Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje

LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language ORCID id: orcid.org/0000-0003-2196-8937 Research areas: morphosyntax, valency, semantics, typology. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/all89-04 ATVIRauti, ATVIRAVIMAS VALENCY IN CONTEMPORARY LITHUANIAN Valency of the Verb atvirauti and Noun atviravimas in Contemporary Lithuanian Language ANNOTATION The subject of this article is the verb atvirauti and its derivative, the noun atviravimas. The aim is, on the basis of material from the Contemporary Lithuanian Language Corpus (DLKT), to determine the combinability of these words from the perspective of valency. The study showed what influence the semantics and grammar of the adjective atviras and of predicates from the minimal lexical semantic field have on the valency of atvirauti (-avimas). It became clear that atvirauti (-avimas) is characterized by three types of valency. KEYWORDS: verb atvirauti, verbal noun, valency, lexical semantic field. ANNOTATION The object of this article is the verb atvirauti and its noun derivative atviravimas. The aim is to investigate their combinability from the valency perspective, using the data from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language. The research findings indicate that the valency of atvirauti (atviravimas) is influenced by the semantics and grammar of the adjective atviras and predicates within its minimal lexical semantic field. It was observed that the verb atvirauti (the noun atviravimas) exhibits a threefold valency. KEYWORDS: verb atvirauti, verbal noun, valency, lexical semantic field. Straipsniai / Articles 75 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ 1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS The aim of this article is to establish the valency of the verb atvirauti and its abstract noun (atviravimas), on the basis of the concept of the verbocentric sentence model and the principles of valency theory. The study is based on empirical material collected from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (DLKT), compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas (see part 2). To achieve this aim, the following tasks are set: a) to briefly discuss the valencies of the words entering the minimal lexical semantic field of the verb atvirauti (–avimas) (see part 1 below); b) on the basis of examples from the DLKT (see part 2), to examine the valency of different forms of atvirauti (–avimas) and consider the influence exerted on it by the valencies of the base word (atviras) and of predicates from the lexical semantic field (see part 3). Finally, to summarize everything (see part 4). As far as is known, atvirauti (–avimas) has not been examined from this perspective. The research methods applied are interpretation, descriptive-analytical, grammatical, and semantic analysis. Having chosen to examine atvirauti (atviravimas), it should be briefly noted that valency is a property determined by a word’s meaning to open a certain number of free slots, which in a sentence or word combination are occupied by words and their forms, or their equivalents, of a certain meaning (cf. Sližienė 1994: 16; Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 19, 46 and the literature cited there). Valency is associated with three levels: the abstract level of logical semantics and two concrete levels of language—syntax and lexical semantics. At the level of logical semantics, the number of a word’s free slots and the semantic functions of their possible actants are established; at the syntactic level, the grammatical form of valency-bearing actants and their obligatory or optional status are established; at the level of lexical semantics, the semantics of valency-bearing actants is established. In addition to valency-bearing syntactic actants, whose obligatory or optional status is determined in the sentence, free members are distinguished—sentence words that are not conditioned by the meaning of the word and do not belong to its valency. Free members do not fill the free slots opened by the predicate; their connection with the predicate is determined by its grammatical capacity, as a particular part of speech, to attach other words and their forms (Sližienė 1994: 35). Obligatory syntactic actants cannot be omitted from a sentence, since omitting them makes the sentence ungrammatical. Obligatory syntactic actants describe the part of the situation that is most important and relevant to the word’s meaning (Sližienė 1994: 31). Optional syntactic actants are those that may be omitted from a sentence while the sentence remains grammatical and comprehensible. Sentences without optional actants mean approximately the same as those with them, since optional actants are implied in the word’s meaning itself (Sližienė 1994: 35). It is acknowledged that there is no strict boundary between obligatory and optional actants and free members (Hentschel, Weydt 1994: 345). 76 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje The lexeme atvirauti is not included in the principal explanatory dictionaries of the Lithuanian language: the Dictionary of the Standard Lithuanian Language (BLKŽ), the Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKŽė), and the academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽė). However, atvirauti ‘to be open’ is recorded in the Supplementary Card File of the Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (LKŽPapK) (see 1). As a separate entry, atvirauti ‘to be open, to speak openly about oneself’ has been included in the Lithuanian Neologism Database (ND) (see 2). The ND also provides entries with examples for words related to atvirauti (paatvirauti, paatviravimas) (see 3). 