 97 places, the following article describes a subordinate semantic reconstruction of part of the interwar heritage, providing information on how the internal mechanism of language operates, revealed through the interaction of proper words recorded in the settlement with the entire content of an individual’s thought. According to current encyclopedic data, Šeimyniškėliai village is in Anykščiai Eldership, 1.5 kilometers north of Anykščiai. Along its western edge it adjoins the left bank of the Šventoji River, and along its northwestern edge the Variaus River. The Eĺmė River flows through the village—a left tributary of the Šventoji; Vėlpuis is a left tributary of the Eĺmė, and the confluences of these rivers are also located here. Šeimyniškėliai village borders the villages of Gōjaus, Pavariai, Paelmis, and Naujieji Eĺmininkai, as well as the city of Anykščiai. Šeimyniškėliai hillfort, called Vōruta, is on the northern outskirts of Anykščiai, by the road to Rokiškis, near Naujieji Eĺmininkai village (see Fig. 1). ³ For the scope of the concept land name, see Sviderskienė 2020. The scholarly publication, based on Kazys Alminauskis’s Instrukcija Lietuvos žemės vardynui surašyti (hereinafter—LŽVI), reveals the circumstances surrounding the emergence of the term in the context of the nationwide recording of place names in the Lithuanian land-name questionnaires in 1935–1937. ⁴ The providers of toponomastic information were Vincas Tuskenis and Anelė Pakštienė; both were born in Šeimyniškėliai. As indicated in the questionnaire, the informants belonged to the 40–60 age group (the questionnaire gives the informants’ age interval in years). 74 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis FIG. 1. The present-day territorial layout of Šeimyniškėliai village and Šeimyniškėliai hillfort according to Google map data (accessed 2022–09–08) Archaeologist Gintautas Zabiela5 investigated the hillfort in 1990–2005. Today it is the most extensively investigated hillfort in Lithuania and one of the most extensively investigated in the entire eastern Baltic region. This saddle-shaped elongated hill rises between two hollows, lies in the middle of a four-sided ridge, and is separated from the other part of the ridge by deep trenches. The hillfort’s slopes are now only about 25 m high, but they are very steep. According to dendrochronological research, the hillfort was constructed in 1232. It is associated with the only known castle of King Mindaugas, Vóruta6. From today’s perspective, reference to the hillfort also functions as a tourist (or even commercial) attraction—a center of attraction in a residential locality. The aim of the article is, on the basis of interrelated historical–cultural data on the landscape and the inhabited locality, to use the empirical material obtained and recorded through interviews in 1935 to conduct a detailed study of the village toponymy recorded from speech: to analyze the expression of the names of the settlement and its surroundings 5 For more detail, see Zabiela 1992; 1992a; 1993. 6 For more detail, see the articles in VLEe. Available online: https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/seimyniskiu-pilia-kalnis/; https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/voruta/ [accessed 2022–09–27]. Straipsniai / Articles 75 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ and meaning, interpret the derived linguistic-research data, explain the identity of the locality and its names, and describe the mutual arrangement and relationship (structure) of the component parts of the inhabited place in space. In pursuing this aim, the following tasks must be addressed: 1) analyze the information recorded in the questionnaire about the objects named; 2) evaluate the situational data recorded from speech at that time on the basis of the informants’ words or statements about the objects; 3) compare them with old and dialectal lexis and its semantics recorded in the electronic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereinafter—LKŽe); 4) identify the most objective and subjective reasons in the naming process; 5) reveal the feature or features underlying the naming; 6) explain: a) what the place names meant (connoted) in usage, b) what information they conveyed about the object and what concept (or part of a concept) they named; 7) record the onomastic nomination schemes represented by the place names. Research value: the research results will be useful for collecting and systematizing language data, their types and models, incorporating them into the broader field of regional research, elucidating various kinds of regularities important from etymological, ethnolinguistic, ethnogeographical, and cognitive perspectives, and providing knowledge about the history and spatial development of the locality and the ethnographic region of Aukštaitija⁷. An example of the explication of the linguistic landscape can be used as a methodological instrument for studying the toponymy of inhabited places in larger territorial units and other regions. The detailed comprehensive study will help apply toponomastics in practice. Using data on the organization of the space of the landholding settlement recorded in the questionnaire, it might, if necessary, be possible to уточнить the areas of land parcels and their physical boundaries, and to compile schematic maps locating registered cultural-heritage parcels in municipal territories, thus continuing the cartographic tradition attested in questionnaires from the period of independent Lithuania as well (see Fig. 2). The questionnaire of Šeimyniškėliai village is only one of many sources applicable in topography as well. The article presents representatives of geogenic and anthropogenic semantic groups recorded in Šeimyniškėliai village, within the area of the Anykščiai dialect of the eastern Aukštaitian dialect. Their analysis employed the scientific method of classification (grouping onyms into particular groups on the basis of similarities or differences according to selected criteria: the objects named⁸, parts of speech, the lexical status of the derivational (nominative) base, semantic and formal structure, naming principles, and so on), internal reconstruction, componential analysis, pragmatic and cognitive interpretation, and descriptive methods. The place names recorded in the questionnaire were assessed first in the context of the toponymic system of the area under study; where necessary ⁷ 2023 is the Year of Aukštaitija. ⁸ By semantic groups (hereinafter—SG). 76 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis they were also compared with representatives of the entire linguistic area, with place names recorded from living speech in the place-name index (hereinafter—VK). In analyzing place names, attention is paid to the common and proper lexical units serving as the bases of nominata, the geography recorded in lexicographic sources, and the versions of explanations of nomination and motivation; these are carried out in the context of completed research in this field (for all sources, see the end of the article), and the same customary and established criteria for presenting material in toponymy research are followed⁹ FIG. 2. Schematic map of the distribution of land names recorded in the Žemės vardų questionnaire (1935) in the Piktagalis settlement of Anykščiai district, Utena County, and the position of this village in relation to other villages of the district and the cardinal directions (photograph of a schematic map from the archive of the LKI Center for Research into Baltic Languages and Names) ⁹ For the order of analysis and the division of material, see also Sviderskienė 2017: 246–247; 2022: 43–45. The abbreviations used in the article are as in the sources and are not explained separately. Straipsniai / Articles 77 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ 1. NAMES ACCORDING TO THE FEATURES OF (GEO)OBJECTS 1.1. Representatives of direct nomination. 1.1.1. Desubstantives. 