To s en Ka hke*, Juliane Tomann and Mi ko Uhlig
Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice: Coun e -Na a i es
in Public Space
h ps://doi.o g/10.1515/iph-2022-2046
Published online Decembe 12, 2022
Abs ac : The e m “cu a ion”has aken on a hos o
meanings beyond he museum con ex . While he e a e
ma ked di e ences be ween i s meanings –including
he specific ac o exhibi ion-making as well as he ac o
keeping and ending o an exis ing collec ion in a
museum –we he e specifically o eg ound cu a ion as a
social p ocess o selec ing and nego ia ing a ious
o ms o (embodied) pe o mances in public, an-
scending ins i u ionalized con ex s such as museums.
We a gue ha , when combined wi h he idea o coun e -
na a i es, he concep o cu a ion can elucida e aspec s
o social p ac ices and open up a use ul heu is ic o he
analysis o ep esen a ions and pe o mances in he
public sphe e. Since hese p ac ices make ex ensi e
use o imagina ies o he pas , his app oach is sui able
o combining pe spec i es om public his o y and
an h opology.
Keywo ds: cu a ion, coun e cu a ion, na a i e, social
p ac ice, an h opology
Cu a ion oday is a mul i ace ed e m in bo h academic
discou se and e e yday li e. F om i s o igin in museums,
exhibi ion making, and he a wo ld, i has expanded o
encompass e e yday social p ac ices. Almos any hing
can be subjec o cu a ion, om Ins ag am accoun s and
Spo i y playlis s,
1
o collec ions o a a o i e eam’s
b anded je seys o one’s own wa d obe. Cu a ion has hus
become pa o a li es yle. “Ha e you al eady cu a ed
oday?” ead he headline o an a icle on such a ied
ac s o cu a ion in he Neue Zü che Zei ung in 2014,
demons a ing how deeply oo ed in e e yday cul u e he
p ac ice had become by hen.
2
As he con ibu ions in his
special sec ion indica e, his is a global phenomenon.
I would be sho sigh ed o in e p e his phenomenon
as a simple pas ime o an ou g ow h o na cissis ic sel -
exp ession,
3
because wha is cu a ed by p i a e indi iduals
and collec i es in he p esen can be a mo e complex
han he examples abo e sugges . Cu a ing unde s ood as a
social p ac ice, we a gue, o e s people he oppo uni y o
d aw a en ion o pe cei ed poli ical and social imbalances
and o oppose hegemonic na a i es. In hese cases,
coun e -na a i es a e called on and cu a ed. Public p o es
o example, can be unde s ood as he cu a ion o a coun e -
na a i e. This aspec o cu a ing is he ocus o ou u he
conside a ions.
The a icles in his special sec ion a e based on p esen a ions
gi en a he panel “Res o ing Pas s, Rew i ing Rules? Nego ia ing
No ms wi hin P ac ices o Coun e Cu a ion”which we o ganized
as pa o he 15 h SIEF Cong ess “B eaking he Rules? Powe ,
Pa icipa ion, T ansg ession”(Helsinki, Finland, June 19–24,
2021).
*Co esponding au ho : To s en Ka hke, Johannes Gu enbe g-
Uni e si ä Mainz, Mainz, Ge many, E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Juliane Tomann, Uni e si ä Regensbu g, Regensbu g, Ge many,
E-mail: Juliane.Tomann@geschich e.uni- egensbu g.de
Mi ko Uhlig, Johannes Gu enbe g-Uni e si ä Mainz, Mainz, Ge many,
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
1F om an an h opological pe spec i e, he aspec s o digi al cu a-
ion a e explo ed in he p ojec s “Cu a ing Digi al Images: E hno-
g aphic Pe spec i es on he A o dances o Digi al Images in He i age
and Museum Con ex s,”h ps://www.goingdigi al.de/ch is oph-
ba ei he -cu a ing-digi al-images/; “Cu a ing he Feed: In e disci-
plina y Pe spec i es on Digi al Image Feeds and hei Cu a o ial
Assemblages,”h ps://uni- uebingen.de/de/239241. See Ch is oph
Ba ei he , Sha on Macdonald, Elke G ei enede , Ka ha ina Geis,
Sa ah Ull ich and Ve a Hilleb and, “Cu a ing Digi al Images:
E hnog aphic Pe spec i es on he A o dances o Digi al Images in
Museum and He i age Con ex s,”in In e na ional Jou nal o Digi al
A His o y, no. 8 (2021): 82–99. h ps://doi.o g/10.11588/dah.2021.
E1.83929.
2Quo ed in Ch is ine Bischo , “Kennen und Bekennen. Kon e sion
als Ku a ie en des eligiösen Selbs ,”in Sak alisie ung des Selbs .
P ak iken und T adi ionen de Subjek i ie ung, eds. Michael Ro h,
Ba ba a Thums and Mi ko Uhlig (Leipzig: E angelische Ve lagsan-
s al , 2021), 77–90, 77 (au ho ’s ansla ion).
3An h opologis Klaus Schönbe ge has poin ed ou ha hese
nega i e alua ions a e o en enden ious posi ions ha do no
co espond o empi ical eali ies. See Klaus Schönbe ge , “Pe sis ence
and Recombina ion: Digi al Communica ion and Socio-Cul u al
Change,”in Race and E hnici y in Digi al Cul u e. Ou Changing T a-
di ions, Imp essions, and Exp essions in a Media ed Wo ld, ed. An-
hony B. Bucci elli (San a Ba ba a: P aege Books, 2017), 17–30.
In e na ional Public His o y. 2022; 5(2): 71–79
Open Access. © 2022 he au ho (s), published by De G uy e . This wo k is licensed unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional
License.