1) Suspecting that atvirauti—was imprudent, she asked: “So, will you buy it or not?” (“Švyturys” 1982-12-18) 2) V. Adamkus speaks openly in a book about his and A. Adamkienė’s health [headline] (delfi.lt) 3) John Hoberman, working for Voice Film, paatviravo that after leaving the film premiere in Cannes he felt “bright, renewed, and unimaginably happy.” (bernar-dinai.lt (from: “Naujasis židinys-Aidai”) Derived from the adjective atviras, –a¹, atvirauti ‘to be open, to speak openly about oneself’ is connected with sense 3 of atviras, ‘3. telling everything, sincere’ (DLKŽė), and sense 9, ‘9. telling everything, having no secrets’ (LKŽė) (see 4, 5). 4) He is always atviras with me; he tells me everything, rš. (LKŽė) 5) The forwarding agent was atviras with me, and I likewise concealed little from him J.Dov. (LKŽė) From the Description of the Valency of Lithuanian Adjectives it becomes clear that, on the basis of the empirical material available, the adjective’s atviras ‘sincere, telling everything’ actant corresponding to the subject is marked by the nominative or another case determined by the agreement controller³, while the one corresponding to the indirect object may be expressed by the dative and by a construction with the preposition su. The syntactic actant functioning as an indirect object is optionally marked in the sentence (in examples 6–9 cited, it is placed in parentheses). In both ¹ Later in the article, when different genders of this or another adjective are discussed, only the masculine—the unmarked gender of the adjective—is given in general terms. ² The semantic connection between the adjectives nuoširdus and atviras is also evident in Jonas Paulauskas’s Systematic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (SisŽė): both adjectives fall within the field of sincerity, which also includes tiesus, tiesiaširdis, tiesiakalbis, tiesmukas, atviraširdis, atlap­aširdis, and others. ³ For more on agreement, and the concepts of the agreement controller and agreement target, on which this article relies, see Semėnienė (2003: 38–42). Straipsniai / Articles 77 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ In both cases, the semantic valency of atviras is the same: the subject corresponds to the percipient⁴, while the indirect object corresponds to the beneficient⁵ (see 4–7). In short, the syntactic valency of bivalent atviras is Nom, Dat / suInstr⁶, and its semantic valency is [Pcp, B]. Semantically, this adjective, like nuoširdus and others, belongs to the group of adjectives describing one person’s sympathies, favour or aversion toward another person (Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 79, 87, 99). Examples 6–9 show that the semantic and syntactic valency of the adjectives atviras and nuoširdus is similar. This is also evident in the DLKŽ, where the adjective nuoširdus is defined as ‘wishing well; atviras’. 6) He (to everyone) was open and sincere. (cited from Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 80) 7) Joniukas, who had always been so childishly open (with his mother), now tells her nothing. (cited from the same source, 87) 8) But you, Mr Petras, are now not sincere (with me). (cited from the same source, 88) 9) During this rare moment of openness he was sincere (to her). (cited from the same source, 35) Comparing examples 1–3 with 4–7, it can be seen that the content of (what is) said (pasakyti) made explicit in the meaning of the adjective atviras—the contentive⁷—is a free member (see 4, 7), which, it seems, is incorporated into the valency structure of atvirauti (see 2, 3; see below). Whether the free contentive member influences the expression of the indirect object in sentences with atviras, and how (or whether) this could be connected with Vilmos Ágel’s (2000: 211–212) hypothesis—that the syntactic actants of a predicate may be lexicalized, grammaticalized free members—is a topic worthy of separate research. This article raises the following questions: what is the syntactic and semantic valency of atvirauti, and what influence, if any, do the valencies of the base word (atviras) and of lexemes closely related to it semantically (nuoširdus, pasakyti, pasakoti and others) have on it? The latter question is motivated by the study of the valency of prieraišus (-umas) (Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė ⁴ Percipient [Pcp]—the function of an experiencer of a mental state, characteristic of living beings that perceive things in reality, have a certain attitude toward them, and react to them psychologically (Sližienė 1994: 21; Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 32). ⁵ Beneficient [B]—the function of an addressee or possessor, characteristic mainly of living beings, especially persons, for whose benefit or detriment something is or becomes the case (Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 32, cf. Sližienė 1994: 21). ⁶ From the perspective of language norms, the construction with the preposition su is a subsidiary (partial) normative variant and may, when necessary, be used in the standard language. However, preference is given to the primary (neutral) normative variant—the dative (see KP2 S2 2003: 98; Miliūnaitė 2022: 535). ⁷ Contentive [Con]—the function of the content of a state or property, characteristic of various things and phenomena (Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė 2001: 32, cf. Sližienė 1994: 22). 