1.1.1.1. Secondary derivatives arising through onymization when a geographical or other nomenclatural term (GNT and NT, respectively; hereinafter—(G)NT) passes into the class of toponyms. This onomastic process is expressed by the general nominative scheme (G)NT ⇒ toponym. The article below explains individual cases in the toponymy of the area under study that arose according to this scheme: Dirvū́nas ar. ž., cf. the primary and secondary meanings of the appellative dirvū́nas ‘abandoned, uncultivated, overgrown soil’, ‘a ploughed meadow’; in naming it, the secondary meaning was probably actualized¹¹; Liū́nas ln. (swaying mud)¹², cf. Lithuanian liū́nas ‘a shifting crust of moss in a swamp, near swampy lakes or rivers’ and ‘quagmire, marshy mire’. The land name Salà ar. ž. is accompanied in the questionnaire by information explaining this perception of the named object: between the mires and the Šventoji River [...]. This made it possible to understand that the meaning of the place name in usage had been a patch of arable land rising between the mires and the river, cf. the secondary meaning of Lithuanian salà ‘a patch of arable land or soil between meadows’ || ‘a small meadow in the middle of a spring-grain or rye field’; cf. also the meadow name Sālos recorded in another area, with the expanded reference to the object sandy, surrounded by the Varduva River (VK¹³). Two pluralia tantum forms of place names of this type were recorded: Kapaĩ kp.¹⁴— a burial-place, cf. the primary meaning of Lithuanian kapai ‘a place where people are buried’; Lãnkos pv. (4 ha; by the Šventoji River), cf. Lithuanian lankà a large level meadow, usually by a river and flooded during high water¹⁵. 1.1.1.2. The name of an object occupying a small area of space in the horizontal direction is formed according to the scheme GNT + –elė ⇒ land name: Brastelė br. (a small ford; 4 meters across the Elmė stream), cf. brastà ‘a shallow place in a river where one can wade or drive across’. An object occupying a small area of space in the vertical direction ¹⁰ For this term, see Podol’skaja 1978: 95–96; TMOI 37, 40, 42, 48 et al. ¹¹ To make the mutual arrangement and relationship of the named objects within the settlement more comprehensible, cf. also the name of a 1.5-ha ploughed field Didísaı dirvū́nas, recorded in the questionnaire. ¹² Other questionnaire data: flax is soaked; there are many fish. ¹³ The Žemės vardų questionnaire of Rimoliai village, Seda district, Mažeikiai County. ¹⁴ According to the questionnaire, 0.2 ha; by the road to Anykščiai. ¹⁵ To make the mutual arrangement and relationship of the named objects within the settlement more comprehensible, cf. also the name Lankelė of a small meadow (0.3 ha; between Biliūnas Grove and the Šventoji River) (see 2.1.1.). ¹⁶ See also LVŽ I 547–549. 78 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis (in the sense of depth) is formed according to the same scheme: Duobėlė b. (mud; 0.1 ha; north of Šeimyniškėliai village by the Elmė stream), cf. duobė ‘an excavated or otherwise depressed place in the ground; a hollow, valley, or basin’17. 1.1.1.3. In naming, what exists, grows, or the like in a particular area of the settlement was actualized. (1) The name of a representative of the Inanimate Nature TG18 (stone, dialectal kìmsas) + –ynė ⇒ land name: Akmenynė sklm. [in the Šventoji], cf. Lithuanian akmenynė ‘soil or land with many stones, a stony part of a field’, seklumà ‘a shallow place in a river […]’. The generalized meaning of this place name is a shallow place with a stony bottom in the Šventoji; Kemšynė (also Kimšynė) pv. (mud), cf. dialectal kimšynė = kemšynė ‘a place overgrown with kemšai’; the place name means a meadow overgrown with kemšai. The name of a representative of the plant TG (willow) + –ynė ⇒ land name: Karklynė gn., cf. karklynė ‘a place overgrown with willows, willow thickets’19; the place name means a grazing place overgrown with willows. (2) A stony, partly wooded “mountain range”20 stretching 0.3 km north of the village was named Karčkalnis ar. ž., kln. (sand with clay; 3 ha; stony21), cf. Lithuanian kãrtis ‘a row, a line’, kálnas. On the other hand, regarding the first component of the hill name, karč-, cf. Lithuanian kártis ‘the hair of some animals on the nape, mane’; cf. also the information about the denotatum in the questionnaire: partly wooded. Viewed from the village territory, the more distant hill, whose summit was covered with sparse trees, could have been associated by the namer with the hair on an animal’s nape. Thus, at the time of naming, the features of the summit that were probably actualized were stony [hill] or [hill] with trees. The nominative scheme of the land name with the motivating lexeme kãrtis (kartis?) is LM + GNT ⇒ land name (oronym). The scheme with the motivating lexeme LM + GNT ⇒ land name (drimony) shows that a small grove was named according to its purpose in the life of an interwar village inhabitant: Pakūrmiškis mš.22, cf. Lithuanian pãkūros ‘firewood, fuel’. The marked member of the opposition of labor (the name of pieces of wood pãkuros) reveals that this forest, which extended beside the village, was visited to obtain kindling and birch bark for fuel. Thus, Pakūrmiškis means a forest of fuel resources. 17 See also LVŽ II 397–403. 18 TG—terminological group. 19 The questionnaire also records more information related to the named place: black soil; 0.5 ha; north of Šeimyniškėliai village; wet, by a stream. 20 Lithuanian kalnynas ‘a mountain chain, a set of mountain ridges’. 21 A later questionnaire of Šeimyniškėliai village (1961), in its description of data about the denotatum, states that Karčkalnis is a very steep hill, formerly defensive; somewhat smaller than Voruta, right by the Šventoji River. 22 According to the questionnaire, 0.5 ha in size; 1.5 km northeast of Šeimyniškėliai village. Straipsniai / Articles 79 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ 1.1.2. Deadjectives. 1.1.2.1. A representative of the SG of oronyms: Dubė kln. Although the questionnaire contains more information, no explanatory data were found; the name of the elevation should be regarded as a derivative with the suffix –ė. This form of the place name was probably selected to name the site because of its physical features—the depressed or pitted surface, cf. Lithuanian dubùs, –i ‘įdubęs, įduobtas, gilus; duobėtas, duburiuotas’. 1.1.2.2. Representatives of the SG of agronyms formed from pronominal adjectives. They are not uniform. (1) One-word onyms whose reference to the object (an abbreviated GNT) is not eliminated from their semantics: Ilgōji pv.; additional questionnaire information at the edge of the Elmė stream explains the meadow’s position in this landscape zone—a meadow parallel to the strip along the bank, making it understandable why it was named Ilgōji, cf. Lithuanian ilgōji, cf. also ilgas, –a ‘that which extends lengthwise, toli (erdvėje)’²⁴; Siaurōji pv. (black soil; 0.5 ha; wet), cf. Lithuanian siaurōji, cf. also siauras, –a ‘that which is narrow in width’. (2) Two-word onyms corresponding to the scheme attributive phrase ⇔ land name: Didisai dirvōnas ar. ž. (1.5 ha)²⁵, cf. Lithuanian didisai; cf. also didis, –ė (–ẽ, –ì, didžia) ‘notable in its extent, large’, dirvōnas ‘a ploughed meadow’²⁶; cf. also pakraštys ‘a place along an edge; a riverbank’; Ilgasai liūnas ln. (mud; 0.5 ha; west of Šeimyniškėliai village), cf. Lithuanian ilgasai, cf. ilgas, –a ‘that which extends lengthwise, far (in space)’. Thus, the meaning of this helonym is—a mire stretching westward from the village²⁷. 1.1.3. Deverbative. One representative of the SG of hydronyms was recorded, arising from the verb of directed horizontal movement elmėti²⁸: Elmė river²⁹ (swift, stony [stream]; 9 km; near Šeimyniškėliai village it flows into the Šventoji River). In naming it, the hydro-object’s [feature] in a particular landscape zone was also actualized ²³ See also LVŽ II 346–353. ²⁴ See also LVŽ IV 12–30. ²⁵ According to the questionnaire, the ploughed field is beyond the settlement, near Niūronys village and the state forest lands in the Nergelis area; a swamp around it; regarding it, see also LVŽ II 224–242. ²⁶ To make the mutual arrangement and relationship of the named objects within the settlement more comprehensible, cf. also the name of a 1-ha ploughed field Dirvōnas: Lithuanian dirvōnas ‘abandoned, uncultivated, overgrown soil; a ploughed meadow’. ²⁷ See also LVŽ IV 12–30: another related form of this place name (an accentual variant), recorded from living speech in another period, is Ilgasai liūnas, Ilgasai liūnas liūn., plk. An. ²⁸ For more on this type of verb, see Jakulis 2004: 20–21. ²⁹ For more on this hydronym, see LUEV 39, 100. 80 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII The structure of the toponomastic layer in the social–geographical space of Šeyniškėliai village according to the data of the Žemės vardų questionnaire (1935) sound produced³⁰, cf. Lith. elmėti, elma, –ėjo ‘to resound’, also cf. almėti ‘to run, rush’ (Sv), garmėti secondary meaning ‘to run noisily, to flow’³¹. Thus, the generalized meaning of the hydronym in usage is – a river flowing rapidly in a stony bed with noise³². 1.2. Representatives of indirect nomination. 1.2.1. Names based on the nature of land-surface formations: a relief projection, a certain color (shade) determined by soil quality, size, and other spatial features of objects. (1) In naming according to the pattern derived GNT + –iškis ⇒ land name (drimonym), the nature of the land surface (with elevations) was actualized: Salūkiškis mš.³³, cf. Lith. salūkė, also cf. salà secondary meaning ‘a patch of one species of grass or other plants, a clump’, and the illustrative sentence recorded in a dialect area locally close by Krūmuos plukės kad žydžia salõm – atsižiūrėt negali Ob (LKŽe), explaining the meaning of the forest name in usage: a raised patch of land overgrown with pines. Representative of the rural (social) environment (cone) + –iškis ⇒ land name: Kūgiškis ar. ž. (clay; 3 ha) – a derivative with the suffix –iškis, cf. Lith. kūgis ‘a small haycock or pile of spring grain gathered with a rake’. In naming a plot of arable land, the surface of the clay formation with small conical ends protruding from the pile most likely stimulated and determined this perception of the object and the choice of the lexeme mentioned³⁴. Thus, the name Kūgiškis denoted the concept an area of land cones. Appellative designation of a person (Jew) with the suffix –iškiai ⇒ land name: the name of a ploughed plot of land distant from the village territory, Žydiškiai ar. ž. (sandy loam; 2 ha; by the Šventoji River). The data recorded in the questionnaire provide more information about the soil quality and condition of the land formation, cf. [...] non-sticky, light, friable black soils and sandy loams (LKŽe, see priesmėlis). Thus, the derivative with the suffix –iškiai probably arose because of certain features of the land surface of this area ³⁰ The rivers of the Šventoji basin, as Bishop Antanas Baranauskas wrote, our Anykšta and our Šventoji are narrowly tranquil, without great whirlpools (quoted from Kviklys 1965: 82). ³¹ The most typical meaning of this word is ‘to run, dash, travel noisily, in a crowd, in masses’. ³² Otherwise LVŽ II 481: here the hydronym is associated with Lith. elmėti ‘to resound’, cf. almėti ‘to ooze slowly, drip, suppurate; to flow slowly’, and is explained as a slowly flowing river. ³³ According to the questionnaire data, sand; 3 ha; by the Niūronys state forest; pines grow. ³⁴ Cf. the illustrative sentence from LKŽe, recorded in this dialect area Kūgelis šieno Šmn. Also cf. Lith. kūgis secondary meaning ‘a cluster of flowers in one place, a bunch’. Straipsniai / Articles 81 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ and the associations they evoke – because of the dark, narrow, raised strips of arable land, stretching in a cluster against the landscape background³⁵. In the area under study, žydas also denotes ‘an elongated ink stain, slag’ Dbk (LKŽe)³⁶. The questionnaire provides no data that the object named belonged to a person of Jewish nationality. The attributive meaning of these derivatives in usage corresponds to the generalized scheme of onomastic nomination for naming geographic reality Atr. + N suffix ⇨ land name. (2) The derivative with the ending -ė Degutė ar. ž. (black soil; between the Elmė streams), recorded in the questionnaire, reveals that the object is named not directly but through an intermediary, the possessor of the property of darkness, the name of the tar-like grease made from birch bark and resinous stumps, Lith. degutas, cf. the fossilized phrase kaip (lyg) degūtas: Juodas kaip degūtas (PŽ 75). (3) Place names of comparative type representing a mixed size–form motivation model (hereafter – MM): Miestėlis ar. ž., s.³⁷, cf. Lith. miestelis, whose secondary meaning is ‘a group of buildings designated for a particular purpose’³⁸, salа ‘a patch of arable land or soil among meadows’. A small patch of arable land elevated among marshes is compared with a group of buildings. In naming, the size of the land-surface formation, correlated with its form, was actualized. A large (2 ha) land-surface formation was named Starkalizdis ar. ž., cf. Lith. starkalizdis ‘stork’s nest’. In the act of naming, the choice of this lexeme was determined not only by the size dimension of the ploughed field; the arable plot was probably circular in shape, flat and possibly somewhat elevated above the usual relief level, as if it towered against the landscape background³⁹. (4) One place name recorded according to the pattern a phrase with an uncoordinated attribute ⇨ land name: Ložoriaus sietuvà glm. (a deep place 3 m deep; a pool in the Elmė stream), cf. the Lithuanian appellative designation of a person ložorius ‘invalid,’ 35 Cf. Lith. rūožas ‘a strip-shaped parcel or area of land, a strip’, also cf. režys, rėžis ‘a long, narrow parcel of land belonging to a peasant in a village not divided into individual farmsteads’. 36 Linguists who analyzed texts from another Lithuanian area (the Samogitian dialect) and their contexts established that neutral stereotypical features attributed to Jews are associated with appearance: dark-complexioned, tall (see Balčiūnienė, Petrošienė 2020: 125 for more detail). 37 According to the questionnaire data, islet; black soil; 0.5 ha; surrounded by marshes, 0.5 ha [distance] west of the village. 38 The most typical meaning of the appellative miestelis is ‘small town’, cf. Lith. miestas ‘a large inhabited locality, an administrative, commercial, industrial, and cultural center’. For Lith. miestas, see also Sabaliauskas 1990: 231. 39 Cf. Kiokso ji (trobelė) vidury dirvono kaip gandralizdis Žem (LKŽe). Also cf. the name of an arable plot recorded in the Pasmūdai village questionnaire Starkalizdis And, which is described as hilly, sloping forward; 15 ha, located between the villages of Ližiai, Pienionys, and Pago j ė; cf. the marsh name Starkalizdis (|| Kauk ā zas) in the village of Šunak ojai, Alanta district, Utena county, 1935 (VK). 82 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis ‘sick person’, personal name Lõzorius (LVKŽ⁵ 222), sietuvà ‘a deep, broad part of a river […]’, also cf. the fossilized phrase kaip lõzorius be kõjų: Vedu berióką – tas eina kap lõzo-rius (invalid) (PŽ 242), Lith. bekõjis, –ė figuratively ‘one who walks slowly’. It is likely that an actual event may have marked the object being named, but other possible circumstances of the formation of this place name, characterized by the commonality of the derivative semantics of depth / depression and the concepts of walking with difficulty, being unable to walk / difficult to cross, impassable, impossible to ford, must also be considered. For members of the speech community, the allusion to the well-known situation of Lazarus⁴⁰, and the influence of its connotative background, which connected known information about the fragment of reality being named with the situational context of cognition, most likely determined the formation of a new meaning, or more precisely, of a conceptual component, on the basis of reinterpreting already verbalized knowledge. 2. NAMES ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION OF (GEO)OBJECTS IN THE TERRITORY OF THE VILLAGE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 2.1. Representatives of direct nomination. All recorded units of proper-name vocabulary are desubstantives. 2.1.1. Names derived from common nouns. (1) By the Šventoji River, the grazing place that stretched out there, as stated in the questionnaire, was named Kulys gn. (3 ha), cf. Lith. kulỹs ‘corner’ || ‘edge, piece⁴¹. The nominative pattern of the place name for the part of the village space occupying a corner is (G)NT ⇨ land name. (2) Representatives of SG agronyms, derivatives with the suffix –el– (–eliai, –elė), formed according to the pattern (G)NT + –el– ⇨ land name, Kulẽliai gn. (2 ha); Lankẽlė pv. (meadow; 0.3 ha)⁴². The emergence of derivatives with the suffixes –eliai, –elė is explained by larger-scale “territorial neighbors,” whose names are underived onymic forms, cf. the place names Kulỹs (3 ha), ⁴⁰ For more on it, see the article VLEe. Available online: https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/lozorius/ [accessed 2022–10–08]. For the phenomenon of appellativization, see Rutkowski 2007: 29, 60. ⁴¹ Cf. another name for a grazing place recorded in the same village, in the riverside area, smaller, Kulẽliai (see 2.1.1.). ⁴² Further questionnaire data about the denotatum: sand, sandy loam; between Biliūnas grove and the Šventoji River; several springs gush forth. Straipsniai / Articles 83 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Lañkos (4 ha) (for these, see 2.1.1 and 1.1.1.1, respectively). The latter geo-objects extended along the same riverside stretch of the Šventoji. (3) The circumstances of the emergence of the marsh name Pakrióklis are explained by what is stated about the object in the questionnaire – [the marsh] by the Šventoji, northwest of the village. It is likely that the basis for the emergence of the SG representative of helonyms was Lith. krioklė ‘a forceful, noisy rushing or flowing of water’. Its nominative pattern is pa– + (G)NT ⇒ helonym. (4) A hydronym was recorded that functioned in usage as a representative expressing an object's belonging to a particular landscape zone. This is shown by its nominative pattern with the motivating lexeme võlas – LM + GNT ⇒ hydronym: Võlupis stream1.43 (a 4-km-long stream, east of the Voruta hillfort), cf. Lith. võlas ‘an earth embankment, earth rampart’. Thus, the meaning of the hydronym is a stream located beside an earth embankment. The construction of the embankment beside the hillfort probably determined the topographical position: earth was piled up from the landward side, as the less secure side44. (5) The following place names arose from the derived appellatives prūdelis and paupė according to the pattern phrase with an uncoordinated attribute ⇒ land name: • Representatives of SG agronyms: Paupės daržai drž. (by the Šventoji River, to the west); Paupės pievos dr., gn., (40 ha; by the Šventoji River); Lith. paupė ‘a place along a river, riverbank’, daržas secondary meaning ‘a small plot of land’ (cf. the most typical meaning of this appellative ‘a plot of land beside a homestead for vegetables’), pievos. • Hodonym: Paupės kėlias kl. (1 km; from Šeimyniškėliai village to Gilią brastą across the Šventoji River) – a road running along the river; • Oronym and • agronym Prūdelio kalnas kln. (clay, full of stumps; 4 ha); Prūdelio pievelė pv. (black soil; 1 ha) arose from the name of the nearby dammed place prūdelis, cf. prūdas ‘pond’. (6) The names of the meadows and pastures recorded in the questionnaire, which arose from compounds with a preposition, marked their intermediate spatial position, respectively between objects of one type and between plants of one type: Tarpūbalai pv. (mud; by the Šventoji River), cf. tarpūbalis ‘a place between marshes’; Tarpūliniai gn. (0.5 ha), cf. Lith. tarpū, tarp, which denote the presence of something in a place bounded by other objects [...] || objects related to one another and located at a certain distance, also cf. tárpas ‘space or place separating things’; Lith. línas ‘a fiber and oil plant (Linum)’. 43 This hydronym is not recorded in the official register of Lithuanian water names. It has been observed that it survives in the agronym recorded in the Šeimyniškėliai village questionnaire, cf. the name of the nearby meadow Volupėlis; for its derivation and motivation, see 2.1.2. Regarding hydronyms from another Lithuanian area that supplemented and clarified existing Lithuanian hydronymy data according to the data of the Land Names questionnaires, and regarding the value of factual and linguistic data of this kind, see Sviderskienė 2010. 44 For more on types of hillforts in Lithuania, see LE XXII 500. 84 Acta Linguistica LXXXVIII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis 2.1.2. Names derived from proper words. (1) Names of geo-objects whose basis of formation is the names of other territorial units—settlements—located near the village: • The village name Šeimyniškėliai k. An was formed with the suffix –ėliai according to the pattern settlement name + –ėliai ⇒ oikonym. The suffix denotes a later-formed territorial unit with the same root in the nearby area, cf. Šeimyniškiai k. Šmn (ATSŽ II 301)⁴⁵. These oikonyms reveal the spatial development of the locality. The position of places relative to one another and their spatial links with other settlements are shown by the land names recorded in the area of the village of Šeimyniškėliai. • Representatives of SG agronyms: derivatives with the suffix –iškė, formed according to the pattern settlement name + –iškė ⇒ land name: Paelm iškė ar. ž. (2 km east of Šeimyniškėliai village, the fields of Šeimyniškėliai village and Paelmis hamlet meet) – from the name of a hamlet not recorded in official sources, Paelmis, cf. Paelmis k. An (ibid., 210); Vėjeliškė pv. (near the Šventoji River), the place name most likely arose according to the same nominative pattern from a settlement name, cf. Vėjeliškiai k. Šmn (ibid., 339). • Representatives of SG hodonyms: units of proper-name vocabulary recorded in the larger village territory, formed according to the pattern phrase with an uncoordinated attribute ⇒ land name: Gōjaus kėlias kl. (northward from Šeimyniškėliai village): Gōjus k. An (ibid., 88)⁴⁶; Stakių kėlias kl. (1 km): Stakės k. An (ibid., 288). • The circumstances of the emergence of the name of the ford Gylių brasta are clarified, and understanding of the named object is aided by the extended designation recorded meadow ford and by what is said about the object's location: across the Šventoji River to Gylių village. It became clear that the first component of the name is Gylių [village meadow], while the second is brasta, cf. the village name Gyliai Šmn (ibid., 84), brasta ‘a shallow part of a river that can be crossed on foot or by vehicle; a boggy meadow’. (2) Names of geo-objects derived from hydronyms. • The name of a stream, the derivative with the suffix –elis Volupėlis, arose from the name of another hydronym that formerly flowed nearby, Vōlupis (see 2.1.1. concerning it), according to the pattern hydronym + –elis ⇒ hydronym. The questionnaire's statement about them explains the perception of the named object and its relation to the other hydro-object that flowed nearby: Volupėlis has water only in spring. According to the questionnaire data, the joined Vōlupis and Volupėlis flow into the Elmė. • Agronyms, derivatives with the prefix pa, arise from the name of the river beside which or somewhat farther from which the named objects (a field with a meadow) extended: Paelmis dr. (6 ha; by the Elmė stream); pv. (black soil; 2 ha; farther from the Elmė stream): Elmė stream. An (LUEV 39). Their nominative pattern is pa- + hydronym ⇒ land name. ⁴⁵ See also Razmukaitė 1998: 39. ⁴⁶ See also LVŽ II 238. Straipsniai / Articles 85 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Agronyms arising from the names of streams flowing through the village territory (the objects were nearby); their pattern phrase with an uncoordinated attribute ⇒ land name: Kiauliupio pieva pv. (by the Kiauliupis land): *Kiauliupis stream⁴⁷; Vėlpupio darželiai ar. ž., drž. (0.5 ha): Vėlpupis stream, darželis, cf. daržas. (3) Names of geo-objects derived from land names. • Agronym and • helonym, derivatives with the prefix, arising according to the pattern pa- + land name ⇒ land name: Pakařčkalnė dr., pv. (by the Elmė, 0.3 km north of the village): Karčkalnis ar. ž. (see 2.2.); Pažalčpievis rst. (0.3 km north of the village): *Žalčpievis pv.