While he e a e ma ked di e ences be ween meanings
o cu a ion –which can include he specific ac o
exhibi ion-making as well as he ac o keeping and
ending o an exis ing collec ion in a museum –we he e
specifically o eg ound cu a ion as a social p ocess o
selec ing and nego ia ing a ious o ms o (embodied)
pe o mances in public, anscending ins i u ionalized
con ex s such as museums. We a e well awa e ha his
ex ended use o cu a ion appea s o nega e some aspec s
essen ial o he discou se su ounding cu a ion and he
cu a o ial in museum s udies and p ac ices. Ye , we a gue,
when combined wi h he idea o coun e -na a i es as we
p opose he e, he concep o cu a ion can elucida e aspec s
o social p ac ices and open up a use ul heu is ic o
he analysis o ep esen a ions and pe o mances in he
public sphe e. Since hese p ac ices make ex ensi e
use o imagina ies o he pas , his app oach is sui able
o combining he pe spec i es o public his o y and
an h opology.
His o y as a ield conce ned no only wi h he ac s o
he pas , bu also wi h how hey a e made isible, usable,
and na a i ized o mul iple uses and h ough mul iple
pe spec i es, would do well o ake on mo e o ce ully
cu a o ial p ac ices as a subjec o esea ch. S udies
in public his o y ha e equen ly demons a ed ha a
schola ly look a such social p ac ices can lead o
p oduc i e engagemen s wi h he a ious ways in which
his o y is selec ed, p esen ed, o pe o med o di e en
audiences. In his special sec ion, we unde s and cu a ion
as a social p ocess and hus as a way o his o ical meaning-
making o econfigu ing his o ical meaning in he p esen .
By ollowing an an h opological app oach which empha-
sizes he pe spec i es o all ac o s in ol ed in he so-
cial p ac ice o cu a ing,
4
he a icles shed ligh on
he mic o le el o a ious public his o y phenomena.
Ou app oach demons a es how cu a ing as a mode o
selec ing and aes he ically a anging con en se es as a
way o subjec i e meaning-making by indi iduals o an
audience. Fu he mo e, cu a ing as a social p ac ice is a
s a egy o indi iduals o make sense o , and find
o ien a ion in, he cons ella ion o a gene al su plus o
na a i es and knowledge abou he pas in la e mode n
socie ies. In he ollowing, we fi s explica e ou use o
he e m cu a ion and i s companion, he cu a o ial. In a
nex s ep, we explain he po en ial o ocusing on coun e -
na a i es in his con ex .
1 Cu a ion Ou side he Museum: A
B ie O e iew
Ini ially de i ing om he La in cu a ionem, meaning “a
aking ca e, a en ion, managemen ,” he wo d cu a ion
en e ed English as closely ela ed o medicine. I s oo is
sha ed by he wo d “cu e,”in ima ely connec ing cu a ion
and he ac o healing o making whole.
5
The associa ion o
cu a ion and he manage ial da es back a leas o Roman
an iqui y, when o ficials called cu a o es “we e en us ed
wi h he managemen o pa hs and oads and [ o see] o i
ha he Tibe did no become fil hy.”
6
Un il he eigh een h
cen u y, he cu a o was p ima ily a cus odian. S ill oday,
cu a ion as a o m o s ewa dship highligh ing he aspec o
aking ca e o exis ing collec ions and exhibi ions is a
common aspec o cu a ion wi hin he museum con ex .
Al eady by he end o he nine een h cen u y, he e m had
come o also ep esen an ins umen ali y o c ea i e
cul u al p oduc ion and an ac i i y o pu ing oge he and
a anging objec s o wo ks o a o public display.
7
The
p ocess o how exac ly his seman ic mig a ion occu ed in
de ail is i sel significan bu canno be ully add essed
wi hin he confines o his pa icula explo a ion. The
examples abo e do, howe e , al eady shed ligh on he
ac ha he e m’s long-s anding ies o he ealms o
a , museums, and he p oduc ion o exhibi ions as
spa io- empo al cons ella ions a e loosening. Cu a ion as
a concep has expanded o encompass he sphe e o
e e yday li e.
8
Taking his obse a ion as a s a ing poin o analyze
phenomena o cu a ion as a social p ac ice does no mean
ha we neglec li ely discussions su ounding he concep
wi hin museum s udies. Recen deba es in museum heo y
e lec on museums’a emp s o in ensi y he di ec
pa icipa ion o isi o s in exhibi ions. Expe ien ial
and pa icipa o y lea ning, communi y engagemen , and
pa icipa o y oppo uni ies, including social media
4In an h opological esea ch, he concep o cu a ion has been used
in non-museum con ex s o se e al yea s. See Ch is oph Ba ei he ,
Ka ha ina Geis, Sa ah Ull ich, Sha on Macdonald, Elke G ei enede
and Ve a Hilleb and, eds., Ku a ie en. Reihe Beg i e des digi alen
Bildes (München: Open Publishing LMU, 2023) [in p ess].
5h ps://www.e ymonline.com/sea ch?q=cu a ion.
6Bischo , “Kennen und Bekennen,”80 (au ho ’s ansla ion).
7And ew McClellan, “P o essionalizing he Field: The Case o he
Uni ed S a es,”in A Companion o Cu a ion, eds. B ad Buckley and
John Conomos (Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2020), 43–66, 43–4.
8S e an K ankenhagen, “Geschich e ku a ie en,”in Geschich e ku -
a ie en: Kul u -und kuns wissenscha liche An-O dnungen de Ve gan-
genhei , eds. S e an K ankenhagen and Viola Vah son (Köln/Weima /
Wien: Böhlau, 2017), 9–14, 9–10.
72 T. Ka hke e al.
and a ious digi al ools, highligh a shi om a op-down
communica ion model owa ds an unde s anding o
isi o s as in ol ed ac o s who co-c ea e meanings in
museum spaces.
9
Such deba es a e any hing bu new.
Da ing back a leas o he 1980s, app oaches o “new
museology”ha e s essed a people-cen e ed, ac ion-o i-
en ed app oach which unde s ands he museum as
“de o ed o social change and de elopmen .”
10
Subse-
quen ly, new o ms o museums ha e a isen, including
communi y-based museum ini ia i es, ecomuseums,
11
o
“wild”museums
12
se up by laypeople. This di e sifica ion
in he museum landscape impac s he idea o cu a ion and
he ques ion o who is a cu a o . An h opologis Ch is ina
K eps analyzes de elopmen s which ha e made museums
and cu a ing “mo e people- and socially-o ien ed.”