78 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje 2023), which demonstrated the influence of the semantics and grammar of predicates from the lexical semantic field on valency. In seeking answers to these questions, besides the aforementioned nuoširdus, it is also important to refer to the dictionary definitions and valency of pa(si)sakyti, pasakoti(s). For example, in the DLKŽe, the lexeme pasisakyti is referred to the first sense of pasakyti (i.e. pasakyti—‘1. to express a thought or opinion in words (or writing)’), while another sense of pasisakyti is defined as ‘2. to confess⁸’. The academic LKŽe shows that reflexive forms of pasakyti may be used in several senses: ‘12. to tell about oneself’ (see 10), ‘13. to confess’ (see 11), ‘14. to confess’ (see 12), ‘15. to announce oneself; to publicize oneself, to declare’ (see 13), or ‘16. bookish: to state one’s position’ (see 14). 10) She scarcely has anyone to whom she could pasisakyti her troubles I.Simon. (LKŽe) 11) He pasisakė to her that he loved her KII28. (LKŽe) 12) Of course, some people were very pleased that they would no longer have to pasisakyti their sins to the priest Blv. (LKŽe) 13) I declare to you that I am a Samogitian Jn. (LKŽe) 14) When the conversation turned to the uprising, Bytautas openly pasisakė that he did not support the idea of the uprising V.Myk-Put. (LKŽe) In both the DLKŽe and LKŽe, the first sense of the verb pasakoti is given as ‘to recount an event, occurrence’ (see 15, 16, cf. 3). 15) He told no one about his troubles.nesipasakojo. (DLKŽe) 16) The old man tellspasakoja the true story Jsv. (LKŽe) From Nijolė Slėžienė’s Dictionary of Lithuanian Verb Combinability (LKVJŽ) (Slėžienė 1998: 130), it becomes clear that the verb pasisakyti, used in the senses ‘1. to tell about oneself’ (see 17), ‘2. a) to report orally, to declare; to introduce oneself; b) to confess’ (see 18), is trivalent, whereas the sense ‘3. to state one’s position, to agree or disagree’ (see 19) is bivalent. Thus pasisakyti also encompasses (part of) the semantics and grammar of pasakoti(s) (see below). 17) She scarcely has anyone to whom [she] could pasisakyti her troubles (cf. about her troubles). (cited from Slėžienė 1998: 130) 18) The child pasisakė to his mother that he had broken the cup / having broken the cup (about the lost gosling). (cited from the same source, 130) 19) All the speakers pasisakė for the proposed candidate (against the proposed candidate). (cited from the same source, 130) ⁸ For the valency of the verb prisipažinti ‘1. to state one’s guilt’, ‘2. to tell the truth about oneself’, see LKVJŽ (Slėžienė 1998: 257) in more detail, e.g. She would not confess to anyone that she likes him. Straipsniai / Articles 79 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Example 17 shows that pasisakyti requires a nominative-marked agentive9 subject, an indirect object expressed by the dative and corresponding to the beneficient function, and, variably, a contentive (direct) object marked by the accusative, a construction with the preposition apie, or a subordinate clause. According to the second meaning of pasisakyti, the valency-bearing actants in example 18 are expressed by a nominative-marked agentive subject, an indirect beneficient object expressed by the dative, and, variably, a contentive marked by a construction with apie, a participle, a gerund, or a subordinate clause. The actant corresponding to the beneficient is optional. Example 19 shows that the subject of bivalent pasisakyti is likewise agentive, while the object marked by a construction with the preposition už or prieš corresponds to the contentive. Based on LKVJŽ (Sližienė 1998: 123–124) and the examples provided there (see 20–22), the verb pasakoti requires a nominative-marked agentive subject, an indirect beneficient object expressed by the dative, and, variably, a contentive (direct) object marked by the accusative, a construction with the preposition apie, an accusative with a participle or gerund, a participle, a gerund, or a subordinate clause. As in the case of pasisakyti, the actant marked by the dative is optional. 20) Virpša tells her pasakoja cynical jokes without restraint. (cited from Sližienė 1998: 124) 21) My aunt often pasakodavo us about the past. (cited from the same source, 124) 22) Tell me how it was. (cited from the same source, 124) Antanas Lyberis’s Dictionary of Synonyms (SŽe) shows that pasakoti is one of the synonyms of kalbėti10 ‘to recount an event or occurrence, to expound thoughts’. On this basis, it may be assumed that the verb atvirauti optionally requires a beneficient in the dative, while the obligatory actant corresponding to the contentive function could be marked in more ways than illustrated in the ND. 2. RESEARCH MATERIAL The greater part of the DLKT consists of written, often edited, texts in different genres (journalistic, literary, non-literary, or administrative literature). There are evidently far fewer examples of spoken language. Examples with 9 Agent [A₁]—the function of an initiator or performer of an action, characteristic of living beings (Sližienė 1994: 19). 10 For more on the valency of kalbėti, see LKVJŽ (Sližienė 1994: 330–331). 