⁴⁸. Prefix derivatives denote the location of some geo-objects beside others. • A representative of SG hodonyms of another structure, indicating the direction of movement within the village territory: Kapaničių kelėlis (‖ Karošo kelėlis) kl. An (1 km east of the village, to Piliakalnis); its nominative pattern is phrase with an uncoordinated attribute ⇒ land name. Thus, the former meaning of the place name in usage was a road leading toward the old cemetery, cf. the place name Kapanicos recorded in the questionnaire (see 2.2.). • One representative of the descriptive motivation type was recorded, Galų Dubės ravėlai grv., formed from the prepositional construction Galų Dubės and the derived term ravėlai, corresponding to the pattern prepositional phrase + derived GNT ⇒ hydronym, cf. Lith. galū ‘at the end or by the end of something’, the name of a hill Dubė, recorded in the territory of this village; Lith. ravėlis, cf. rāvas ‘ditch; small stream’. The questionnaire data two small ditches flow into the Piestupis; they flow only in spring supplement and explain the description and motivation of the object named. (4) Names of geo-objects whose basis of formation is a cultural structure (a cross dedicated to a saint). Representatives of SG agronyms arising because of the objects’ position in relation to the cross dedicated to Saint John: Švęnto Jōno dirvā ar. ž. (near the cross dedicated to Saint John by the Piestupis) – the information about the denotatum provided in the questionnaire makes it clear that in usage this onym was shortened for reasons of linguistic economy. The full, implied, and more informative form of the place name is Švęnto Jōno [krŷžiaus] dirvā ar. ž. Another “economical” form of the place name was recorded in the questionnaire, Švęnto Jōno pieva pv. (Piestupys begins from this marsh-meadow⁴⁹), also cf. the data on the earlier recording of the place name in the questionnaire near Piestupis there is a cross dedicated to Saint John. Thus, the full form of the meadow name is Švęnto Jōno [krŷžiaus] pieva. ⁴⁷ For cognate hydronyms, see also LHEŽ 155. This hydronym is not recorded in the official register of Lithuanian water names. ⁴⁸ The agronym was not recorded in the Šeimyniškėliai village questionnaire, so it is presented as the derivational basis with a reconstruction sign. ⁴⁹ The Piestupÿs flows through the village of Šeimyniškėliai, a small left-bank tributary of the Šventoji. The stream flows through hilly terrain, in a deep valley. In the Biliūnas grove area it cuts into a fairly deep ditch overgrown with pines [...] (Kviklys 1965: 90). For this hydronym, see also LUEV 123; LHEŽ 257. 86 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis 2.2. Representatives of indirect nomination. Cases of toponymic metonymy⁵⁰. This method of toponym formation is particularly characteristic of land names. In toponymy, it is regarded as one of the types of transonymization⁵¹, in which the name of another object is transferred to an object formerly located nearby, while its meaning remains unchanged (pattern place name ⇒ place name)⁵². The article next presents and explains the most typical cases representing this process, recorded in the 1935 questionnaire. A name for a road used to drive cattle was transferred to an agro-object: Išvara pv. (1 ha; at the edge of the Elmė stream), cf. Lith. išvara (išvarà) ‘a road for driving cattle to pasture, cattle drive, livestock path, grazing ground’⁵³; Lydimas ar. ž., mš., cf. lydimas ‘an area cleared or burned in a forest, a clearing, a cutover’, also cf. the explanation based on human experience Where there were forests, clearings have now been left (LKŽe). As the object references in the questionnaire show, the forest and the arable field extending nearby were given the same name⁵⁴; Plėšimas ar. ž. (black sand; 6 ha; formerly forest), cf. plėšimas ‘a ploughed virgin field, newly broken land, newly cultivated land’⁵⁵. In naming, the former new use of the land area was actualized: arable land on the site of a former forest. The questionnaire records one plural form of the name of the old cemetery, as stated in the questionnaire, Kapanicos kp. (3.5 ha), for which cf. Belarusian kanaпиця ‘riverbed; oxbow, former river channel; (artificial) canal’ (BRS 377). The fact that the place name and the evaluative designation of the object old cemetery⁵⁶, which is not eliminated from the semantics of the name, belong to different semantic groups shows that this name arose through metonymic transfer. Another case of toponymic metonymy, recorded in VK in the second half of the last century, supports the proposed version of the place name’s origin: Kapanica – bushes by Sénvagė (the old branch of a stream) (Ukmergė district, Žemaitkiemis area, Siesartis village, 1977 expedition). Still more data from different periods, recorded on VK slips, prove that ⁵⁰ For more on it, see TMOI 48. ⁵¹ Transonymization – a linguistic process showing the transfer of an onym of any class into a toponym (an anthroponym into a toponym, one toponym into another toponym) (for this term, see Podol’skaja 1978: 152). ⁵² See also TMOI 46–50, 71, 151, 225. ⁵³ See also LVŽ IV 83. ⁵⁴ The questionnaire also records further information related to the site: sand; 24 ha; forest jointly managed by the village residents; stony pine forest. ⁵⁵ Also cf. naujiena ‘newly ploughed land’; plėšinys, plėšinỹs ‘newly ploughed fallow land; […]’. ⁵⁶ Cf. kapinės ‘a place for burying the dead, cemetery’, also cf. Lith. sénkapis ‘an old, abandoned grave’. For the archaeological monument Šeimyniškėlių sénkapis see https://www.anykstenai.lt/vietoves/vietove.php?i651 [accessed 2022–10–15]. Straipsniai / Articles 87 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ names of other types of riverbeds, oxbows, streams, ditches, and the like also functioned in the living language, their meaning in usage being close to the meaning of the GNT designation representing the object’s reference: Kapanica – a dry ditch south of the village (Kaišiadorys district, Žiežmariai area, Mediniai Strevininkai village, 1986 work party); Kapanica a branch of the Levens River, overgrown with willows (Pušalotas district; PKk card57), also cf. the hydronym Kapanica grv., upl. Brb, analyzed in the context of regional toponymy studies of another area and associated with Polish kopanica ‘griovys, kanalas, upės vaga’ (SJP II 464). The name of a hillfort was transferred to an agro-object: Piliakalnis || Vóruta ar. ž. (loam; 2 ha; in the Grimašauskas plots, 1.6 km east of Šeimyniškėliai village; recently named Voruta, people called it only Piliakalnis; it is evident that there was a hillfort, and pieces of brick and charcoal are found; ploughed59). According to Kviklys, at the confluence of the Elmė and Šventoji there is the Šeimyniškėliai hillfort, supposedly situated between two hollows on a narrow promontory; the hillfort is separated from the other part of the promontory by trenches. A 4-m-high rampart and other powerful structures from that period have survived. The slopes are about 25 m high and in places rise at an angle of *60–70* (Kviklys 1965: 89). From a linguistic perspective, regarding the place name cf. Lith. piliakalnis ‘a hill where a castle stands or stood, castle hill’60; regarding the variant form of this name Vóruta, cf. the cognate common noun Lith. vórupė ‘an old river channel, oxbow’, hydronyms with the motivating lexeme vóras Vórupė stream, Pabaiskas, Raguvos village, into Lake Žirnajai (LUEV 200), Vorupis stream, Mažeikiai County, Mažeikiai district, Kirkai village, 1935 (VK), Vórupė stream, Rsn, Vorupė stream, Gmb (LHEŽ 392). A. Vanagas, following William R. Schmalstieg, associated the latter place names with Lith. vóras ‘old’61. The arable field that had been beside a pit named according to its function (Lith. mólduobė ‘a pit from which clay is or was dug, often filled with water’) preserved the latter’s name: Mólduobė ar. ž. (clay; 2 ha; stony). Magazínas common noun, cf. magazínas istor. ‘sandėlis laikyti kokioms nors atsargoms’62; see also Kviklys 1965: 89, where it is written that the inhabitants of Šeimyniškėliai village engaged in fishing, the preparation and floating of timber rafts, and other forest work. It was 57 Card from the PKk card file. This card file is kept at the Centre for Baltic Languages and Onomastic Research of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language; it is the result of the campaign to record the names of inhabited and uninhabited places, organized in 1935–1937 by the Commission for Surnames and Place Names and carried out by linguists. 58 For more on the latter place name, see Sviderskienė 2010: 343. 59 For more on the cultural layer of the hillfort, see also Zabiela 1992; 1992a. 60 For more on hillforts in Lithuania, see also LE XXII 499–504. 61 For more on the age of Lithuanian hillforts, see ibid., 504. 62 Cf. the illustrative sentences explaining the historical context, recorded in the area under study: All villages, as a reserve for years of poor harvest, would already in autumn pour a fixed quantity of grain of all kinds into certain granaries called “magazins” A. Vien. (LKŽė); The entire district contributed grain to the magazin Pn (ibid.). 88 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVIII The structure of the toponymic layer in the social–geographical space of Šeimyniškėliai village according to the data of the Land Names questionnaire (1935) forest-material storage facilities. Thus, the ploughland name preserved the name of the adjacent building. The questionnaire recorded the following information about the denotatum: 0.5 km [in length], from the Niūronys state forest to the Šventoji River, northward; it separated the fields with a fence, but there are no fences now. This explains the sequence of the two objects named by the toponym Priėtuoris: a boundary and a ploughland name. In former times Priėtuoris designated the place by the fence where the village boundary marker, a boundary⁶³, stood; cf. Lithuanian tvorà ‘any enclosure around a yard, homestead, garden, or another plot of land, prie the most typical usage indication for expressing spatial relations in LKŽe: used to indicate that something is beside an object or that something is taking place there || used to indicate that someone or something is present or stays together with someone, cf. also Lithuanian siena in the secondary sense ‘a tall enclosure, partition || someone’s vertical lateral surface’. The hodonym adopted the name of the hydro-object: Maciūko ravėlis village, cf. personal name Maciūkas (PDBe), Lithuanian ravėlis, cf. rãvas ‘ditch’. Agro-objects lying alongside the road were named by the same name as the slope of the road embankment: Patrašės pakriūta ploughland name, pasture (north of and alongside the Niūronys road), cf. Lithuanian patrasẽ, also cf. trasà ‘a line marked out in a locality [...], establishing the direction of movement or alignment’; the physiographic term pakriūta ‘a steep, precipitous, crumbling bank or mountain slope’. In total, more than 30 cases of toponymic metonymy were recorded in the questionnaire (including repeated place names). Due to limitations of the article and printed publication’s length, the remaining part of this subgroup of place names was not described. 3. NAMES BASED ON A CONNECTION WITH A PERSON (THE OWNER OF THE LAND OR HOUSE, A NEW SETTLER, OR THE LIKE) Representatives of the toponymy of Šeimyniškėliai village space with possessive meaning, whose basis of naming consists of the personal names of the settlement’s inhabitants. • Representative of the agronym SG: a formation based on the pattern adv. + NT ⇒ land name, Šlėndaržis ploughland name⁶⁴: surname Šlenys (PDBe), daržas. A larger formation based on the pattern non-agreeing attributive phrase ⇒ land name: Sapkauškienės laũkas land name: personal name Sapkauškienė, cf. surname Sapkauškas (PDBe), laũkas. ⁶³ According to VK data, siena most often denotes roads or boundaries separating the territories of settlements from one another, a forest from a village, and so on. ⁶⁴ The questionnaire also recorded further information connected with the named place and its soil: 1 ha; warm soil, cold soil, cf. Lithuanian šilžemis ‘soil with an admixture of sand, white soil, sandy loam, sandy soil’, šalt ažemis ‘wet, hardly drying, usually infertile soil with a predominance of sand or clay; only flax grows well here, not garden crops’. Straipsniai / Articles 89 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ Several other land names of this village arose in the same way: • helonym: Šlėnio liūnėlis marsh (mud; 0.1 ha; by the Šventoji River; dries out in summer), cf. surname Šlenys (PDBe), Lithuanian liūnėlis, cf. liūnas; • hodonym (an old village lane): Karōšo kelelis (‖ Kapanicų kelelis) lane (1 km east of the village, toward the hillfort): surname Karōšas (PDBe), Lithuanian kelėlis, cf. kelias. • Other linear objects – lanes (ulytėlės65). These names are likewise formed from non-agreeing attributive phrases, whose first component is expressed by the genitive of the personal name of the owner (the first settler?) of the homestead through which the linear object runs (extends) in the interwar village space, while the second component is the lane name ūlytėlė, cf. ūlyčia, ūlyčià ‘an old village road, street’: Grimašausko ūlytėlė lane66: surname Grimašauskas (PDBe); Kanapeckaičios ūlytėlė street (lane; 50 m long; from Šeimyniškėliai village [leads to the hillfort; northeastward): personal name Kanapeckaičia, cf. surname Kanapeckas (PDBe); Navicko ūlytėlė street (lane; 200 m long; westward from the village; toward the bank of the Šventoji River): surname Navickas (PDBe). • Name of a cultural structure: Karōšo kryžius cross (by the main road to Svedasa67), cf. surname Karōšas (PDBe), kryžius. GENERAL REMARKS 1. The explication of the multilayered toponomastic structure of the social-geographical space of Šeimyniškėliai village showed that these territorial onyms – the land names of the locality – record, preserve, and reflect physical, geographical, social, historical, and cultural facts in a particular state of society, bringing thematically relevant information about the past into the present in various linguistic forms, which can be read through a comprehensive analysis of land names. 1.1. Representatives of direct nomination correlate with the landscape and the physical-geographical features of the relief, conveying information through corresponding geographical nomenclatural terms in place names Dirvōnas, Liūnas, etc. Names of objects occupying small areas of the village space Brastėlė ford, Duobėlė depression are formed with the suffix -ėlė from physiographic terms brastà, duobė. The physical features of objects within the settlement are denoted by simple and definite 65 As stated in a reference work, the traditional settlement type characteristic of Aukštaitija is the linear village, prevalent from the sixteenth to the mid-twentieth century (LEAE 93). The data of this questionnaire also confirm this. The questionnaire does not indicate whose plots the ūlytėlė passes through. 66 The object is indicated in the questionnaire as skersgatvelė. 67 Cf. the official form of this place name Švedasai town (ATSŽ II 296). 90 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje–geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis place names arise on the basis of adjectives. The derivative with the ending –ė Dubė indicates a hollowed-out (depression-filled) surface. A meadow extending parallel to the riverside strip was named Ilgōji, a marsh stretching west of the village – Ilgasis liūnas, and a fallow measuring 1.5 ha and notable for its size – Didisai dirvōnas, etc. The verb of horizontal movement denoting directional motion, elmėti, was chosen as the basis for naming to describe the features of the fast-flowing river El̄mės, which flows noisily through a stony bed. Geographical features of objects – a place in a river with a stony bottom, an area where a type of vegetation grows, and a place with tussocks – are respectively indicated by derivatives with the suffix –ynė: Akmenynė, Karklynė, Kemsynė. 1.2. From an ethnolinguistic perspective, an important part of the village’s toponymic mosaic consists of the layer of indirect-nomination representatives. Here, the feature of geo-objects is expressed through intermediaries, the most typical referents of a particular land-surface feature (darkness), (a Jew, tar), belonging to different thematic groups. This is attested by derivatives with the suffix –iškiai, belonging to the category of names of bearers of a feature, and derivatives with the ending –ė: Žydiškiai ploughland name, Degutė ploughland name. Derivatives with the suffix –iškis Kūgiškis, Salūkiškis name areas of arable land with protruding earth cones and forest areas with elevations, covered with pine trees and salukės. 1.3. Other representatives of the comparative type of motivation Miestėlis ploughland name, meadow, Star̄kalizdis ploughland name may likewise be viewed as verbalized human cognitive activity, preserving a connection between different entities of the world and expressing their relationship in the created mixed MM names: an island of ploughland rising against the landscape was likened to a group of buildings, miestėliui, and a large, circular, flat formation of the earth’s surface to starkalizdžiui. 1.4. The process of naming the depth Lōzoriaus sietuvą is connected with deriving the concept of depth (dubumo) and evaluatively categorizing the depth of the river. In usage, this name may have indicated the place’s unsuitability for human needs – an impassable (unfordable) section of the river. 2. The layer of land names denoting location is the one most abundantly attested by the research results. These onyms reflect the system of orientation within the settlement’s space. 2.1. Land names preserved recorded information about the position of some topographic objects in relation to others, conveying it with the prefixes pa–, prie– (Paėlmis, Pakařčkalnė, Pažalčpievis; Priėtoris) and with the help of corresponding derived terms (paūpė, prūdėlis) (Paupės daržai, Paupės pievos, Paupės kelias, Prūdėlio kálnas, Prūdėlio pievelė). 2.2. The structure of other land names records topographic elements known to local people (Kiaūliupis, Vōlupis, Dubė), which served to establish the position of one object or another within the village or its outskirts: Kiaūliupio pieva, Vōlupio darželiai, Galū Dubės ravėliai. 2.3. The spatial and temporal relationship of place names is represented by the village names Šeimyniškiai Šmn and Šeimyniškėliai An. The relationship between objects extending along the Šventoji riverside section is shown by the names of grazing places Kul̄ys and Kulėliai, Straipsniai / Articles 91 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ meadow names Laṅkos and Lankėlė, and the names of streams flowing through sections of the hillfort Vōlupis and Volupėlis. The distinctive function of land names is also revealed by the second components of the agro-object names Paupės daržai and Vōlupio darželiai, located in different sectors of the village (by the Šventoji and by the earth embankment). 2.4. Land names formed with the motivating lexemes kārtis (kartis?), pākūros, vōlas represent different content determined by the different inherent features of the named objects: the hill Karčkailnis was named according to the features of its summit (stony, wooded, extending northward through the village space), the small forest Pakurmiškis according to its purpose (a forest serving as a source of fuel), and the stream Vōlupis according to the place where it flows (by the roller). 2.5. The questionnaire recorded several longer descriptive place names attesting to linguistic economy: Gỿlių [the village meadow] brasta ford, Švęnto Jōno [cross] dirvà ploughland name, Švęnto Jōno [cross] pieva meadow. Here, the part of the name that was nonverbalized in speech is marked in square brackets; its omission did not disrupt the communicative function of the names. 2.6. Different information can be obtained from several forms of neighboring place names that functioned in living speech. The forms of the road name Karōso kelėlis || Kapaničų kelėlis (possibly used only within the village boundaries) made it possible to orient oneself on different sections of the linear object, both toward the Karosas homestead through which it ran and in the direction of the hillfort. Another semantic function of neighboring forms coexisting in living speech should also be mentioned. The hillfort Vōruta || Piliākalnis || Šeimyniškėlių piliakalnis is named so as to specify the characteristics of this object of reality. In the broadest sense, neighboring forms may also be defined as the process, over time, of changing the name of an object bearing symbolic significance for a social group. 2.7. Road sections, like a section of the ford, are oriented from the settlement’s interior outward; this is shown by structural elements of the names – the names of villages in the immediate surroundings (Gōjaus kelias, Stakių kelias; Gỿlių brasta). 2.8. Some land names showed that the settlement space itself is a means by which the position of named objects comes into being. The grazing place occupying the corner part of the village territory by the riverside strip was named Kulỹs, while the agro-objects occupying an intermediate spatial position between objects of one kind and between plants of one kind (flax) were named Tarpūbaliai and Tarpūliniai. According to the questionnaire data, cold soil was one of the soil types in this area, which is why flax grew here. 3. Possessive land names reflect the connection between segments of the village environment and people. Their basis of naming consists of the personal names of the settlement’s inhabitants (Karōsas, Šlenỹs, etc., the dialectal form Kanapeckaičia). These place names generally arose on the basis of social ownership; they are expressed according to the predominant naming pattern non-agreeing attributive phrase ⇒ land name. 92 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII The structure of the toponymic layer in the social–geographical space of Šeimyniškėliai village according to the data of the Land Names questionnaire (1935) 4. The study revealed that socially significant village infrastructure objects are named. In addition to the aforementioned onomastic and psychological factors, the social indicator also occupies an important place in the naming process. This was determined by the inherent feature of the analyzed space as a populated place. 5. On the basis of the analysis results presented, another important feature of land names became apparent – they function as an orientational link in social–geographical space. ŠALTINIAI ATSŽ II – Lietuvos TSR administracinio–teritorinio suskirstymo žinynas 2, par. Z. Noreika, V. Stravinskas, Vilnius: Mintis, 1976. BRS – Белорусско–русский словарь [Belorus­sko–russkij slovar’], Москва: Государственное издательство иностранных и национальных словарей [Moskva: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo inostrannyh i nacional’nyh slovarej], 1962. LE IX – Lietuvių enciklopedija 9, vyr. red. J. Girnius, Bostonas: Lietuvių enciklopedijos leidykla, 1956. LE XXII – Lietuvių enciklopedija 22, vyr. red. J. Girnius, Bostonas: Lietuvių enciklopedijos leidykla, 1960. LEAE – Lietuvos etnologijos ir antropologijos enciklopedija, sud. V. Savoniakaitė, Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2011. LHEŽ – Vanagas Aleksandras 1981: Lietuvių hidronimų etimologinis žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (1941–2002), red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2008 (atnaujinta versija, 2018). Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. LUEV – Lietuvos TSR upių ir ežerų vardynas, atsak. red. E. Grinaveckienė, Vilnius: Valstybinė politinės ir mokslinės literatūros leidykla, 1963. LVKŽ⁵ – Lietuvių vardų kilmės žodynas, aut. K. Kuzavinis, B. Savukynas, 5-asis patais. ir papild. leidimas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. LVŽ I – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 1 (A–B), red. kolegija L. Balode, V. Blažek, G. Blažienė, V. Kardelis, A. Ragauskaitė, S. Temčinas, J. Udolph, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2008. Straipsniai / Articles 93 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ LVŽ II – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 2 (C–F), aut. L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, M. Norkaitienė, A. Ragauskaitė, M. Razmukaitė, D. Sviderskienė, atsak. red. L. Bilkis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2014. LVŽ III – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 3 (G–H), aut. V. Adamonytė, L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, D. Kačinaitė-Vrubliauskienė, M. Norkaitienė, A. Ragauskaitė, M. Razmukaitė, D. Sviderskienė, atsak. red. L. Bilkis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla, 2018. LVŽ IV – Lietuvos vietovardžių žodynas 4 (I–J), aut. L. Bilkis, G. Blažienė, A. Ragauskaitė, D. Sviderskienė, atsak. red. L. Bilkis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2021. PDBe – Lietuvių kalbos instituto lietuvių kalbos išteklių informacinė sistema „E. kalba“: Pavardžių duomenų bazė. Prieiga internete: http://ekalba.lt/pavardziu-duomenu-baze. PŽ – Klementina Vosilytė 2014: Palyginimų žodynas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. SJP II – Słownik języka polskiego 2 (H–M), Warszawa: Nakładem prenumeratorów i Kasy im. Mianowskiego, 1902. VK – Vietovardžių iš gyvosios kalbos kartoteka, Lietuvių kalbos instituto Baltų kalbų ir vardyno tyrimų centro fondas. VLEe – Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija, e. variantas, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras, 2001–2020. Prieiga internete: https://www.vle.lt. 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The Structure of Toponymic Layer in the Social-Geographic Space of Šeimyniškėliai Village Based on Land Names Questionnaire (1935) SUMMARY To reconstruct the organization of space in the interwar village and the peculiarities of its perception, the article creates a complex analysis algorithm. Referring to the data of proper names recorded in the form of a questionnaire-based survey in 1935 and the information sources confirming the settlement’s infrastructure, landscape and historical period, the article reveals how land names are motivated by the fact of functioning and usage alone. The complex study of the space of Šeimyniškėliai village (and its surroundings) enabled us to understand the configuration of the constituent elements of the toponyms collected in the questionnaire and their relationship (composition) and to interpret the data obtained. 1. One layer of place names was attested to by the secondary representatives of direct naming correlating with relief and directly revealing the physical-geographical landscape properties. It is revealed by the derivatives with the suffix -ynė, such as Akmenynė, Karklynė, Kemsynė, which point to the type of land surface, i.e., places covered with stones, hillocks, willows; the land names based on simple and pronominal adjectives, such as meadow names Ilgōji, Siaurōji, Didisai dirvōnas, etc., describing the segments of the settlement characterized by different properties; the river name Ėlmė which derives from the directional horizontal movement verb elmėti underlining the properties of a rapid river flowing noisily over a stony bed across the village, etc. Straipsniai / Articles 97 DALIA SVIDERSKIENĖ 2. The layer of the representatives of indirect naming constitutes an ethnolinguistically important piece in the toponymic puzzle of the village. In this case, the properties of geo-objects are expressed through intermediaries as the most typical expressers of certain properties (form and darkness respectively), such as kūgis, salūkė (cf. salà) and degūtas, žydas, which belong to different thematic groups and bear the suffixes attributable to the category of property bearers –iškis, –iškiai and the ending –ė: Kūgiškis arable land, Salūkiškis forest, Žydiškiai arable land, Degūtė arable land. Other indirect-naming mixed-motivation model representatives of comparative motivation type, such as Miestėlis arable land, island, Starkalizdis arable land, should also be interpreted as a verbalized human cognitive activity maintaining a connection between different entities of the world and expressing the relationship with them through the given names. The process of naming the depth as Lõzoriaus sietuvà is related to the deduction of the concept of depth (hollowness) and the evaluative categorization of the river depth. In language usage, this name could possibly mean the inappropriateness of the place for human needs, i.e., the impassable (unwaddle) place of the river. 3. The layer of land names expressing the meaning of place is most commonly attested to in research findings. These land names reflect the system of orientation in the space of the settlement: a) there is information on the position of certain topo-objects in respect of others conveyed by means of the prefixes pa-, prie- (Paėlmis, Pakařkalnė, Pažalčpievіs; Priėtvoris); b) the land names formed with motivational lexemes kārtis (kārtis?), pākūros, vôlas represent a different content determined by the different natural properties of the named objects: the hill Karčkalnis is named on the basis of the properties of its top; the forest Pakūrmiškis is named with regard to its purpose, whereas the river Vôlupis is named after the place where it flows; c) the names of pastures Kulỹs and Kulėliai, meadows Larĩkos and Lankėlė, rivers Vôlupis and Volupėlis flowing by the hillfort show the relationship of the objects situated by the Šventõji River; d) certain land names revealed that the space of the settlement is by itself a way for the position of the named objects to emerge (Kulỹs, Tarpūbaliai, Tarpūliniai); e) the topographic elements known to local people were identified in the structure of other land names (Kiaũliupis, Vôlupis, Dubė); these elements were used as a reference point in establishing the position of one or another object inside the village or in its vicinity: Kiaũliupio pieva, Vôlupio darželiai, Galù Dubės ravėliai; f) roads, just like a segment of a ford, are oriented from the inside towards the outside of the settlement; it reveals in their structural elements, i.e., the names of villages situated in the nearest vicinity (Gõjaus kelias, Stakių kelias; Gylių brasta); g) the adjacent forms of the hillfort name Vóruta || Piliãkalnis || Šeimyniškėlių piliakalnis can be defined as the process of change (transformation) of the name of the object carrying a symbolic charge and important to a social group in time. 4. The layer of place names of possessive meaning reflects the relationship between the agrarian segments of the village environment and the person on the basis of social possession (Šlėndaržis, Sapkauskienės laukas, etc.). 98 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXVII Toponomastinio sluoksnio struktūra socialinėje-geografinėje Šeimyniškėlių kaimo erdvėje Žemės vardų anketos (1935) duomenimis Hence, the study revealed yet another important property of land names – they function as a reference point in the social-geographic space. It was determined by the inherent property of the space under analysis as an inhabited place. The place names which are not attested to in contemporary official sources came to the fore in the research: single-homestead settlement name Paėlmìs and three river names (*Kiaũliupis, Vőlupis, Volupėlìs). One of them was reconstructed from the meadow name Kiaũliupio pìeva, which is described in the questionnaire as [a meadow] near Kiauliupis land; according to the questionnaire, there was water in the river Volupėlìs in spring only; after the rivers Vőlupis and Volupėlìs join together, they flow into the river El̃mė. Whereas toponyms are associated with a conserving function, the research demonstrated a collection of interwar nomenclature terms: išvara, lydymas, pakriūta, patrašė, plėšimas, etc. Įteikta 2023 m. sausio 28 d. D A L I A S V I D E R S K I E N Ė Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 99