13
K eps
labels he eflec ions on hese changes “Cu a o ship as a
Social P ac ice,”a i le closely ela ed o he one we
p opose he e. Howe e , obse a ions abou he social and
cul u al dimensions o cu a o ial wo k emain confined
o museums. In con as , we p opose o use he idea o
cu a ion as a social p ac ice in a heu is ic way. This helps
illumina e social phenomena o his o ical meaning-making
which a e no necessa ily ela ed o exhibi ion making o
he ealm o museums bu happen in o he sphe es o
public spaces.
The oo s o hese di e si ied and ex ended seman ics
o cu a ion, along wi h an expanded unde s anding o he
igu e o he cu a o , can in pa be aced back o changes
in he a ield in he 1960s. I was a ha ime ha
con en ional and conse a i e ideas o wha an exhibi ion
should look like s a ed o be inc easingly ques ioned. In
conjunc ion wi h his, p ac i ione s c i ically add essed he
ole o he exhibi ion space and ha o he isi o wi hin he
con ex o a gene al c i ique o ins i u ions.
13
O e he cou se o he wen ie h cen u y, p ocesses o
di e si ica ion and globaliza ion signi ican ly impac ed
he sphe e o cul u al p oduc ion and he a s. This in u n
in luenced how he idea o cu a o ship and he igu e o
he cu a o we e pe cei ed by bo h p ac i ione s and he
public. The eme gence and ise o cu a ion as a p ac ice
and a “c ea i e, semiau onomous and indi idually
au ho ed o m o media ion (and p oduc ion)”also
b ough wi h i he abandonmen o he idea o an a wo k’s
au onomy.
14
The esul ing wa e o independen cu a o -
ship in he a wo ld eached i s peak in he la e 1980s and
led o an unde s anding o cu a ion as a dis inc p ac ice
almos as impo an –o in some cases e en mo e so – han
he p oduc ion o a i sel .
15
Cu a ed a exhibi ions began
o be ega ded as aluable and as a is ic exp essions in
hei own igh . Cu a o s we e my hologized as dynamic
nomads, gi ed “sel -made men, s a s, he oes, o magi-
cians”
16
wi h a special in ui ion and abili y o pu oge he
wo ks o a in o de o insc ibe alue on hem. These
imagina ies ma ked a sha p con as o he olde idea o he
cu a o as a cus odian wo king unde s able condi ions in a
museum whe e hey ook ca e o a collec ion o a depo .
17
A c i ic Michael B enson amously e med his de elop-
men he “cu a o ’s momen .”He was e e ing o a ime
in he 1990s when “influen ial, celeb i y”and “high-p ofile
cu a o s”gained widesp ead public a en ion and ecog-
ni ion a in e na ional biennials and iennials.
18
2 Widening he Scope: F om
Cu a ion o he Cu a o ial
Acco ding o a his o ian Anne e on Tie enbe g, cu a ion
p ima ily desc ibes he p ac ice o selec ing objec s in o de
o pu hem in o spa ial o de s which a e p esen ed a
ce ain si es o p oduce speci ic cons ella ions o o
insc ibe hese objec s in o p eexis ing na a i es.
19
9Nina Simon, The Pa icipa o y Museum (San a C uz, CA: Museum 2.
0, 2010); Paolo Bianchi, “Zeigen on Dingen als Dialog –de ku -
a o ische Ansa z,”in Handbuch Museum. Geschich e, Au gaben, Pe -
spek i en, ed. Ma kus Walz (S u ga : J. B. Me zle , 2016), 248–52.
10 Ch is ina K eps, “Cu a o ship as Social P ac ice,”Cu a o : The
Museum Jou nal 46, no. 3 (2003): 311–23, 315; see also Pe e Ve go,
“In oduc ion,”in The New Museology, ed. Pe e Ve go (London:
Reak ion Books, 1989), 1–5.
11 Pe e Da is, Ecomuseums. A Sense o Place (London/New Yo k:
Leices e Uni e si y P ess, 1999).
12 Angela Jannelli, Wilde Museen. Zu Museologie des Ama eu mu-
seums (Biele eld: T ansc ip , 2012).
13 Bea ice on Bisma ck, Das Ku a o ische (Leipzig: Spec o Books,
2021), 19–25.
14 Paul O’Neill, The Cul u e o Cu a ing and he Cu a ing o Cul u e(s)
(Camb idge, Mass.: MIT P ess, 2012), 4.
15 Paul O’Neill, “The Cu a o ial Tu n: F om P ac ice o Discou se,”in
Issues o Cu a ing in Con empo a y A and Pe o mance, eds. Judi h
Rugg and Michèle Sedgwick (B is ol/Chicago: In ellec Books, 2007),
13–28.
16 Anne e on Tie enbe g, “Was heiβ ‘ku a ie en’heu e?,”Ins i u
ü Auslandsbeziehungen, h ps://www.i a.de/blog/bei ag/was-
heiss -ku a ie en-heu e (au ho ’s ansla ion).
17 Ibid.
18 Ma ie F ase and Alice Ming Wai Jim, “In oduc ion: Wha is C i -
ical Cu a ing?”RACAR 43, no. 2 (2018): 5–7, 5.
19 Tie enbe g, “Was heiβ ‘ku a ie en’heu e?”
Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice 73
Recen ly, he e m cu a ion has come o be s eadily
accompanied by i s co olla y exp ession “ he cu a o ial.”
20
Unde s ood na owly, he p ac ice o cu a ion en ails a
se o p o essional skills and ac i i ies wi h he aim o
gene a ing a p oduc , mos likely an exhibi ion, while he
cu a o ial is an o e a ching app oach and linked o an
“abili y o hink e e y hing ha goes in o he e en o
knowledge in ela ion o one ano he .”
21
Wi h e e ences o
ac o -ne wo k heo y and Pie e Bou dieu’s heo y o he
social field, he concep o he cu a o ial is “ he dynamic
field whe e he cons ella ional condi ion comes in o
being,”
22
and which emb aces di e en social ac i i ies,
agen s, symbols, and si ua ions ela ed o cu a ing.
23
The idea o he cu a o ial is he eby linked o ela ions
and ela ional knowledge, as well as o an aes he ic and
spa ial app oach o knowledge p oduc ion.