80 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje collecting in the sentence forms of the words examined in the article 11 in the DLKT advanced search field by entering atvira and selecting the middle of the word criterion. Table 1 shows how the 303 (in)finite forms of atvirauti found are distributed by genre. It can be seen that the majority of examples (251, or 83 percent) are from publicistic texts, considerably fewer from fiction (41, or 14 percent), and isolated cases (10, or 3 percent) from nonfiction. Only 1 example was found in spoken language, while there were none in administrative language. TABLE 1. Different forms of atvirauti in the DLKT corpus 11 DLKT examples were collected for the study in May 2023. Straipsniai / Articles 81 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Corpus section | Atvirauti form | Number of occurrences | Total number of occurrences Journalism | atvirauji 2; atviraukime 1; atvirauti 43; atviravo 103; atviravome 1; atviravęs 1; neatviraudavo 1; neatvirauja 5; neatvirauk 1; neatvirauti 1; neatviravo 3; paatviraukite 1; paatvirausiu 1; paatvirauti 5; paatviravo 4; paatviravęs 1 | 251 Spoken language | atviravo | 1 | 1 Total | | 303 | 303 The DLKT contains 39 examples with inflected forms of the verbal abstract noun (see Table 2). As in the case of atvirauti, there are no examples in administrative language. Nor were examples of spoken language found. Most examples with forms of atviravimas come from journalism (21, or 54 percent), considerably fewer from non-literary (12, or 31 percent) and literary (6, or 15 percent) works. ² TABLE 2. Different forms of atviravimas in the DLKT corpus Corpus section | Atviravimas form | Number of occurrences | Total number of occurrences Literary works | atviravimas 2; atviravimo 2; atviravimų 1; paatviravimas 1 | 6 Non-literary works | atviravimai 2; atviravimas 2; atviravimo 5; atviravimui 1; atviravimą 1; paatviravimai 1 | 12 82 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje Corpus section | Atviravimas form | Number of occurrences | Total number of occurrences Journalism | atviravimai 7; atviravimas 4; atviravimo 2; atviravimu 1; atviravimui 1; atviravimus 3; atviravimą 1; atviravimų 1; paatviravimų 1 | 21 Total | 39 | 39 Thus, different forms of atvirauti (atviravimas) are most often used in journalism, which, according to the DLKT¹², includes general periodicals, popular periodicals, scholarly periodicals, books (autobiographies, memoirs, reminiscences, chronicles, annals, diaries, letters, essays, articles, etc.), and others. Examples are not discussed separately below according to functional styles. 3. VALENCY OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF ATVIRАUTI (-IMAS) Before undertaking an examination of the semantics and grammar of atvirauti on the basis of the DLKT, it is important to note that this corpus also contains isolated examples with another derivative of the adjective atviras—atvirėti (-ėjimas) ‘to become open’ (see 23, 24). The fact that the adjective atviras is verbalized is also shown by examples readily found in the Google browser, both with forms of atvireti (see 25, 26) and with forms of atvirauti (see 27, 28)¹³. 23) The competition showed that pupils want to be active members of our increasingly open society. 24) What processes of society’s becoming more open have you noticed recently, in your view? ¹² Viewed [2023-10-10] here: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/menu?page=about. ¹³ Cf. the VLKK’s opinion: “We will probably not avoid the word atvirauti, but it should not be turned into a hackneyed cliché that displaces other means of expression: to speak openly, to talk openly, to be open, and so on.” (cited from: https://vlkk.lt/konsultacijos/4226-atvirauti). Straipsniai / Articles 83 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ 25) Today Christians must become more open to Christ and the world¹⁴. 26) Culture and social life in general are becoming more open¹⁵. 27) To those around me or to family members I do not speak openly. I only briefly report to my best friend whether we are dating this week or not¹⁶. 28) You should be more selective about whom you can atvirauti, and with whom you cannot¹⁷. Examples from the DLKT with forms of atvirauti (-avimas) show that the addressee to whom and/or with whom one speaks openly is usually clear from the (sentence) context (see 29, 30). There are examples in which the addressee is stated in the sentence (see 31–33). At first glance, it appears that in example 33 it could be marked not only by a construction with the preposition su, but also by the dative (see below). 29) Since then our relationship became cold, perhaps not cold, but closed. I withdrew, and she did not rush to atvirauti (cf. to me, with me). 30) “Men, you saved me,” the club member Edna spoke openly. 31) “To me, Kalentovas is like a father,” the new resident spoke openly to the new neighbours. 32) And he began rubbing his eyelids. Then he covered his face with his palms, resting his elbows on the table. He looked at me through his fingers. I was seized by laughter. What am I doing here? I am speaking openly to a tired fellow who is pretending to be interested. “Not interesting at all. Disgusting.” 33) Although, of course, there are things that cannot be forgiven, so it is better not to say them. What matters is with whom (cf. to whom) and in what environment atvirauji. The content of speaking openly may likewise be clear from the (sentence) context (cf. 30, 31, 33, 34). From the perspective of valency, examples 35–38 are much more important, showing that the contentive is expressed not only by an apie construction (see 35) or a subordinate clause (see 36, 37), but also by a participial construction (see 38). Such an expression of the contentive may be called the instrumental of content (see 39). 34) Throughout his life he rarely visited doctors. Only three years ago he had suffered a heart attack. Still lively and likeable, the host spoke openly (cf. he spoke openly about having suffered a heart attack three years ago), and his speech was filled with many serious facts and dates. 35) He was not inclined to speak openly about the negotiations that had taken place, but he indicated that, even if the trade union wanted it, salaries would not increase. ¹⁴ Cited from: http://laiskailietuviams.lt/index.php/1963m-1-sausis/1769-atviroji-dvasia-ir-krikscionybe. ¹⁵ Cited from: https://www.bernardinai.lt/2019-09-23-pogrindis-egzistuoja-visur-ir-visada-rasytoja-verteja-a-fominaite-kalbina-a-jakuciunas/. ¹⁶ Cited from: https://www.tevu-darzelis.lt/forums/topic/draugas-nekelia-bendru-nuotrauku-i-fb-kodel/page/4. ¹⁷ Cited from: https://lnk.lt/straipsniai/visi/savaites-horoskopas-deretu-labiau-atsirinkti-su-kuo-galite-atvirauti/208700. 84 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje 36) [He] invited [her] to an exhibition of paintings in the foyer on the second floor of the palace. This unexpected event nicely illustrated the tradition, especially since the actress, presenting her paintings, spoke openly that the paintings were like solo performances, which she created during sleepless nights when the tension experienced on stage had not yet subsided. 37) Strong, successful people can also be surprisingly sensitive. Every second model who has gained recognition throughout the world model, giving an interview, opens up (cf. admits), that in childhood she thought she was extremely unattractive. 38) Often after lectures, girls approach me and tell me that they have experienced sexual violence, open up that they want to run away from home or hint that their friends suffer from anorexia or abuse alcohol. 39) The journalist became convinced that the managers of shopping centers managers are not very inclined to open up on this topic (cf. about this topic). Comparing examples 30, 31, 40–43 with, say, 44–46, one can trace how, from the expression to say openly, to tell, open up developed with the meaning ‘to say openly, to tell (about oneself)’; its valency is related to that of the aforementioned to say, to tell (about oneself). More specifically, trivalent open up requires an agentive subject, an indirect benefactive object, and a content object expressed by the preposition about, a participial construction, or a subordinate clause. Syntactically, the benefactive marked by the dative is optional (cf. 30–32 and 36–39). The same semantic and syntactic open up valency would also occur when the predicate in question, through to state, approaches the semantics and grammar of to confess ‘2. to tell the truth about oneself’ (cf. 37, 47–49; see also footnote 9). 40) “Then I feel that I am truly on vacation,” opens up the woman who diligently cooks lunch in Lithuania every day woman. 41) She gave a proud little squeal toward her grandmother. After the horror—a happy ending. Having recovered from the fatigue of the journey and eaten lunch, Vaidas’s grandmother, speaking Žemaitian, remarked: “I lack the words for what a miracle has happened here. After such horror, such a happy ending.” 42) Everything will have to be done very urgently, the minister opens up. 43) The expression itself is a clever game, opens up Jaunius, a 27-year-old public-relations coordinator¹⁸. 44) “Oh, if only I were young!.. She would seduce me if I were young, I tell you frankly (cf. I am opening up to you). 45) A Kaunas-based drug dealer told Lietuvos rytas openly (cf. opened up) about his activities. ¹⁸ Cf. also the DLKT example: Drivers are reluctant to open up and state the reasons why they return to Lithuania. Straipsniai / Articles 85 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ 46) When R. Šarmaitis, whom I met, asked how I was doing, I told him everything openly. 47) Perhaps because she really did carry out that threat later: she caught the girl with a doctor—Antanas’s drinking companion and family friend—and confessed everything openly to her husband: she had wanted to become a mother19. 48) We also sell ferry tickets online. About 30% of our customers are Estonians and Latvians; they use the internet more readily than Lithuanians,” Mr. Vasiliauskas opens up. The businessman admits that he could further increase the turnover from this activity, but for now he advertises the services too little. 49) “I also felt considerable pressure during the evaluation process,” admitted Darius Užkuraitis, chairman of the jury of the national competition. However, he did not yet wish to open up any further20. Sentences with forms of open up (–avimas), in which the indirect object is marked by a prepositional with construction, may be related to speak openly, talk openly (cf. 50–52), more specifically to the semantics and grammar of to speak/talk. The DLKT contains one example in which both the addressee and the content of the disclosure are formally expressed in the sentence (see 53). Based on the positive valency of to speak/talk stated in LKVJŽ (Sližienė 1994: 330–331), it can be claimed that in example 53 the indirect object marked by the prepositional with construction corresponds to the comitative21, while the prepositional about construction marks the content. The syntactic comitative actant is obligatory, whereas the content actant is optional (see 54, 55). 50) She used to talk quite openly about everything with her friends, since in the morning she had plenty of time, and both her parents and Arnas would be at work. 51) She agreed, and I had never dined like that before. She spoke very openly with me, and suddenly I cast off all my armor. Freedom swept over me; the fear disappeared, because I had been afraid of this date; remorse no longer tormented me. 52) – I will speak quite openly, as with brothers. Mindaugas’s envoy also visited us. 53) For example, FESTINA LENTE! Or MEA CULPA, which is not bad either. In time, some unknown poet might drop by, and we might open up to each other about the furrows of creative work. I only know this: I will neither establish a tavern nor open up to the stranger; well, perhaps I will take it into my head and write something down for myself without any pretensions! 