24
In sho , he
no ion o cu a ing as exp essed by he cu a o ial has
become widened in scope. I is no longe solely ela ed o
pu ing oge he , showing, o displaying wo ks o a o
museum objec s. I addi ionally includes concep ions
o “enabling, making public, educa ing, analyzing,
c i icizing, heo izing, edi ing, and s aging.”
25
The shi o
unde s anding cu a ion in a b oade sense has been
desc ibed by an h opologis Philipp Scho ch as a end o
“libe a e […] cu a ion, as a me hod and p ac ice, ou o i s
p edominan confinemen o museum ins i u ions, while
deploying i , as a concep ual and analy ical lens, o
conside and s udy he p ocess h ough which an idea […]
becomes spa ialized, ma e ialized and isualized.”
26
Scho ch’s idea o ex end he scope and ange o he e m
cu a ion in o en i onmen s ou side o he museum con ex ,
as well as his sugges ion o concep ualize i wi hin he
b oade amewo k o a “cons ella ional field” ela ed o
knowledge p oduc ion, ha e in o med ou app oach
owa ds cu a ion as a social p ac ice. This app oach
addi ionally spo ligh s he aspec o audience in conjunc-
ion wi h he aspec o an aes he ical a angemen .
Cu a ion as a social p ac ice is he e o e ela ed o and
in e wined wi h concep s al eady well-es ablished in he
public his o y discou se. In a b oade sense, i connec s o
heo e ical app oaches which y o g apple wi h how
his o ical knowledge is c ea ed in socie y, as elabo a ed by
he concep o his o ical cul u e and his o ical conscious-
ness. His o ian Jö n Rüsen a gues ha he ep esen a ion
and c ea ion o his o ical knowledge in he public sphe e is
always bound o, nego ia ed, and econfigu ed wi hin a
cons ella ion o a leas fi e dimensions which define he
his o ical cul u e o a socie y o a g oup. Among o he s,
hese always include a cogni i e and an aes he ic one.
27
Fo he pu pose o his in oduc ion, i is wo hwhile o
connec Rüsen’s ideas o an aes he ic dimension wi h
S e an K ankenhagen’s app oach o cu a ing he pas .
K ankenhagen claims ha cu a ion is a c oss-cu ing mode
employed o educe he o e whelming su plus o a ailable
and expe ienceable his o ical na a i es o emains om
he pas in la e mode n socie y. This enables hose who
engage wi h hem o make sense and p o ide o ien a ion in
he p esen . His in e p e a ion o he use o cu a ion is
inex icably ied o an aes he ic a angemen o he
ou comes o hese indi idualized p ocesses o his o ical
knowledge p oduc ion in public.
Cu a ing u he ela es o concep s such as s aging o
pe o mance and pe o ming.
28
The idea o s aging has
inspi ed esea ch a beyond pe o mance s udies and has
had an impac on his o ical, sociological, and cul u al
s udies esea ch. This is exp essed in such analy ical
concep s as hea icali y –mos clea ly defined in he
20 Bea ice on Bisma ck, Jö n Scha a , and Thomas Weski, eds.,
Cul u es o he Cu a o ial (London: S e nbe g P ess, 2012); Bisma ck,
Das Ku a o ische.
21 I i Rogo and Bea ice on Bisma ck, “Cu a ing/Cu a o ial. A
Con e sa ion be ween I i Rogo and Bea ice on Bisma ck,”in
Bisma ck, Scha a , and Weski, Cul u es o he Cu a o ial,21–38, 23.
We use “cu a ing”and “cu a ion”as synonyms h oughou he ex
bu dis inguish hem om “ he cu a o ial.”
22 Ibid., 24.
23 In a sepa a e a icle, Daniel Habi a gues in he same ein o an
“emancipa ion o he e m cu a ion om he ealm o museum
con ex ”and uses cu a ion o s udy p ocesses o ed essing he pas in
he u ban con ex o Buka es . Daniel Habi , “Cu a ing (Coun e -)
Memo ies. Plädoye ü eine beg i fliche Emanzipa ion,”in Wel .
Wissen. Ges al en, eds. Ge aud Koch e al. (Hambu g: Ins i u ü
Empi ische Kul u wissenscha , 2021), 362–70 (au ho ’s ansla ion),
h ps://jou nals.sub.uni-hambu g.de/hjk/a icle/ iew/1759.
24 Benjamin Meye -K ahme , “A His o y o Cu a ing –Pas and P e-
sen ,”C i ique d’a 45 (2015): 1–5. h ps://doi.o g/10.4000/
c i iqueda .19153.
25 Bisma ck, Scha a , and Weski, “Cul u es,”8.
26 Philipp Scho ch, “In oduc ion,”in Cu a ing (Pos -)Socialis En i-
onmen s, eds. Philipp Scho ch and Daniel Habi (Biele eld: T an-
sc ip , 2021), 11–27, 22.
27 The o he dimensions a e he poli ical, he mo al, and he eligious
one. Jö n Rüsen, His o ische O ien ie ung: Übe die A bei des
Geschich sbewuss seins, sich in de Zei zu ech zufinden (Schwalbach:
Wochenschau, 2008). An o e iew o e he deba e on his o ical cul-
u e and his o ical consciousness is p o ided by M.C.R. G e e and
Robbe -Jan Ad iaansen, “His o ical Cul u e,”in Bloomsbu y His o y:
Theo y and Me hod (digi al esou ce, 2021). h ps://doi.o g/10.5040/
9781350970854.056.
28 E ika Fische -Lich e, ed., Thea ali ä und die K isen de
Rep äsen a ion (S u ga /Weima : J. B. Me zle , 2001).
74 T. Ka hke e al.
hea icali y as a model app oach espoused by E ika
Fische -Lich e,
29
doing his o y,
30
o s aging he pas .
31
The ocus in all o hese analy ical amewo ks is on he
p ocessuali y o social p ac ices, which is especially
ele an wi h ega d o he p oduc ion o his o ical
knowledge. Fo cul u al analysis in pa icula , his shi
emphasizes cul u al change and pu s a s op o specula-
ions abou cul u al con inui ies.
32
Bo h s aging and
cu a ion/cu a ing can be used as desc ip ions o ac ions by
indi iduals o g oups who p esen some hing o o he s in a
public space in en ionally. In bo h, as in b icolage, al eady
exis ing pieces a e b ough oge he , and hus new
con ex s o meaning a e c ea ed. Bo h s aging and
cu a ing –unde s ood as specific p ac ices o s uc u e,
p esen , and es ablish o ien a ion in he wo ld –display
and ansmi alues. The no able di e ence be ween he
wo concep s s ems no om a g ea ca ego ical dis inc ion
bu ins ead is ound in how hey ela e o he objec s
o na a i es ha a e being p esen ed in he con ex o
subjec i e nego ia ion.
3 Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice
In linking up he abo e concep s and ideas, a de ini ion o
cu a ion as a social p ac ice eme ges in which we can un-
de s and cu a ing as (1) a o m closely ela ed o p ac ices
o s aging ha is (2) decidedly abou p esen ing a epe o y
o objec s, alues, and subsequen na a i es o an
audience as a meaning ul, cohe en whole and (3) o a
p ecisely de ined pe iod o ime. Fu he mo e, (4) he alue
o he epe o y is accep ed as gi en, conscien iously
cul i a ed, and a i ma i ely s aged. This epe o y (o se )
o alues is usually nei he ques ioned no c i ically
decons uc ed.
33
Cu a ing as an ac o “ aking ca e”
(o some hing p eexis ing) (5) depends on being unde -
s ood as meaning ul and cohe en in he iew o he
cu a o .
34
The epe o y ha cu a ion is based on is
ennobled and gi en alue p ecisely h ough he conscious
selec ion o i s componen s. These subjec i e exp essions,
which he cu a o b ings in o he discu si e sphe e h ough
selec ion and p esen a ion, allow conclusions o be d awn
abou he la ge social discou ses in which hey a e
si ua ed. Ano he dis inguishing ea u e o cu a ing is
ound in he ac ha (6) he public p esen a ion o wha
has been cu a ed is cha ac e ized by an expec a ion o
di ec esonance. Those indi iduals o g oups engaged
in he ac o cu a ing expec a p omp eac ion by o he s. In
con as also o a chi ing –ano he ela ed o m o s aging
knowledge, which is p ima ily conce ned wi h p ese a-
ion and selec ion o long- e m, inexplici , use –cu a ing
aims o an immedia e esponse.
P ac ices o selec ing and main aining holdings o
public p esen a ion in a iably e lec con empo a y social
needs. The ac ha cu a ing as a e m and as a heo e ical
concep is cu en ly en ogue in Wes e n in ellec ual dis-
cou ses is ela ed o he condi ions and con igu a ions o
con empo a y la e mode n socie ies which a e shaped by a
su plus o a ailable i ems and by mul i-op ionali y in e ms
o expe iences. This su plus o possibili ies, da a, and im-
p essions mus somehow be o ganized, pe haps e en
29 E ika Fische -Lich e, “I–Thea icali y In oduc ion: Thea icali y:
A Key Concep in Thea e and Cul u al S udies,”Thea e Resea ch
In e na ional 20, no. 2 (1995): 85–89. h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/
S0307883300008294.
30 Ma k Donnelly and Clai e No on, Doing His o y (New Yo k:
Rou ledge, 2021); Sa ah Willne , Geo g Koch, and S e anie Samida,
eds., Doing His o y. Pe o ma i e P ak iken in de Geschich skul u
(Müns e /New Yo k: Waxmann, 2016).
31 Judi h Schlehe, Michiko Uike-Bo mann, Ca olyn Oes e le, and
Wol gang Hochb uck, eds., S aging he Pas . Themed En i onmen s in
T anscul u al Pe spec i es (Biele eld: T ansc ip , 2010). Ano he
ela ed concep is heming, which can esul in hemed en i onmen s,
spa ial a angemen s, and gene ally iden ifies “ma e ial o ms ha a e
p oduc s o a cul u al p ocess aimed a in en ing cons uc ed spaces
wi h symbolic meaning and a con eying ha meaning o inhabi an s
and use s h ough symbolic mo i s.”Go diene quo ed in Wol gang
Hochb uck and Judi h Schlehe, “In oduc ion: S aging he Pas ,”in
Schlehe, Uike-Bo mann, Oes e le, and Hochb uck, S aging he Pas ,7–
20, 9.
32 Timo Heime dinge , “Thea ali ä als heu is isches Modell ü die
Volkskunde,”in O . A bei . Kö pe . E hnog afie Eu opäische Mod-
e nen, eds. Bea e Binde , Silke Gö sch, Wol gang Kaschuba, and
Kon ad Vanja (Müns e /New Yo k/München/Be lin: Waxmann,
2005), 513–24.
33 This posi ion has been challenged wi hin he a his o y discou se
o ins ance by looking a he “cu a o as an agen o social change […]
who comes o cu a ing om a poli ical, social o e hical posi ion.”I
can also be e med “ adical cu a ing”o “ adical museology.”See
Clai e Bishop, Radical Museology o : Wha ’s“Con empo a y”in Mu-
seums o Con empo a y A ? (London: Koenig Books, 2013). I c i ically
engages and e isi s museums’own his o y. F ase and Jim d aw he
conclusion ha “c i ical cu a ing can ake place bo h inside and
ou side o ins i u ions and he a sys em in gene al.”F ase and Jim,
“In oduc ion,”5.
34 C i ical app oaches owa ds he conse a i e no ion o cu a ion
a e inspi ed by pos colonial s udies. See e.g. Csilla A iese and Mag-
dalena W óblewska, P ac icing Decoloniali y in Museum. A Guide wi h
Global Examples (Ams e dam: Ams e dam Uni e si y P ess, 2021). In
he Ame ican con ex , calls o he e adica ion o colonial p ac ices
ha e been discussed i idly using he e m “c i ical cu a ing.”See o
ins ance he p og am o he con e ence “Reimagining he Museum.
C i ical Cu a ing in he Ame icas”a Hamme Museum, Los Angeles,
Oc obe 2020, h ps://hamme .ucla.edu/p og ams-e en s/2020/
online-c i ical-cu a ing-ame icas.
Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice 75
domes ica ed. In such a con ex , cu a ing p oposes he
possibili y o subjec i e eassu ance and consolida ion, as
i always encompasses a selec ion and so ing o ma e ial
and a p esen a ion o he esul s o hese p ocesses in a
na a i ely meaning-making manne . The p ac ice o
cu a ing (and he ield o he cu a o ial) migh o e
“solu ions o wo a eas o ension in mode ni y: dealing
wi h he quan i y o possibili ies and wi h he con ingency
o he sel .”
35
Cu a ing is he e o e always an ac o sel -
posi ioning. As hese solu ions a e immedia ely use ul
no only o an al eady-exis ing hie a chy o p o essional
cu a o s, bu also mo e gene ally o e e yone aced wi h
he same dilemmas, i is o di used p ac ices o cu a ion
ha we mus u n in o de o explain how he idea o
cu a ion has mani es ed i sel wi hin socie ies. We a e
pa icula ly in e es ed in how coun e -na a i es and
al e na i e o e s o selec ion a e cu a ed. In he explo a-
ion o cu a o ial p ac ices ha oppose hegemonic
discou ses, imagina ies o how any one communi y sees
i sel o would like o see i sel become mo e appa en .
4 Coun e -Na a i es
Na a i es, as concep ualized in he humani ies, a e social
in e p e a ions ha a e o ally and medially ansmi ed,
ep oduced, and some imes e amed in hese ans-
mission con ex s.
36
In con as o anecdo es which
indi iduals u ilize in e e yday li e o secu e hei place
wi hin a social communi y o o s eng hen a sense o
communi y, na a i es “place indi idual s o ies in a la ge
con ex and hus make hem collec i ely e ec i e.”
37
Na a i es o en e e o he pas , a e passed o as a
common s o y, and may o e people he possibili y o
empo ally aming wha hey ha e expe ienced and
he eby lend cohe ence o hei li es. By p esen ing as
plausible i no in e oga ed, hese na a i es can easily
become belie sys ems. I is because o his salience ha
na a i es can also hide, ein e p e , whi ewash, o conceal
pa s o his o y ha do no align wi h such belie s. Na a-
i es ulfill an impo an unc ion in social communica ion
in ha hey condense he ha dly manageable la e mode n
e e yday in o a meaning ul whole and educe complexi y.
Coun e -na a i es a e he e o e collec i ely sha ed ep e-
sen a ions and imagina ies ha ques ion al eady es ab-
lished na a i es. They poin ou al e na i es o hem and
o e indi iduals and g oups no el modes o loca ion and
iden ifica ion. The e m coun e -na a i e ela es o
concep s which ha e highligh ed he idea o coun e , o
ins ance in conjunc ion wi h cul u e as coun e cul u e.
This exp ession was coined in he 1960s as a eac ion o
(whi e middle-class) you h mo emen s ha ques ioned
ce ain alues and ideas o hei pa en s’gene a ion. Abo e
all, hei p o es was di ec ed agains a dominan display
o capi alism and agains a echnoc a ic belie in he
easibili y and desi abili y o p og ess. A he cen e o
coun e cul u al mo emen s s ood a s uggle o sel -
de e mina ion and he a emp o a ain o hemsel es a
comp ehensi e powe o in e p e a ion. Coun e cul u e,
howe e , was no simply abou being agains some hing,
i.e., i was explici ly no an an i-cul u e. Ins ead, i aimed a
coun e ing and unse ling he s a us quo in o de o open
up new spaces o possibili y.
38
Any use o he concep o coun e cul u e mus be
sc u inized so as o a oid gi ing i a enden ious slan
s emming om a oman iciza ion o social mo emen s
wi hou aking in o accoun hei in e nal ic ions and
hei social o seman ic di e si y. No all o he g oups ha
ha e been subsumed unde he monike coun e cul u e
since he 1960s ac ually se ou o c ea e he poli ical up-
se s ha schola s ha e a es ed o i a la ge. The e m
coun e cul u e can also lead one o e oneously assume
ha one is dealing wi h wo di e en and sel -con ained
cul u es and, consequen ly, wo homogeneous g oups: he
“cul u e”and he “coun e cul u e.”I is unde s andable
ha such a unca ed ep esen a ion canno do jus ice o
eali y, especially in socie ies expe iencing he condi ions
o la e-capi alis eflexi e mode ni y.
39
Coun e cul u e, as
Andy Benne no es, is no a “specific socio-cul u al en i y,
35 K ankenhagen, “Geschich e ku a ie en,”10 (au ho ’s ansla ion).
36 This assump ion is based on H. Po e Abbo ’sdefini ion o
na a i e as “ he ep esen a ion o e en s, consis ing o s o y and
na a i e discou se; s o y is an e en o sequence o e en s ( he ac ion);
and na a i e discou se is hose e en s as ep esen ed.”H. Po e
Abbo , The Camb idge In oduc ion o Na a i e. 2nd edi ion (Cam-
b idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2008), 19.
37 Silke Meye , “Na a i i ä ,”in Kul u heo e isch a gumen ie en. Ein
A bei sbuch, eds. Timo Heime dinge and Ma kus Tauschek (Müns e /
New Yo k: Waxmann/UTB, 2020), 323–50, 325 (au ho ’s ansla ion).
38 Whi eley and Benne o e a concise o e iew o e he concep ’s
de elopmen in he humani ies. Sheila Whi eley, “Coun e cul u es
and Popula Music,”in Coun e cul u es and Popula Music, eds. Sheila
Whi eley and Jedediah Sklowe (London/New Yo k: Rou ledge, 2016),
3–15; Andy Benne , “Reapp aising ʻCoun e cul u eʼ,”in Whi eley and
Sklowe , Coun e cul u es,17–26.
39 Ul ich Beck, An hony Giddens, and Sco Lash, Reflexi e Mode n-
iza ion: Poli ics, T adi ion and Aes he ics in he Mode n Social O de
(Ox o d: Poli y P ess, 1994).
76 T. Ka hke e al.
bu a he an en i y wi h a significan deg ee o fluidi y
such ha i could inco po a e di e se g oupings, and hus
mani es i sel di e en ly a specific imes and wi hin
specific places, depending on local socio-economic, cul-
u al, and demog aphic ci cums ances.”
40
We mus all he while be cognizan o he dange in
p esen ing a dicho omizing iew o cul u e ha implici ly
hie a chizes human hough and beha io . Such a
iew would obscu e a di e en ia ed analysis o cul u al
p ac ices. This is impo an because a bina y di ision is
s ill ep oduced in e en e y ecen con ibu ions on he
opic – o example, when a dis inc ion is made be ween
high cul u e and popula cul u e.
41
As a heu is ic, his di-
ision can con ibu e o di e en ia ion, bu as soon as he
a ificiali y o he di ision is no longe eflec ed upon
and i s bina i y is eified, his leads o epis emological
p oblems and in he wo s case o he o e ep oduc ion o
clichés. Acco ding o Benne , he concep “‘coun e cul-
u e’ac s as a mechanism o desc ibing pa icula poin s
o con e gence h ough which indi iduals a e able o
connec empo a ily in he pu sui o specific goals.”
42
In he same ein, he e m coun e -na a i e d aws on
in e disciplina y discou ses on coun e -memo y/coun e -
his o y. The li e a u e on a ious aspec s o hese is oo
expansi e o discuss a his junc u e, bu we would like o
b iefly ou line he discu si e en i onmen in which ou
app oach is embedded.
In a common eading ollowing Michel Foucaul , he
e m coun e -memo y encompasses emembe ing as a
cul u al e o ha s ands in opposi ion o in e p e a ions
o he pas (e.g. h ough an o icial na ional his o iog aphy,
mass media co e age, and so on) ha a e pe cei ed as
hegemonic and ep essi e by socially ma ginalized
g oups.
43
Poli ical implica ions a e al eady inhe en in
Foucaul ’s wo k, and he concep o coun e -memo y has
also aken on an ac i is o ien a ion in he cou se o i s
u he ecep ion. Fo “a socio-poli ical, ac i is a is ,”
P i ika Chowdh y emphasized in 2021, “coun e -memo y is
an indi idual ac o esis ance, o elen lessly ques ion he
e aci y o ‘his o y as ue knowledge.’”
44
Coun e -memo y
is hus bo h a heu is ic o gaining scien ific knowledge
and a social p ac ice ha social mo emen s use o d aw
a en ion o and figh agains social imbalances and
opp ession.
45
The discou se on “coun e ”as a modi ie o memo y
and his o y has also long suppo ed ins abili ies and
non-commensu abili ies. Fo James E. Young he e is a
cons an ension be ween memo ializa ion h ough
monumen s and i s opposi e: o ge ing. Ci ing Ma in
B osza , he poin s ou ha “monumen s may no emembe
e en s so much as bu y hem al oge he benea h laye s o
na ional my hs and explana ions.”
46
Young highligh s he
impo ance o analyzing coun e -his o y in he shape o
coun e -monumen s ha ha e complica ed he Ge man
discou se on memo izing he Holocaus since eunifica-
ion. Randolph S a n and Na alie Zemon Da is, in hei
in oduc ion o a 1989 special issue o Rep esen a ions, also
add ess he ques ion o he ins abili y o memo y. They
jux apose coun e -memo y wi h coun e -his o y and define
he Foucauldian idea o coun e -memo y as “ esidual o
esis an .”To hem, “coun e -memo y ope a es unde he
p essu e o challenges and al e na i es.”
47
The pape s in his special sec ion u he explo e hese
and o he aspec s o cu a ion, na a ion, and “coun e ”on
an empi ical basis. They employ he e m “coun e -cu a-
ion”as a heu is ic sho hand o deno e he cu a ion o
coun e -na a i es.
Juliane Tomann (Regensbu g) ackles he ques ion o
gende ep esen a ions in communi ies o Napoleonic
Wa s eenac o s in Poland. Using e idence om pe sonal
in e iews wi h emale and male eenac o s, Tomann
complica es he iew ha eenac o s seek o ep esen a
adi ional iew o gende oles and he e o e ees ablish
pa ia chal hegemonies wi hin he e o opic spaces.
Nei he , howe e , can women aking on male oles as
soldie s in eenac men s be ega ded as wholly a p o-
es agains such gende no ms. Ins ead, as he a icle -
desc ibes, he coun e -cu a o ial possibili ies o
eenac men s in which an o he wise inaccessible al e i y
40 Benne , “Reapp aising,”22.
41 As in Bisma ck, Das Ku a o ische, 57.
42 Benne , “Reapp aising,”26.
43 Michel Foucaul , “Nie zsche, Genealogy, His o y,”in Language,
Coun e -Memo y, P ac ice: Selec ed Essays and In e iews by Michel
Foucaul , ed. Donald F. Boucha d (I haca/New Yo k: Co nell Uni e -
si y P ess, 1977), 139–64; Michel Foucaul , Socie y Mus Be De ended:
Lec u es a he Collège de F ance 1975–1976 (New Yo k: Picado 2003),
66.
44 “Wha is Coun e -Memo y?,”P i ika Chowdh y, accessed July 14,
2022, h ps://www.p i ikachowdh y.com/pos /wha -is-coun e -memo y.
45 Ve ónica Tello, “Coun e -memo y and and–and: Aes he ics and
empo ali ies o li ing oge he ,”Memo y S udies 15, no. 2 (2022):
390–401, 390–91.
46 James E. Young, “The Ge man Coun e -Monumen : Memo y
agains I sel in Ge many Today,”C i ical Inqui y 18 (1992): 267–96,
272.
47 Na alie Zemon Da is and Randolph S a n, “In oduc ion,”Rep e-
sen a ions. Special Issue: Memo y and Coun e -Memo y 26 (1989): 1–6,
2.
Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice 77
p e ails allow o bo h he decons uc ion o no ma i e
gende pe o mances and hei s abiliza ion. Female- o-
male c oss-d essing in a eenac men con ex can he e o e
also lead o a s eng hening o adi ional gende concep-
ions among he women who ake pa .