19 Cf. also the DLKT example: I will confess openly that few people in the world, perhaps no one, have evoked as much respect and admiration, as much enthusiasm, in me as Władysławas Studnickis. 20 Cf. also the DLKT example: While the wounded soul bleeds, he does not dare approach confession, disclosure. 21 Comitative [Com] is the function of a secondary agent, patient, percipient, or benefactive, appearing alongside the corresponding primary function and most often corresponding in the sentence to a prepositional construction suInstr (LKVJŽ 1994: 22). 86 Acta Linguistica Lituanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje 54) Of course, later, when you acquire true friends, you can open up to them (cf. 50). 55) Incidentally, he was one of the first protégés of B. L. Laugalienė to speak out about the ills flourishing in that family. D. Šliužas, who had had to flee his guardian’s home because of opening up to journalists, nevertheless later returned to live with B. L. Laugalienė. The fact that the expression of the indirect object by the comitative prepositional construction in examples 53–55 may be related to reciprocal speech is also shown by example 56, where the prepositional construction is determined by the valency of the noun conversation. Of course, unclear or ambiguous cases occur. For example, based on the context of example 57, the dative of the indirect object would be less marked, expressing one-way speech, that is, the officials’ statement to the public, as in examples 58 and 59. On the other hand, the expression of the indirect object in example 57 could also be influenced by another aspect of the meaning of open up (-avimas)—‘to be open’ (see below). 56) The British disclosures of the envoy in conversation with K. Bizauskas (cf. the envoy’s disclosures with K. Bizauskas) provoked the latter’s disloyal words toward his Government during the demarche. 57) The relevant Lithuanian laws adopted several years ago require public officials to declare their interests publicly each year. However, not all officials open up to the public. The published tables show that only approximately 150–200 higher-ranking officials entered anything in the various sections of this declaration. 58) Eglė is more withdrawn. If things are going worse for her, she will not tell me. Perhaps she does not want to worry or upset me. The daughters of some of my friends open up a great deal to their mothers, and then the mothers grieve terribly and cannot sleep at night. 59) – Why are you talking about your daughter’s death, when it is you who hate her? Why do you open up to me like that, when you do not even know me, you have only just met me! – I am not talking about her death; I only suspect it. The available example 60 demonstrates the expression of the unidirectional ((to) say (to whom)) and reciprocal (to converse, to talk (with whom)) aspects of speaking by atvirauti. Acknowledging unclear or semantically intertwined cases, it may be argued that aspects of open speaking influence the choice of marking the indirect object (German Markierung). For example, in the context of example 61, if we say that they are speaking openly with each other about their lives, as though there were no camera, we would foreground their mutual conversation about life; whereas if we say that they are speaking openly about their lives, for example, to us, in the situation described we would emphasize not those participating in the conversation (the protagonists of the film), but those listening to (watching) them behind the camera. If so, the context of examples 62–64 restricts the expression of reciprocal speaking by atvirauti, whereas the context of 65 restricts the expression of unidirectional speaking. 60) With one woman from Vilnius, we opened up to each other… Straipsniai / Articles 87 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ 61) Watching Buraja’s films (“Mama,” “Diary”), one is amazed at how she manages to establish such close contact with the protagonists of her film that on screen they open up about their lives, as though there were not even a camera. In “The Island of Crete,” the film’s characters know that the camera is watching them—it makes them “pull themselves together.” 62) Why do I know the life stories of so many people? Why do so many people talk and talk with me and begin to open up, sharing their most secret thoughts? Although I myself find it difficult to open up and tell everything even when it is truly necessary. 63) He merely mutters: You know… I’ll tell you. I’ll tell you, you, you… do you hear?! I felt even more hopeless when some torments began to open up about their inhuman fellow human being—author, performer, actor, it does not matter. 64) Word by word, the partisan liaison understood what kind of bird had flown into her hands. She learned even more quickly how to deal with the creature: whenever the spy began to open up (cf. to her, *with her) about the partisans, Lukevičiūtė immersed herself in prayer with all her soul. 65) The secret services of the Venetian Republic, which had lived through an unenviable period, concealed its deeds and misdeeds. A multitude of lovers and mistresses, with whom influential people opened up, “worked” for Casanova like an agents’ network (cf. 50, 54). In examples 66–68, the aspect of open up (-avimas) associated with sincerity—‘to be open’—is emphasized more strongly. By analogy with open, the indirect object of such open up could presumably be expressed by the dative and by a prepositional with construction (cf. 69, 70). However, in the sentences at hand, this optional actant of open up ‘to be open’ is not expressed. 