Oli ia Casag ande (She field) engages wi h coun e -
cu a o ial p ac ices in he Chilean capi al San iago. This
pape d aws on a collabo a i e e hnog aphic p ojec wi h
indigenous you h in Chile which explo ed new ways o
ela ing o he ci y, nego ia ed collec i e belongings,
and ques ioned hegemonic na a i es and iconog aphies
h ough c ea i e e-imagina ions and a . Building on wo
yea s o fieldwo k wi h Mapuche a is s and ac i is s, he
pape elabo a es on he a icula ion o meanings con eyed
by he a is ic ges u e o “pe o ming he Mapuche ci y,”
in e oga ing he possibili ies o edefining p ac ices o
cu a ing aimed a opposing dominan his o ical na a i es.
By eflec ing on an expe ience o collabo a i e e hnog-
aphy and co-cu a ion, i asks i and how hese p ac ices
ques ion es ablished and ins i u ionalized modes o
ememb ance while a he same ime unde aking he
challenge o a edefini ion o he poli ical and poe ical
bounda ies o e hnog aphic knowledge.
In his con ibu ion, Robbe -Jan Ad iaansen
(Ro e dam) ocuses on he aes he ic dimension o coun e -
cu a ion in imes o he COVID pandemic using he
con empo a y social media phenomenon “da k academia”
o his case s udy. Unde s ood as an “aes he ic s yle,”da k
academia imagines and ep oduces idealized no ions
o e e yday li e in boa ding schools, public schools, and
colleges om he end o he nine een h cen u y o he
pos -wa pe iod. Based on he analysis o a ious social
media p ofiles, Ad iaansen wo ks ou he subjec i e
mo i a ions o he ac o s in ol ed, as well as he in a-
s uc u al condi ions o he mo emen which s a ed on he
mic oblogging pla o m Tumbl and hus also in eg a ed
quee and ma ginalized posi ions om he beginning. A
pa icula ea u e o his in e ne mo emen , as Ad iaansen
elabo a es, is he ac o s’e o s o ini ia e change by
coun e ing “hegemonic na a i es h ough nos algic o
oman icized e- eadings o es ablished his o ical na a-
i es.”Ad iaansen di ec s ou schola ly a en ion owa ds
social media pla o ms, which a e highly in o ma i e as
objec s o he analysis o cu a ing coun e -na a i es
“when hey hos in e ne subcul u es ha expe ience
ma ginaliza ion and aim o challenge hegemonic no ms
and na a i es.”
Lijing Peng (Dublin) desc ibes coun e -cu a ion us-
ing he example o an ancien o igin ale, o he Miao
e hnic g oup in Wes Hunan P o ince, China. While he
ale i sel has been claimed by se e al e hnic g oups who
emphasize di e en in e p e a ions and d aw di e en
conclusions h ough he cen u ies, he coun e -cu a ional
aspec in mo e ecen memo y eme ges on wo le els. On
he su ace, Peng finds, i d aws on a adi ional museum
con ex in a museum un by local schola s who belong o
he Miao e hnic g oup. Tha museum con ex suppo s he
s o y wo lds o he Miao, dis inguishing hei o igin and
he e o e iden i y om ha o he dominan Han Chinese
e hnicg oupaswellas omneighbo ingcul u esbuild-
ing on he same my hical ales. This makes isible,
h ough coun e -cu a ion, a ma ke o g oup cohesion
ha has equen ly p eceded he asse ion o easse ion
o cul u al, egional, and e en na ional iden i ies. Peng
he e o e opens up coun e -cu a ion as an analy ical
amewo k o ac s o pu ing oge he na a i ely a i-
ac s, adi ions, and eimagina ions o ea lie my hs in
wha she calls he ex -building o a “fluid”iden i y. Less
immedia ely ob ious, Peng also finds coun e -cu a ion in
he elling o he ale o he h ee hea enly kings as seen
h ough he ac i e use o i s symbols and adjacen newly-
c ea ed my hs om he middle o he wen ie h cen u y.
The pa allel use o he old and he new my hs in a and
e e yday objec s by a younge gene a ion o Miao can,
acco ding o Peng, be aced o olklo ic publica ions om
he 1950s h ough he 1980s and e en he museal exhibi s
hemsel es.
5 Conclusion
Wha he case s udies in his issue poin o is he ac ha
“coun e ”is a e m always condi ioned by pe spec i e.
Wha “coun e ” e e s o mus be answe ed anew o each
indi idual case; i canno be deduced om i s p inci-
ples. In o de o accoun o he complexi y o each indi-
idual si ua ion, an induc i e app oach is insigh ul and
he ac o s’pe spec i es mus be aken in o accoun .
These, in u n, can only be adequa ely unde s ood by
embedding hem in hei espec i e con empo a y his-
o ical con ex .
Acco dingly, he subjec i e expe ience o he in ol ed
ac o s, and hus me hodological app oaches ha s a om
he ac ions and ways o hinking o he ac o s hemsel es,
come o he o e. In he case o coun e -cu a ion –in
he sense o cu a ing coun e -na a i es –as a publicly
displayed p ac ice o dis inc ion, we should ask: Wha
a e specific ac o s opposing h ough hei own ac s o
cu a ion? Wha al e na i e pe spec i es do hey p esen in
esponse o hose ha a e p e alen ?
78 T. Ka hke e al.
In a gene al sense, hen, cu a ing means he so ing and
p esen a ion o some hing (like objec s o na a i es). This is
done acco ding o speci ic aes he ic con en ions. When his
ac o o de ing and alida ion has been comple ed by a
pe son, g oup, o ins i u ion ha has he abili y o show he
necessa y ca e –o a leas can c edibly sugges i –and is
pe cei ed as u h ul and us wo hy by a p ospec i e
audience, he p oduc o his o de ing and p e-so ing ap-
pea s i sel aluable. This is why a wide a ie y o phe-
nomena and assemblages o objec s, om online shops o
social media channels, om eenac men s o museum ex-
hibi s and con empo a y a e en s, can use ully be ead as
cu a ed: all a e isi ed o ca ied ou mainly because wha is
on o e is conside ed significan and aluable.
Cu a ion as a Social P ac ice 79