66) Kęstutis is a confirmed loner. “I do not want to get involved anywhere; I do not like opening up (cf. I do not like being open),” the young man admits. 67) The neighbor, whom Žydrūnė most often visited in Vaišvilai village, was distressed by the girl’s tragic fate. “She is very reserved by nature; she did not like opening up. I sensed that things were difficult for her at home, where her mother and stepfather, having no regular income, would often get drunk,” the pensioner recounted. 68) Some talk is about football, some about women. During breaks between conversations about football and women, we talk about work. It is not true that all men are disinclined to open up. I do not feel a great need to pour out my feelings, but some of my friends readily tell me about themselves. 69) Women seek identification with themselves, look closely at themselves, at their feelings and sensations, at their relationships with men. Openness (not disclosure) to oneself is the most difficult test of all. Openness is difficult to bear. 88 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje 70) Another negatively affecting thing is disclosures, the pouring out of one’s heart not to one’s closest friends. Through our complexes and emotional exposure, we may repel even the most tolerant people²². Finally, the sentences mentioned in which forms of open up are used alongside the antonym to be secretive. Examples 71 and 72 show the semantic connection emphasized in the sentence between open up (or its derivatives) and telling the truth²³, which is clear in the contexts of examples 73 and 74 or tangible in that of example 67. 71) And so is his friend rotting on the hill. Gučka watched him as if he had foreseen everything. He both opened up and kept things secret, sparing no words, while you, rookie, nod, even if forced to. 72) “Openness harms me,” you say, putting on a mask. But does it always? asked Virginija Rimkuvienė of those who open up and those who keep things secret. Thus Julius Girdvainis, a journalist: “A completely open person would perish. One must be especially careful in public.” 73) One can always pretend that it is not she, but merely a joke, a quip, a pun that commits one to nothing. The conversations on various TV programs and in tabloid magazines now likewise called “disclosures” are of exactly the same kind, although they have little to do with genuine openness, because the “person who opens up” hides behind it… 74) Šatrijos Ragana was not inclined toward openness as disclosure, although in a letter to P. Augustaitis dated February 16, 1907, she did say: “I have always liked openness.” Here openness means directness more than anything else. 4. APIBENDRINIMAS IR IŠVADOS An examination of 340 DLKT examples with different forms of open up (disclosure) shows that their valency is influenced by the semantics and grammar of the base word and of predicates from its lexical-semantic field. The study showed that the generalized meaning of the predicate open up (-avimas) is ‘to be open; to speak openly, to converse openly’. From the perspective of valency, it can be divided into: ‘1. to be open’, ‘2. to say openly, to tell (about oneself), to confess’, and ‘3. to speak openly, to converse’. The latter two differ from each other in the direction of speech. ²² Cf. also the DLKT example: Many of us are forced to perform certain social roles every day, and their scripts usually leave no room for sincere disclosure. This phenomenon is increasingly dominating academic society. ²³ Cf. the synonym series for open (having no secrets) distinguished in ŠŽe: open-hearted, open-hearted, pure-hearted, straightforward, candid, plain-spoken, blunt. Straipsniai / Articles 89 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Trivalent open up ‘3. to speak openly, to converse’ requires an agentive subject and indirect objects corresponding to the comitative and content functions. In the sentence, the comitative is expressed by an obligatory prepositional with construction, while the content may optionally be expressed by a prepositional about construction. Trivalent open up ‘2. to say openly, to tell (about oneself), to confess’ requires in the sentence an agentive subject and indirect objects corresponding to the benefactive and content functions. The benefactive is optionally expressed by the dative, while the content may variably be marked by an obligatory prepositional about construction or by a participial construction or subordinate clause. When bivalent open up is used in the meaning ‘to be open’, its syntactic actants, by analogy with open, are expressed by the obligatory nominative subject and, optionally, by the dative of the indirect object or a prepositional with construction. The subject corresponds to the percipient agent²⁴, while the optionally marked indirect object corresponds to the benefactive. No examples were found in the DLKT in which the optional actant of this meaning of open up was expressed in the sentence. The empirical material available suggests that this tends to distinguish open up ‘to be open’ more clearly from open up ‘to speak openly, to converse’, where in the former case the dative and the with construction correspond to one semantic function, whereas in the latter they express different semantics. The study showed that the valency structures of open up (-avimas) ‘to speak openly, to converse’ include, among the free members of bivalent open ‘sincere, telling everything’, a content actant (the content of saying, speaking, or conversing) with its own expression. ŠALTINIAI BLKŽ – Bendrinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, red. kolegija D. Liutkevičienė, D. Murmulaitytė, V. Sakalauskienė, A. Gritenienė, A. Gaidienė, D. Daugirdienė, L. Jonušys, vyr. red. D. Liutkevičienė, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2013–2022. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/bendrinės-lietuvių-kalbos-žodynas/. DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas, Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Prieiga internete: http://tekstynas.vdu.lt/tekstynas/. DLKŽe – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas, 8-asis patais. ir papild. leidimas, vyr. red. St. Keinys, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2021. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/dabartines-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas 1–20 (1941–2002), red. kolegija G. Naktinienė, J. Paulauskas, R. Petrokienė, V. Vitkauskas, J. Zabarskaitė, vyr. red. G. Naktinienė, e. variantas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (atnaujinta versija, 2018). Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/. ²⁴ Apie dvisluoksnes semantines funkcijas plačiau žr. Druktein­is (2009). 90 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX Atvirauti, atviravimas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių kalboje LKŽPapK – „Lietuvių kalbos žodyno“ Papildymų kartoteka, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/lkz-papildymu-kartoteka/. SisŽe – Paulauskas Jonas. Sisteminis lietuvių kalbos žodynas, Vilnius: Mokslas, 1987, e. variantas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/sisteminis-lietuviu-kalbos-zodynas/perziura. SŽe – Lyberis Antanas. Lietuvių kalbos sinonimų žodynas, 2-asis patais. leidimas, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2002, e. variantas, 2015. Prieiga internete: https://ekalba.lt/sinonimu-zodynas/. LITERATŪRA Ágel Vilmos 2000: Valenztheorie, Tübingen. Drukteinis Albinas 2009: Semantinės sakinių struktūros su sinkretinės reikšmės predikatais. – Res Humanitariae 6, 24–41. Hentschel Elke, Weydt Harald 1994: Handbuch der deutschen Grammatik, 2. Aufl., Berlin, New York: De Gruyter. KP2 S2 – Kalbos patarimai 2: Sintaksė 1. Prie linksnių ir polinksnių vartojimas, sud. R. Miliūnaitė, vyr. red. A. Pupkis, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003. Miliūnaitė Rita 2022: Įvairuojantys ir nauji lietuvių kalbos reiškiniai XXI a. pradžioje: sistematika ir pokyčių kryptys, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. DOI: doi.org/10.35321/e-pub.42.lietuviu-kalbos-pokyciai. Semėnienė Loreta 2003: Būdv ardžių derinimas. – Sintaksinių ryšių tyrimai. Lietuvių kalbos gramatikos darbai 1, red. A. Holvoet, A. Judžentis, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 37–66. Sližienė Nijolė 1994: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 1, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Sližienė Nijolė 1998: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 2(1), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė Loreta 2001: Lietuvių kalbos būdvardžių valentingumas: daktaro disertacija, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Vaičiulytė-Semėnienė Loreta 2023: Prieraišus, prieraišumas valentingumas dabartinėje lietuvių (rašto) kalboje. – Acta Linguistica Lithuanica 88, 181–205. Prieiga internete: https://journals.lki.lt/actalinguisticalithuanica/article/view/2245/2338. Straipsniai / Articles 91 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Valency of the Verb atvirauti and Noun atviravimas in Contemporary Lithuanian Language SUMMARY The analysis of 340 examples with different forms of atvirauti and atviravimas drawn from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian Language reveals that their valency is influenced by the semantics and grammar of the adjective atviras and predicates from the minimal lexical-semantic field. The research shows that the generalised meaning of the predicate atvirauti is ‘to be open; to speak openly’. In terms of valence, this meaning can be subdivided into ‘1. to be open’, ‘2. to say, to tell openly; to confess’, and ‘3. to talk, to converse openly’. The latter two meanings differ from each other in the direction of speech. The trivalent atvirauti ‘3. to talk, to converse openly’ requires the agentive subject, the indirect objects corresponding to the comitative and the contentive. The comitative is expressed by the necessary construction of the preposition su, while the contentive can be expressed facultatively by constructing the preposition apie. The trivalent atvirauti ‘2. to say, to tell openly; to confess’ in a sentence requires an agentive subject and indirect objects, which correspond beneficiary and contentive. The beneficiary is expressed facultatively in the dative of the indirect object. In contrast, the indirect object contentive can be marked as necessary by constructing the preposition apie, or with a participial construction, a subordinate clause. When the bivalent atvirauti is used in the meaning of ‘1. to be open’, its syntactic actants are, by atviras analogy, said in the necessary subject nominative and optionally in the dative or construction of the preposition su of the indirect object. The subject corresponds to the percipient agent and the variantly marked indirect object to the beneficiary. The study shows that the valency structures of atvirauti ‘to speak openly’ include a contentive with expression from the free elements of the adjective atviras. Įteikta 2023 m. spalio 11 d. LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5, LT–10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] 92 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXXIX