F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice:
Eu opean Legal S udies
Ri is a giu idica di classe A
2022, n. 1
DIRETTORE
Angela Di S asi
O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ti ola e della Ca ed a Jean Monne 2017-2020 (Commissione eu opea)
"Judicial P o ec ion o Fundamen al Righ s in he Eu opean A ea o F eedom, Secu i y and Jus ice"
COMITATO SCIENTIFICO
Se gio Ma ia Ca bone, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Geno a
Robe a Cle ici, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale p i a o, Uni e si à di Milano
Nigel Lowe, P o esso Eme i us, Uni e si y o Ca di
Paolo Mengozzi, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à "Alma Ma e S udio um" di Bologna - già A oca o gene ale p esso la Co e di gius izia dell’UE
Massimo Panebianco, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Sale no
Guido Raimondi, già P esiden e della Co e EDU - P esiden e di Sezione della Co e di Cassazione
Sil ana Scia a, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Fi enze - Giudice della Co e Cos i uzionale
Giuseppe Tesau o, P o esso e . . di Di i o dell'UE, Uni e si à di Napoli "Fede ico II" - P esiden e Eme i o della Co e Cos i uzionale
An onio Tizzano, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Roma “La Sapienza” - Vice P esiden e Eme i o della Co e di gius izia dell’UE
Ennio T iggiani, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Ba i
Ugo Villani, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Ba i
COMITATO EDITORIALE
Ma ia Ca e ina Ba u i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ve ona
Giandona o Caggiano, O dina io . . di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à Roma T e
Al onso-Luis Cal o Ca a aca, Ca ed á ico de De echo In e nacional P i ado, Uni e sidad Ca los III de Mad id
Pablo An onio Fe nández-Sánchez, Ca ed á ico de De echo In e nacional, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Inge Go ae e, Di ec o o he Eu opean Legal S udies Depa men , College o Eu ope, B uges
Paola Mo i, O dina io di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à "Magna G aecia" di Ca anza o
Lina Panella, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Messina
Nicole a Pa isi, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ca ania - già Componen e ANAC
Lucia Se ena Rossi, O dina io di Di i o dell'UE, Uni e si à "Alma Ma e S udio um" di Bologna - Giudice della Co e di gius izia dell’UE
COMITATO DEI REFEREES
B uno Ba el, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pado a
Ma co Ben enu i, Associa o di Is i uzioni di Di i o pubblico, Uni e si à di Roma "La Sapienza"
Ra aele Cadin, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Roma “La Sapienza”
Ruggie o Ca a i Panico, O dina io . . di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Milano
Ida Ca acciolo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à della Campania - Giudice dell’ITLOS
Fede ico Casola i, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à “Alma Ma e S udio um” di Bologna
Luisa Casse i, O dina io di Is i uzioni di Di i o Pubblico, Uni e si à di Pe ugia
Gio anni Cellama e, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ba i
Ma cello Di Filippo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Pisa
Rosa io Espinosa Calabuig, Ca ed á ica de De echo In e nacional P i ado, Uni e si a de València
Ana C. Gallego He nández, P o eso a Ayudan e de De echo In e nacional Público y Relaciones In e nacionales, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Pie o Ga giulo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Te amo
Gianca lo Gua ino, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Elspe h Guild, Associa e Senio Resea ch Fellow, CEPS
Vic o Luis Gu ié ez Cas illo, P o eso de De echo In e nacional Público, Uni e sidad de Jaén
I an Ing a allo, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ba i
Paola I aldi, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Geno a
Luigi Kalb, O dina io di P ocedu a Penale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Luisa Ma in, Ma ie Cu ie Fellow, Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e
Simone Ma inai, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pisa
Fab izio Ma ongiu Buonaiu i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Mace a a
Ros ane Medhi, P o esseu de D oi Public, Uni e si é d’Aix-Ma seille
S e ano Mon aldo, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di To ino
Viole a Mo eno-Lax, Senio Lec u e in Law , Queen Ma y Uni e si y o London
Claudia Mo iducci, P o esso e Senio di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à Roma T e
Michele Nino, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Anna O iolo, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Leona do Pasquali, Associa o di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pisa
Pie o Penne a, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Emanuela Pis oia, O dina io di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Te amo
Conce a Ma ia Pon eco o, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Pie o Pus o ino, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à LUISS di Roma
San iago Ripol Ca ulla, Ca ed á ico de De echo in e nacional público, Uni e si a Pompeu Fab a Ba celona
Te esa Russo, Associa o di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Alessand a A. Souza Sil ei a, Di e o a do Cen o de Es udos em Di ei o da UE, Uni e sidad do Minho
Ángel Tinoco Pas ana, P o eso de De echo P ocesal, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Chia a En ica Tuo, O dina io di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Geno a
Tali ha Vassalli di Dachenhausen, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Alessand a Zanobe i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à “Alma Ma e S udio um” di Bologna
COMITATO DI REDAZIONE
F ancesco Buonomenna, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Angela Fes a, Rice ca o e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à della Campania “Luigi Van i elli”
Ca e ina F a ea, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Ve ona
Anna Ie mano, Rice ca o e di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Angela Ma one, Do o e di ice ca in Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Michele Messina, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Messina
Rossana Palladino (
Coo dina o e
), Rice ca o e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Re isione linguis ica degli abs ac s a cu a di
F ancesco Campo eda
,
Do o e di ice ca in Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ri is a quad imes ale on line “F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice: Eu opean Legal S udies”
www. sjeu os udies.eu
Edi o iale Scien i ica, Via San Biagio dei Lib ai, 39 - Napoli
CODICE ISSN 2532-2079 - Regis azione p esso il T ibunale di Noce a In e io e n° 3 del 3 ma zo 2017
Indice-Somma io
2022, n. 1
NUMERO TEMATICO
Il uolo delle Co i nella cos uzione dello Spazio eu opeo di libe à,
sicu ezza e gius izia
P esen azione
Angela Di S asi
Edi o iale
Co i eu opee e giudici nazionali nel p isma della u ela dei di i i ondamen ali
Gae ano De Amicis
Saggi, A icoli e Commen i
L’o dine pubblico p ocessuale e la u ela dei di i i di di esa a Co i eu opee e i aliane
Michela Capozzolo
Alla ice ca di una de inizione del di i o d’asilo nell’o ica di una i o ma di sis ema: quale
uolo pe le Co i eu opee?
E ika Colombo
Di i o di adi e un giudice nel sis ema “in eg a o” CEDU-UE e s umen i “de la i i” del
con enzioso a pa i e dal caso Succi e al i c. I alia
Claudia Colucci
Il uolo delle giu isdizioni nazionali in ma e ia di aiu i di S a o nell’ambi o dello Spazio
eu opeo di libe à, sicu ezza e gius izia
Sil ia Ma ino
Ju isdic ion, Recogni ion and En o cemen o Judgmen s in Claims A ising ou o Sma
Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas ) and on he Blockchain
Ana Me cedes López Rod íguez
P edisposizione ai appo i di schia i ù e uolo del di i o in e nazionale p i a o al aglio della
giu isp udenza CEDU sulla ma e ni à su oga a
Lo edana Mu a
La giu isp udenza “conco enziale” della Co e di gius izia UE e della Co e EDU ispe o alla
u ela dei singoli sogge i a sanzioni
Daniele Musmeci
p. 1
p. 5
p. 40
p. 73
p. 97
p. 128
p. 151
p. 172
p. 209
Dialogo a Co i eu opee e giudici nazionali in ema di ma e ni à su oga a: e so un
bilanciamen o a limi e dell’o dine pubblico e supe io e in e esse del mino e
Ege ia Nalin
Judicial Dialogue be ween Na ional Cons i u ional Judges and EU Judges in he Con ex o he
Single Supe iso y Mechanism: Oppo uni y o a Re e se P elimina y Ruling?
Ila ia O a iano
Il manca o in io p egiudiziale d’in e p e azione nello spazio giudizia io eu opeo: quale u ela
mul ili ello pe i singoli?
Cinzia Pe a o
P esunzione di innocenza, in o mazione giudizia ia e di i i ondamen ali
F ancesco Ro ondo
Lo spazio eu opeo di u ela dei mino i di e à e il c escen e uolo del p incipio dei bes in e es s
o he child in elazione alla “Di e i a impa i” con pa icola e i e imen o alla causa C-
112/20
Sab ina Vannuccini
p. 237
p. 258
p. 279
p. 308
p. 338
F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice: Eu opean Legal S udies ISSN 2532-2079
2022, n. 1, pp. 151-171 DOI:10.26321/A.M.LOPEZ.RODRIGUEZ.01.2022.07
www. sjeu os udies.eu
JURISDICTION, RECOGNITION AND ENFORCEMENT OF JUDGMENTS IN
CLAIMS ARISING OUT OF SMART CONTRACTS UNDER THE BRUSSELS I
REGULATION (RECAST) AND ON THE BLOCKCHAIN
Ana Me cedes López Rod íguez*
SUMMARY: 1. In oduc ion. – 2. Ju isdic ional issues in con ac ual claims unde he
B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ). – 3. Ju isdic ion in claims ela ed o a sma con ac .
– 4. Recogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s in claims a ising ou o sma
con ac s. Execu ion in a decen alized ne wo k. – 5. The way o wa d. Decen alized
dispu e esolu ion? – 6. Conclusions
1. In oduc ion
Blockchain o Dis ibu ed Ledge Technology is a ans o ma ional compu ing
inno a ion.
1
I was c ea ed unde he pseudonym Sa oshi Nakamo o in 2009 as a p o ocol
o he Bi coin c yp ocu ency.
2
Blockchain is a decen alized da abase, which is s o ed
and upda ed simul aneously in a ne wo k o compu e s called nodes.
3
T ansac ions a e
ca ied ou pee - o-pee o use - o-use , chained oge he and canno be sepa a ed. Each
ope a ion is i e e sibly egis e ed in a block o da a which s o es se e al ope a ions and
enc yp s he block’s con en h ough an algo i hm called “hash”. The enc yp ion key o a
blockchain ansac ion is based on he p e ious ansac ion. In his way, access o a
pa icula ansac ion allows o know all i s p e ious his o y. Indeed, when a ansac ion
is dec yp ed o be ead, i he p e ious ansac ion has been manipula ed, he cu en
ansac ion will no be eadable.
4
The blocks o ansac ions a e dis ibu ed among he
di e en nodes.
5
This means ha a gi en ansac ion is eco ded uni o mly ac oss
Double blind pee e iewed a icle.
* Ph.D. (Uni e si y o Aa hus), Associa e P o esso o P i a e In e na ional Law, Uni e sidad Loyola
Andalucia. E-mail [email protected].
1
D. TAPSCOTT AND A. TAPSCOTT, He e’s Why Blockchains Will Change he Wo ld’ Fo une (8 May 2016),
h p:// o une.com/2016/05/08/why-blockchains-will-change- he-wo ld.
2
S. NAKAMOTO, Bi coin: A Pee - o-Pee Elec onic Cash Sys em, BITCOIN PROJECT,
h p://bi coin.o g/bi coin.pd .
3
M. SWAN, Blockchain: Bluep in o a New Economy, 2015, P e ace VIII.
4
A. RANGONE, Managing Co po a e Inno a ion. De e minan s, C i ical Issues and Success Fac o s,
Cham, 2019, p. 78.
5
M. SWAN, Blockchain: Bluep in o a New Economy, ci ., P e ace VIII.
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
152
www. sjeu os udies.eu
mul iple sys ems. In o ma ion al eady con ained in a e i ied blockchain canno be
supp essed o al e ed wi hou eaching consensus wi h he en i e ne wo k.
6
As a esul ,
he blockchain is “simul aneously esilien , anspa en and in iolable”.
7
A blockchain ansac ion is ini ia ed when he ans e o en e s a unique digi al key
ha emains sec e o him (“p i a e key”) as well as he publicly known key o he
ans e ee (“public key”) o a chain o digi al signa u es on he in e ne .
8
All ansac ions
a e public bu a e conside ed anonymous because no hing ela es indi iduals o
o ganiza ions o he accoun s ha a e iden i ied in he ansac ions.
Since Sa oshi Nakamo o c ea ed he o iginal Bi coin Blockchain, se e al di e en
a ia ions o blockchains ha e eme ged. The o iginal blockchain is open/public
(pe missionless), bu he e a e also closed/p i a e (pe missioned) and semi-public
blockchains.
9
Public ledge s a e he mos common and hey a e open o he public.
Anyone can become a use o he ne wo k whe e us is c ea ed by ma h and he
consensus mechanism. A public blockchain, like Bi coin,
10
E he eum,
11
S ella
12
o
Dash,
13
p o ides mo e anspa ency because anyone wi h he necessa y so wa e can iew
he in o ma ion eco ded in he blockchain. Only he ansac ion in o ma ion is openly
iewable, bu no he ade s o use s.
Blockchain has he po en ial o dis up he adi ional way ansac ions a e p ocessed.
Typically, egis ies a e s o ed in a single, cen al loca ion, so he whole model is based
on us in an au ho i a i e in e media y. Blockchain may e e his model because
pa ies a e able o ansac di ec ly – pee - o-pee . In addi ion, he echnical immu abili y
o he ledge p o ides he us es ablished by au ho i a i e hi d pa ies in he adi ional
model.
14
Al hough he po en ial and scope o his new echnology is ye o be de e mined,
blockchain applica ion is no exclusi e o he inancial sec o . Mo e and mo e sec o s a e
explo ing i s ull po en ial, such as insu ance, elecommunica ions, ene gy, indus y 4.0,
heal h, SMEs, online gambling, media, NGOs, he public sec o , e c.
6
M. RASKIN, The Law and Legali y o Sma Con ac s, in Geo ge own Law Technology Re iew, 2017, n.
1, pp. 305-341, p. 328.
7
B. CARRON, V. BOTTERON, How sma can a con ac be? in KRAUS DANIEL ET AL. (eds.), Blockchains,
Sma Con ac s, Decen alised Au onomous O ganisa ions and The Law, Chel enham, 2019, pp. 101, 106.
8
S. NAKAMOTO, Bi coin: A Pee - o-Pee Elec onic Cash Sys em, Bi coin P ojec ,
h p://bi coin.o g/bi coin.pd .
9
G. GABISON, Policy Conside a ions o he Blockchain Technology Public and P i a e Applica ions, in
Sou he n Me hodis Uni e si y Science & Tech Law Re iew, 2016, n. 19, pp. 327-350.
10
h ps://bi coin.o g.
11
h ps://e he eum.o g.
12
h ps://www.s ella .o g.
13
h ps://www.dash.o g.
14
L. DOWNES, C. REED, Blockchain o Go e nance o Sus ainabili y T anspa ency in he Global Ene gy
Value Chain, in Queen Ma y School o Law Legal S udies Resea ch Pape No. 283/2018, Augus 22, 2018.
A ailable a SSRN: h ps://ss n.com/abs ac =3236753.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
153
Sma con ac s
A signi ican applica ion o DLT a e he so-called sma con ac s. The e m sma
con ac s was coined by compu e scien is and ju is Nick Szabo in 1994
15
as con ac ual
ag eemen s whe e he e i ica ion, applica ion and execu ion o he e ms o he con ac
is au oma ed, o example, a be e age ending machine. In ecen yea s he e m is used
o e e o compu e p og ams ha elimina e human disc e ion in he execu ion o he
con ac . This gua an ees compliance wi h he con ac ual e ms wi hou ha ing o eso
o judges and cou s, since he p og am has con ol o e he necessa y physical o digi al
objec s o ca y ou execu ion.
16
Examples o sma con ac s a e a p og am ins alled on
a ehicle ha p e en s i s implemen a ion i he en al e ms a e no me o a banking
so wa e ha au oma ically ans e s money unde ce ain condi ions. The eme gence o
blockchain echnology also means ha he e ms o he con ac and he condi ions ela ed
o i s execu ion can be p og ammed in o he blockchain and hus gua an ee he us o i s
immu abili y and neu ali y. In his way we ob ain a p og am ha will always ac in he
same way wi hou equi ing he goodwill o he o he pa y o a hi d pa y.
Sma con ac s ha use blockchain echnology ha e he abili y o ope a e, o a la ge
ex en , ou side he legal sys em and challenge he adi ional legisla i e and judicial
monopoly o he S a e. T ansac ions come abou by he ans e o combining i s p i a e
key wi h he public key o he ans e ee and he ollowing con i ma ion o he ans e
h ough he e i ica ion p ocess. This akes place wi hou he in e en ion o no a ies,
lawye s o any o he in e media y.
A wide ange o legal p oblems may a ise om blockchain ans e s. Fo ins ance,
cases o aud, mis ake o mis ep esen a ion ha plague a blockchain ans e and which
would make a sma con ac oidable om a legal poin o iew. Howe e , pa ies may
be using a sma con ac ac oss a mo e ju isdic ions han migh exis in he case o ex -
based con ac s. Acco dingly, as a p elimina y issue o he abo e and o he ela ed legal
p oblems, impo an legal ques ions ela ing o ju isdic ion and applicable law need o be
de e mined.
The p esen con ibu ion conside s he ju isdic ional issues ha may a ise unde he
amewo k o he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ). In pa icula , i add esses wo main
issues. On he one hand, i analyzes whe he he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ) can
espond o he main challenges ha a ise in ela ion o sma con ac s, aking special
conside a ion o ecen case law on he opic. On he o he , i s udies he phenomenon o
blockchain dispu e esolu ion and i s in e ac ion wi h he Eu opean judicial sys em.
15
N. SZABO, Sma Con ac s, 1994, a ailable a :
h ps://www. on.hum.u a.nl/ ob/Cou ses/In o ma ionInSpeech/CDROM/Li e a u e/LOTwin e school200
6/szabo.bes . wh.ne /sma .con ac s.h ml.
16
M. RASKIN, The Law and Legali y o Sma Con ac s, ci ., pp. 305-341.
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
154
www. sjeu os udies.eu
2. Ju isdic ional issues in con ac ual claims unde he B ussels I Regula ion
(Recas )
Regula ion (EU) 1215/2012 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council on
ju isdic ion and he ecogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s in ci il and comme cial
ma e s ( ecas ) (Recas B ussels Regula ion) egula es ju isdic ion and he ecogni ion
and en o cemen o judgmen s be ween EU membe S a es.
17
The Regula ion embodies a de ailed egula ion o in e na ional ju isdic ion, which is
complemen ed by he p o isions con ained in Chap e III (a s. 36 o 57), ela ing o he
ecogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s.
In mos gene al e ms he heads o ju isdic ion unde he Regula ion can be g ouped
as ollows:
18
(a) Exclusi e ju isdic ion
(b) Choice o cou (p o oga ion o ju isdic ion)
(c) Taci p o oga ion
(d) Gene al ule
(e) Special/al e na i e ju isdic ional g ounds
( ) Rules on ju isdic ion o dispu es in ol ing a ‘weake pa y’
In con ac ual claims he mos ele an heads o ju isdic ion a e choice o cou , he
gene al ule and he special ju isdic ional g ounds. The ules on ju isdic ion conce ning
weake pa ies may also apply.
Unless he ma e o he dispu e is co e ed by an exclusi e ju isdic ion (a . 24) o
he ag eemen is con a y o he p o isions o he p o ec i e o a o a icles 15, 19 o 23,
e e ed o con ac s o insu ance, consume o labou (a icle 25.4), he pa ies –
i espec i e o hei domicile – may ag ee o submi hei claim o he cou s o a pa icula
Membe S a e (p o oga ion o ju isdic ion). To be alid, he ag eemen on choice o
ju isdic ion mus ul ill ce ain equi emen s and espec he o mal demands speci ied in
pa ag aph 1 o A icle 25, unde penal y o nulli y.
Acco dingly, ju isdic ion ag eemen s mus be concluded:
a) In w i ing o e idenced in w i ing; o
b) In a o m which acco ds wi h p ac ices which he pa ies ha e es ablished be ween
hemsel es; o
c) In in e na ional ade o comme ce, in a o m which acco ds wi h a usage o which
he pa ies a e o ough o ha e been awa e and which in such ade o comme ce is widely
known o, and egula ly obse ed by, pa ies o con ac s o he ype in ol ed in he
pa icula ade o comme ce conce ned.
In he absence o a alid ju isdic ion ag eemen , claims in ma e s ela ing o
con ac ual obliga ions may be b ough , when he de endan is domiciled in a Membe
17
Regula ion (EU) No 1215/2012 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 12 Decembe 2012 on
ju isdic ion and he ecogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s in ci il and comme cial ma e s, in OJ L
351, 20 Decembe 2012, p. 1-32.
18
G. VAN CALSTER, Eu opean P i a e In e na ional Law, II ed., Ox o d, 2016, p. 71.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
155
S a e, a he cou s o he Membe S a e o he de endan ´s domicile (a . 4.1) o ,
al e na i ely, a he cou s he Membe S a e o he place o pe o mance o he obliga ion
in ques ion (a . 7.1).
A . 7.1 o he Regula ion eads as ollows:
‘A pe son domiciled in a Membe S a e may be sued in ano he Membe S a e:
(a) in ma e s ela ing o a con ac , in he cou s o he place o pe o mance o he
obliga ion in ques ion;
(b) o he pu pose o his p o ision and unless o he wise ag eed, he place o
pe o mance o he obliga ion in ques ion shall be:
— in he case o he sale o goods, he place in a Membe S a e whe e, unde he
con ac , he goods we e deli e ed o should ha e been deli e ed,
— in he case o he p o ision o se ices, he place in a Membe S a e whe e, unde
he con ac , he se ices we e p o ided o should ha e been p o ided;
(c) i poin (b) does no apply hen poin (a) applies;’
Thus, a de endan domiciled in a Membe S a e may be sued in ano he Membe S a e
i ha is he place o pe o mance o he con ac ual obliga ion in ques ion ( o um
solu ionis). This p o ision has a complex s uc u e whe e pa ag aph 1(a) con ains a
gene al ule, whe eas pa ag aph 1(b) p esen s a speci ic ule o con ac s o sales o
goods and con ac s o p o ide se ices. When i is ano he ype o con ac , he ele an
c i e ion p o ided unde 1(b) poin s o a place o pe o mance in a non-EU Membe S a e
o he pa ies ag ee o he wise, ele an is pa ag aph 1(c) in connec ion wi h pa ag aph
1(a).
19
O he al e na i e heads o ju isdic ion which may be ele an in connec ion wi h
con ac ual claims a e he ules on dispu es a ising ou o ope a ions o a b anch, agency
o o he es ablishmen (A . 7 pa a 5), he ules ela ed o dispu es in ol ing mul iple
de endan s, coun e -claim, hi d-pa y p oceedings, ma e s ela ed o con ac combined
wi h ma e s ela ed o igh s in em (A . 8) and o a lesse ex en , he ule on dispu es
ela ing o non-con ac ual obliga ions – o , delic o quasi-delic (A . 7 pa a 2).
Finally, speci ic ju isdic ion ules apply in con ac ual claims in ol ing “weak
pa ies” - consume s, employees, and insu ance policy holde s. Basically, he p o isions
con ained in Sec ions 3, 4 and 5 o he Regula ion can be summa ized as ollows:
20
(a) A weake pa y (a policyholde , he insu ed o a bene icia y, consume , o
employee) may b ing p oceedings agains he o he pa y ei he in he cou o he
Membe S a e o he o he pa y’s domicile o in he cou o he Membe S a e o he
weake pa y’s domicile (o he habi ual place o wo k in he case o indi idual con ac s
o employmen o a Membe S a e which is o he wise closely ela ed o a dispu e).
(b) Con e sely, p oceedings may be b ough agains a weake pa y o he con ac
only in he cou s o he Membe S a e in which a ’weake ’ pa y is domiciled.
19
U. MAGNUS ET AL., B ussels Ibis Regula ion – Commen a y, München, 2016, p. 121 .; G. VAN CALSTER,
Eu opean P i a e In e na ional Law, ci ., p. 136.
20
U. MAGNUS ET AL., B ussels Ibis Regula ion – Commen a y, ci ., p. 406 .
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
162
www. sjeu os udies.eu
Regula ion, p oceedings agains he consume could be only b ough a he cou s o he
Membe S a e o he consume ’s domicile.
By doing so, he Aus ian Sup eme Cou a oided he deba e as o whe he Bi coin
can be cha ac e ized as money o he pu pose o he Regula ion. I Bi coin we e o be
ega ded as money, he au onomous ules o sales and p o ision o se ices unde A icle
7(1) b) would apply. Con a ily, i i lacked he legal cha ac e is ics o money, any
ansac ion in ol ing Bi coin would all unde A icle 7(1) a) and ju isdic ion would be
es ablished by he na ional ules applicable o he ansac ion and hei cha ac e iza ion
o Bi coin.
46
Legal ce ain y is, he e o e, desi able on he ques ions ela ed o blockchain
ansac ions, including ju isdic ional issues. Gi en he g owing impo ance o dis ibu ed
ledge echnology and sma con ac s, he Eu opean legisla o should ake he
oppo uni y o in oduce speci ic ju isdic ion ules ega ding blockchain ansac ion in a
u u e ecas o he B ussels I Regula ion. Meanwhile, he CJEU will need o cla i y he
applicable amewo k when gi en he chance.
4. Recogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s in claims a ising ou o sma
con ac s. Execu ion in a decen alized ne wo k
In addi ion o he de ailed egula ion o in e na ional ju isdic ion unde Regula ion
1215/2012, Chap e III (a s. 36 o 57) con ains ules ela ing o he ecogni ion and
en o cemen o judgmen s. The unde lying p inciple is mu ual us be ween Membe
S a es by es ablishing he au oma ic ecogni ion and exequa u (wi hou any p ocedu e)
o judgmen s issued in o he Membe S a es, o allow he ee mo emen o judgmen s in
he EU.
47
Gene ally, judgmen s issued by a cou in a Membe S a e a e o be au oma ically
ecognized in he eques ed Membe S a e. Acco ding o A icle 36.1 o he Regula ion:
“A judgmen gi en in a Membe S a e shall be ecognised in he o he Membe S a es
wi hou any special p ocedu e being equi ed”. Au oma ic ecogni ion means ha any
decision by a cou in a Membe S a e may be in oked di ec ly be o e he au ho i ies o
any o he Membe S a e, wi hou he need o any ad hoc p ocedu e. The judgmen is o
be ully ecognized and he e ec s de i ed om i ex end o he Membe S a e
eques ed.
48
Recogni ion may be only e used, a he eques o any in e es ed pa y, on
he basis o he excep ions lis ed in A icle 45. The eques o e usal o ecogni ion shall
be made in acco dance wi h he p ocedu e laid down o e usal o execu ion.
46
See M. LEHMAN, Bi coin T ades and Consume Ju isdic ion, EAPIL Blog, 29 Janua y 2021,
h ps://eapil.o g/2021/01/29/bi coin- ades-and-consume -ju isdic ion/.
47
U. MAGNUS ET AL., B ussels Ibis Regula ion – Commen a y, ci ., p. 812 .
48
Cou o Jus ice, Judgmen o he Cou o 4 Feb ua y 1988, Ho s Ludwig Ma in Ho mann Adelheid
K ieg, C-145/86, ECLI:EU:C:1988:61.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
163
The Regula ion has elimina ed he exequa u p ocedu e, ha is, he need o
decla a ions o en o ceabili y in he eques ed S a e. Acco ding o A icle 39 “A judgmen
gi en in a Membe S a e which is en o ceable in ha Membe S a e shall be en o ceable
in he o he Membe S a es wi hou any decla a ion o en o ceabili y being equi ed.”
This means ha he winning pa y may di ec ly apply o execu ion in he eques ed S a e.
Upon eques o he in e es ed pa y, he cou o he S a e o o igin will issue a
ce i ica e using he o m se ou in Annex I, which shall be p esen ed by he applican o
he compe en en o cemen au ho i y (in Spain, o ins ance, he Juzgado de P ime a
Ins ancia), a copy o he judgmen which sa is ies he condi ions necessa y o es ablish
i s au hen ici y. The ce i ica e shall be se ed on he pe son agains whom he
en o cemen is sough who may apply o e usal o en o cemen unde any o he g ounds
se o h in A icle 45 o he Regula ion: con adic ion o public policy; iola ion o he
igh s o de ence; inconsis ency o judgmen s and in ingemen by he judge o he S a e
o o igin o he ules on in e na ional ju isdic ion consec a ed in he Regula ion in ma e s
o exclusi e ju isdic ion (A icle 24), insu ance, employmen and consume con ac s
(A icles 10-23).
The judgmen c edi o will ha e o ge he a ailable adi ional execu ion me hods in
he o eign ju isdic ion.
49
Typically, he c edi o may eques he seizu e o asse s,
al hough in some scena ios, a judicial ecei e may be also appoin ed, and he c edi o
may also eques o manage he asse s seized in o de o be epaid wi h hei p o i s. In
addi ion, in e im measu es could also be eques ed ( o ins ance, in e im eezing o
asse s, deposi o a mo able asse , egis a ion o he claim wi hin a P ope y o
Comme cial Regis y, p ohibi ion o make any ac o disposal conce ning he asse s o
p ope ies a s ake e c.).
En o cing emedies in he con ex o sma con ac s may be challenging. The
in angibili y, immu abili y, and decen aliza ion o blockchain may impai he capaci y
o a cou decision o be execu ed.
50
The e is a subs an ial limi o en o cemen o
decisions equi ing he powe o au ho iza ion o modi y an open-sou ce piece o
so wa e. E en a pa y wi h a pe ec ed secu i y in e es in bi coin o ano he blockchain-
based asse , canno o eclose on he asse unless he applicable sma con ac code makes
he ans e possible.
51
And, o e all, ob aining emedies is dependen on being able o
iden i y he pa ies.
En o cemen o a emedy o e e se a ansac ion in a dis ibu ed ledge may be
di icul , o example, when he cou has de e mined ha a sma con ac is oid o
oidable due o a mis ake, lack o capaci y, o du ess.
49
In Spain, o ins ance, judgmen s a e execu ed unde he p ocedu e se ou in A icles 538 e seq o he
Ci il P ocedu e Ac .
50
Chambe o Digi al Comme ce, Sma Con ac s, Is he Law Ready?, 2018, p. 62,
h ps://digi alchambe .o g/sma -con ac s-whi epape /.
51
Ibid, p. 59.
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
164
www. sjeu os udies.eu
Di icul ies may also a ise when a cou has issued a emedy ha excuses u u e
pe o mance when a sma con ac pe o ms au oma ically once ini ia ed. O , i a ailable,
when he judgmen p o ides o a speci ic pe o mance o a b each o con ac .
Po en ially, a judgmen o paymen o c yp ocu ency can be execu ed h ough he
seizu e and sale o p ope y ha could be paid o in c yp ocu ency/equi alen and
c yp ocu ency/equi alen deb s could be ga nished. When he judgmen eques s he
es i u ion o c yp ocu ency, he p oduc ion o he esis an deb o ’s p i a e key migh
be compelled, pe haps, wi h he assis ance o commi al o de s o non-compliance.
52
Likewise, in a claim agains a c yp ocu ency exchange which holds c yp ocu ency o
ade s in walle s, he deb o can be compelled o p oduce p i a e keys unde pain o
con emp o cou o de s agains hei o ice s. Ye , e en he U.S. go e nmen has had
di icul ies ob aining bi coin in o ei u e cases—unless i has access o he ha dwa e on
which he walle and he applicable p i a e key is s o ed. In U.S. s 50.44 Bi coin,
53
he
cou did no ha e o o ce a ans e o he bi coin h ough echnological means, because
he holde o he bi coin olun a ily ans e ed hem o he go e nmen . In o he cases,
hough, i has only managed o seize c yp ocu ency asse s h ough physical means such
as seizing a lap op o an unenc yp ed compu e .
Conside ing all hese di icul ies, pa ies can y o he ways o gain ce ain y o e
whe he a cou can en o ce a judgmen o e a blockchain-based asse . Fo ins ance,
pa ies can en e a dispu e esolu ion sma con ac ha au oma es he execu ion o he
judgmen , whe e he o de s made in he judgmen a e communica ed o he sma con ac .
An o acle/o acles may hen ecei e da a on he judgmen om o he blockchain and
eed ha o he dispu e esolu ion sma con ac in o de o ac i a e he execu ion.
54
Ne e heless, an addi ional di icul y comes in o he pic u e. Sma con ac s a e pe se
ansna ional and he law applicable o hese ma e s a ies signi ican ly ac oss di e en
ju isdic ions. Fu he mo e, judicial powe is es ic ed o a gi en e i o y. As a esul ,
new ways a e being explo ed o sol e dispu es h ough blockchain dispu e esolu ion and
a oid ha ing o ecei e da a om o -blockchain o ac i a e execu ion.
5. The way o wa d. Decen alized dispu e esolu ion?
En o cemen is an exp ession o he S a e’s monopoly o e he use o o ce; when
necessa y, coe cion can only be achie ed by elying on public au ho i y. Howe e ,
judicial powe is limi ed by i s e i o ial dimension. The capaci y o cou s o add ess
52
Z. ER LOW, Execu ion o Judgemen s on he Blockchain- A P ac ical Legal Commen a y, in Ha a d
Jou nal o Law & Technology. Diges , 2021, a ailable a h ps://jol .law.ha a d.edu/diges /execu ion-o -
judgemen s-on- he-blockchain-a-p ac ical-legal-commen a y.
53
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, Plain i , . 50.44 BITCOINS, De endan , Uni ed S a es Dis ic Cou o he
Dis ic o Ma yland, 31May 2016, Ci il Ac ion No. ELH-15-3692.
54
Z. ER LOW, Execu ion o Judgemen s on he Blockchain- A P ac ical Legal Commen a y, ci ., p. 3.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
165
dispu es ela ed o sma con ac s and en o ce judgmen s is hus limi ed due o
delocaliza ion.
55
The e is a numbe o a emp s o mo e in o ull-on blockchain dispu e esolu ion,
whe e ypically he o iginal ansac ion, he adjudica ion, issuance o he decision and he
execu ion happen on blockchain i sel .
Mos eme ging ini ia i es a e blockchain p i a e cou s and decen alized a bi a ion
sys ems such as Ma e eum,
56
LTO Ne wo k,
57
Kle os,
58
The A agon P ojec
59
o The
Blockchain A bi a ion Socie y.
60
Some o hem un using blockchain ju o s ha ge o
decide cases by s aking okens o by building up c edi .
61
Decisions a e supposedly based
on a communal sense o wha is ai and equi able
62
and when he inal uling is emi ed,
he p oposal can be execu ed on blockchain i sel .
P i a e pla o ms in end o p o ide a mo e e icien and accessible sys em o dispu e
esolu ion independen om na ional ju isdic ions and cen alized cou s. They build on
he idea o poo judicial pe o mance and e iciency and claim ha adjudica ion can be
imp o ed wi h new so wa e de elopmen s and au oma ions. Kle os, o ins ance,
eplaces he u h-seeking p ocess essen ial o judicial adjudica ion by a se ies o e icien
inpu s and ou pu s au oma ed wi h he igh so wa e.
63
These so-called c yp ocou s a e highly con o e sial o se e al easons. They ha e
been c i icized, o ins ance, o hei lack o legi imacy and hei specula i e cha ac e .
Acco ding o Dylag & Smi h, “c yp ocou s o ganize ju o s a ound specula ing which
ou come is mos likely o win, and subsequen ly ewa ds hose ha o e cohe en ly wi h
ha ou come. This is p ecisely how c yp ocou inancializa ion ope a es h ough a legal
imagina y ha encou ages ju o s o engage in specula i e p edic ions, and indeed
gambling on, a u u e ou come o a dispu e. In his way, jus ice is synonymous specula i e
in es men .”
64
55
M. CLÉMENT, Sma Con ac s and he Cou s, in L.A. DIMATTEO, M. CANNARSA, C. PONCIBÒ, The
Camb idge Handbook o Sma Con ac s, Blockchain Technology and Digi al Pla o ms, 2019,
Camb idge, pp. 271-287, p. 285, doi:10.1017/9781108592239.015,
56
h ps://ma e eum.com.
57
h ps://l one wo k.com/.
58
h ps://kle os.io/es/.
59
h ps://a agon.o g/.
60
h ps:// heblockchaina bi a ion.com/.
61
F. AST, B. DEFFAINS, When online dispu e esolu ion mee s blockchain: he bi h o decen alized jus ice,
in S an o d Jou nal o Blockchain Law & Policy, 2021, n. 4, pp. 241-256, p. 251.
62
M. DYLAG & H. SMITH, F om c yp ocu encies o c yp ocou s: blockchain and he inancializa ion o
dispu e esolu ion pla o ms, in In o ma ion, Communica ion & Socie y, June 2021, DOI:
10.1080/1369118X.2021.1942958; D. W. E. ALLEN, A.M. LANE, M. POBLET, The Go e nance o
Blockchain Dispu e Resolu ion, in Ha a d Nego ia ion Law Re iew, 2019, n. 25, pp.75-101; L. BERGOLLA,
K. SEIF, C. EKEN, Kle os: A Socio-Legal Case S udy O Decen alized Jus ice & Blockchain A bi a ion, in
Ohio S a e Jou nal on Dispu e Resolu ion, 2021, n. 37(1), a ailable a SSRN:
h ps://ss n.com/abs ac =3918485 o h p://dx.doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.3918485.
63
M. DYLAG, H. SMITH, F om c yp ocu encies o c yp ocou s: blockchain and he inancializa ion o
dispu e esolu ion pla o ms, ci ., p. 8.
64
Ibid, p. 10.
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
166
www. sjeu os udies.eu
Schola s ha e also wa ned abou he po en ial isks o p ocedu al sa egua ds
p esen ed by anonymous and economically-incen i ized ju o s. Buchwald, o example,
s esses ha “ he eali ies o blockchain pseudonymi y nega e any possibili y o
compelling hi d-pa y documen p oduc ion and es imony”,
65
which is essen ial in
a bi a ion. Likewise, i is no ed ha manda o y disclosu e may be pu a isk i i goes
agains he in e es o ce ain businesses, which may be hen emp ed o s a dona ing o
an i disclosu e judges.
66
All o his may con lic wi h he p inciples o independence,
impa iali y, accessibili y o p ocedu al ai ness, which a e cha ac e is ic o in e na ional
a bi a ion.
Fu he mo e, in c yp ocou s, he ju o s do no apply he laws o a speci ic
ju isdic ion. Claims a e sol ed based on he logic o specula i e inance, whe e pa ies
be on ma e s o ac , such as which pa y has been w onged in a legal dispu e. To ha
end, ju o s apply a communal sense o wha is ai and equi able a he cos o na ional
p inciples and legal alues. C yp ocou s may, o ins ance, awa d damages o he b each
o an an i-compe i i e ag eemen , e en hough such an ag eemen iola es public policy
in a gi en S a e. P esuming ha he an i-compe i i e ag eemen is pa o a sma con ac
encoded wi h a blockchain a bi a ion clause, he esul ing awa d could be en o ced online
no wi hs anding i s incompa ibili y wi h compe i ion law.
67
Gene ally, s a e-con olled ecogni ion p ocedu es cu en ly p o ec legal alues such
as public policy. Fo ins ance, one o he g ounds lis ed in A icle 45 o he B ussels I
Regula ion (Recas ) o e usal o bo h ecogni ion and en o cemen is con adic ion o
public policy – “i such ecogni ion is mani es ly con a y o public policy in he Membe
S a e in which ecogni ion is sough .”
Public policy unde he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ) e e s bo h o subs an i e
public policy,
68
and p ocedu al public policy, o ins ance, igh s o de ence no co e ed
unde b).
69
Howe e , decisions ende ed by c yp ocou s canno be subjec o ecogni ion
unde he Regula ion. These decisions canno be cha ac e ized as a “judgmen gi en by a
cou o ibunal o a Membe S a e”, as equi ed in A icle 2 a). Assuming ha hey a e
a bi al awa ds, A icle 1(2)(d) o he Regula ion s a es exp essly ha i does no apply o
a bi a ion. The scope o he B ussels I Regula ion in e ms o a bi a ion has been
add essed by he Cou o Jus ice o he Eu opean Union in a numbe o decisions, such
65
M. BUCHWALD, Sma con ac dispu e esolu ion: he inescapable laws o blockchain based a bi a ion,
in Uni e si y o Pennsyl ania Law Re iew, 2020, n. 168, pp. 1369-1423, p. 1400.
66
Ibid.
67
P. ORTOLANI, The impac o blockchain echnologies and sma con ac s on dispu e esolu ion:
a bi a ion and cou li iga ion a he c oss oads, in Uni o m Law Re iew, 2019, pp. 430–448,
doi:10.1093/ul /unz017, p. 440.
68
Judgmen o he Cou (Fi h Chambe ) o 11 May 2000, Régie na ionale des usines Renaul SA Maxica
SpA and O azio Fo men o, C-38/98, ECLI:EU:C:2000:225.
69
Judgmen o he Cou o 28 Ma ch 2000, Die e K ombach And é Bambe ski, C-7/98,
ECLI:EU:C:2000:164 and Judgmen o he Cou (Fi s Chambe ) o 2 Ap il 2009, Ma co Gambazzi
Daimle Ch ysle Canada Inc. and CIBC Mellon T us Company, C-394/07, ECLI:EU:C:2009:219.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
167
as Ma c Rich Socie a I aliano Impian i,
70
Van Uden,
71
and Wes Tanke s,
72
none o hem
p o iding a sa is ac o y answe .
73
Howe e , i is clea ha ecogni ion and en o cemen
o a bi al awa ds a e ou side he scope o he Regula ion. A icle 73(2) o he Regula ion
exp essly says his wi h ega d ha “The Regula ion shall no a ec he applica ion o he
1958 New Yo k Con en ion.”
The applica ion o he 1958 New Yo k Con en ion o decisions ende ed in
c yp ocou s p esen di icul ies, as well.
74
Among se e al easons,
75
acco ding o A icle
1(1) o he New Yo k Con en ion, “This Con en ion shall apply o he ecogni ion and
en o cemen o a bi al awa ds made in he e i o y o a S a e o he han he S a e whe e
he ecogni ion and en o cemen o such awa ds a e sough , and a ising ou o di e ences
be ween pe sons, whe he physical o legal. I shall also apply o a bi al awa ds no
conside ed as domes ic awa ds in he S a e whe e hei ecogni ion and en o cemen a e
sough .” Blockchain a bi a ion is delocalized. When a c yp ocou is in ol ed in he
decision o a dispu e, iden i ying he place whe e he a bi al awa d was made may no
be s aigh o wa d, when conside ing ha he pa ies may access he p ocedu e om
di e en coun ies, and he decision is s o ed and powe ed by nume ous compu e s
loca ed in di e en coun ies. Addi ional issues may also a ise as o he place whe e he
a bi al awa d was signed o ega ding he g ounds o e usal, which speci ically e e o
a S a e o he law o a S a e. A icle V.1(a), o ins ance, “a pa y esis ing o he
ecogni ion and en o cemen o he awa d can oppose o he p oceedings i i can p o e
ha “(…) he said ag eemen is no alid unde he law o which he pa ies ha e subjec ed
i o , ailing any indica ion he eon, unde he law o he coun y whe e he awa d was
made”. Recen ly, a Mexican cou ecognized and en o ced an a bi al awa d ha was
subs an ially go e ned by he Kle os p o ocol, al hough ou side he New Yo k
Con en ion amewo k.
76
70
Judgmen o he Cou o 25 July 1991, Ma c Rich & Co. AG Socie à I aliana Impian i PA, Case C-
190/89, ECLI:EU:C:1991:319.
71
Judgmen o he Cou o 17 No embe 1998, Van Uden Ma i ime BV, ading as Van Uden A ica Line
Kommandi gesellscha in Fi ma Deco-Line and Ano he , Case C-391/95, ECLI:EU:C:1998:543.
72
Judgmen o he Cou (G and Chambe ) o 10 Feb ua y 2009, Allianz SpA and Gene ali Assicu azioni
Gene ali SpA Wes Tanke s Inc., Case C-185/07, ECLI:EU:C:2009:69.
73
T. HARTLEY, A bi a ion and he B ussels I Regula ion – Be o e and A e B exi , in Jou nal o P i a e
In e na ional Law, 2021, n. 17(1), pp. 53-73, DOI: 10.1080/17441048.2021.1907942.
74
F. AST, B. DEFFAINS, When online dispu e esolu ion mee s blockchain: he bi h o decen alized jus ice,
ci ., p. 255.
75
I. NG (HUANG YING), V. BENEDETTI DEL RIO, When he T ibunal is an Algo i hm, Complexi ies o
En o cing O de s De e mined by a So wa e unde he New Yo k Con en ion, in K. FACH GOMEZ, A.M.
LOPEZ RODRIGUEZ, 60 Yea s o he New Yo k Con en ion: Key Issues and Fu u e Challenges, Alphen aan
den Rijn, 2018, pp. 121-134.
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M. VIRUES CARRERA, Accommoda ing Kle os as a decen alised dispu e esolu ion ool o ci il jus ice
sys ems: heo e ical model and case o applica ion, 2021,
h ps://ip s.kle os.io/ip s/Qm N gSVE9bb17KzEVFoG 4KKA1Ekah 7ioLjYzheZ6p E/Accommoda ing
%20Kle os%20as%20a%20Decen alized%20Dispu e%20Resolu ion%20Tool%20 o %20Ci il%20Jus i
ce%20Sys ems%20-%20Theo e ical%20Model%20and%20Case%20o %20Applica ion%20-
%20Mau icio%20Vi ues%20-%20Kle os%20Fellowship%20o %20Jus ice.pd .
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
168
www. sjeu os udies.eu
S a e-con olled ecogni ion p ocedu es a e, mo eo e , un easible in cases whe e all
ele an asse s ci cula e on echnological pla o ms. He e, he p ospec o an o -chain
ansac ion e e sal would be almos imp ac icable. Agains his con ex , some na ional
legisla o s a e mo ing owa ds he c ea ion o blockchain judicial cou s whe e bo h he
decision and execu ion a e made on he blockchain i sel . The Hangzhou Cou , o
ins ance, o e s an end- o-end judicial pla o m, whe e con ac ing pa ies who ha e been
p e-iden i ied as eligible execu e a sma con ac o eco d hei o iginal ansac ion.
77
In
he Uni ed A ab Emi a es (UAE), bo h Dubai and Abu Dhabi ha e launched a Cou o
he Blockchain, which in he long un is looking o ha e all applicable laws and
egula ions on he blockchain so ha dispu es can be esol ed on he blockchain i sel
likely wi h minimal human in ol emen .
78
6. Conclusions
The p esen a icle has assessed main issues ela ed o ju isdic ion, ecogni ion and
en o cemen o judgmen s a ising ou o sma con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion
(Recas ), including exis ing caselaw on he opic. I has also analyzed he so-called
c yp ocou s and hei po en ial ad an ages and isks.
The i s sec ion has p esen ed he concep o dis ibu ed ledge echnology and
blockchain as a ans o ma ional compu ing inno a ion. Al hough he po en ial and scope
o his new echnology is ye o be de e mined, blockchain is “expec ed o e olu ionize
indus y and comme ce and d i e economic change on a global scale because i is
immu able, anspa en , and ede ines us , enabling secu e, as , us wo hy, and
anspa en solu ions ha can be public o p i a e.”
79
The so-called sma con ac s a e
one o he mos ele an applica ions o blockchain echnology. These compu e p og ams
un on he blockchain and elimina e human disc e ion in he execu ion o he con ac .
Con ac ual e ms a e complied wi h wi hou ha ing o eso o judges and cou s, since
he p og am has con ol o e he necessa y physical o digi al objec s o ca y ou
execu ion. So a he e is lack o egula ion o his echnology, which exposes use s o a
wide ange o legal isks. The legal acuum has no p e en ed comme cial ope a ions
using his echnology. In ac , blockchain is de ised as an al e na i e mechanism o he
law.
One o he main legal ques ions ye o be answe ed ela e o ju isdic ion. The second
sec ion has p esen ed he main heads o ju isdic ion ela ed o claims a ising ou o sma
con ac s wi hin he amewo k o he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ). These a e
p o oga ion o ju isdic ion, he de endan ’s domicile, and he special ju isdic ional g ound
77
S.T. ZHENG, Vi ual Hea ing in China’s Sma Cou , in Con lic o Laws.ne , 14 No embe 2021,
h ps://con lic o laws.ne /2021/ i ual-hea ing-in-chinas-sma -cou /.
78
Z. ER LOW, Execu ion o Judgemen s on he Blockchain- A P ac ical Legal Commen a y, ci ., p. 7.
79
S. UNDERWOOD, Blockchain beyond Bi coin (o he applica ions o blockchain echnology), in
Communica ions o he ACM, 2016, n. 59 (11), pp.15-17, p. 15, DOI: 10.1145/2994581.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
169
on con ac ual ma e s. The ules on ju isdic ion conce ning ce ain consume con ac s
may also apply.
The hi d sec ion has shown how some o he main ea u es o his echnology,
namely, decen aliza ion and anonymi y do no i well wi h ju isdic ional ules based on
e i o ial connec ing ac o s, such as domicile unde A icle 4.1 B ussels I Regula ion
(Recas ) o he place o pe o mance unde A icle 7.1 o he Regula ion. To be on he
ce ain side, pa ies should, he e o e, op o a p o oga ion o ju isdic ion unde A icle
25 o he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ), ei he in he unde lying con ac o e en di ec ly
in he sma con ac . Ju isdic ion ag eemen s could be also speci ied in he ules ha mus
be accep ed by any pa icipan o a gi en blockchain. Fo ins ance, in he gene al e ms
and condi ions o he blockchain. O e ime, i is e en likely ha he e will be indus y-
speci ic blockchain ne wo ks and indus y-speci ic sma con ac s, whose ules,
p ac ices, and p og amming ex s will be obse ed and well-known o he pa icipan s, o
such an ex en o quali y as alid ju isdic ion ag eemen s unde A icle 25 o he
Regula ion. The sec ion has also analyzed exis ing case law on he applica ion o he
special ju isdic ion ules on ce ain consume con ac s.
The ou h sec ion has examined he ecogni ion and en o cemen o judgmen s
a ising ou o sma con ac claims unde he amewo k o he B ussels Regula ion.
Recogni ion and en o cemen a e au oma ic and may be only e used, a he eques o
any in e es ed pa y, based on he excep ions lis ed in A icle 45 o he Regula ion.
Howe e , he judgmen c edi o will ha e o ge he a ailable adi ional execu ion
me hods in he o eign ju isdic ion. And execu ing emedies in he con ex o sma
con ac s may be challenging. The anonymi y, in angibili y, immu abili y, and
decen aliza ion o blockchain may some imes impai he capaci y o a cou decision o
be execu ed. Fo ins ance, o e e se a ansac ion in case o mis ake o aud, o execu e
an o de o speci ic pe o mance e c. E en when judgmen s o de paymen o es i u ion
o c yp ocu ency, asse s canno be o eclosed unless he applicable sma con ac code
makes he ans e possible. Taking all hese di icul ies in o accoun , new ways a e being
de eloped o gain ce ain y on he en o cemen o judgmen s o e blockchain-based
asse s.
The i h sec ion has explo ed he so-called c yp ocou s. These online dispu e
esolu ion pla o ms ha e eme ged as a esponse agains he limi ed capaci y o cou s o
add ess blockchain dispu es and en o ce judgmen s on he ne due o delocaliza ion.
Dispu e esolu ion sys ems coded as sma con ac s in blockchains ha e he ad an age
o gua an eeing ha hei ulings will be en o ced. Howe e , hey ha e also some
po en ial isks. Ju o s a e economically incen i ized, a ci cums ance ha encou ages hem
o engage in specula i e p edic ions, and gambling on, he u u e ou come o a dispu e.
Anonymi y may impai p ocedu al sa egua ds such as hi d pa y documen p oduc ion
and es imony. Fu he mo e, co po a ions may be emp ed o sponso an i-disclosu e
ju o s i business in e es s so equi e. All his may con lic wi h gene ally accep ed
p inciples o in e na ional a bi a ion such as independence, impa iali y o p ocedu al
ai ness. In addi ion, i is unclea whe he blockchain decisions a e subjec o cou e iew
Claims A ising ou o Sma Con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion ( ecas )
170
www. sjeu os udies.eu
o ecogni ion and en o cemen . The B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ) s a es exp essly ha
i does no apply o a bi a ion. Mo eo e , blockchain awa ds do no seem o ul il some
o he condi ions o an awa d o be en o ceable in cou s o he membe coun ies unde
he amewo k o he 1958 New Yo k Con en ion on he Recogni ion and En o cemen
o Fo eign A bi al Awa ds. As a esul , c yp ocou s may ende decisions, e en i ai
and equi able, ha iola e public policy in a gi en S a e, and which a e en o ced online
wi hou any o m o judicial con ol.
The global Sma Con ac s ma ke size is expec ed o each USD 345.4 Million by
2026, om USD 106.7 Million in 2019.
80
Majo ac o s behind he g ow h o sma
con ac ma ke size a e, inc easing applica ions in indus ies such as supply chain,
banking, go e nmen , insu ance, and eal es a e. Fu he mo e, he ising popula i y o
blockchain echnology is d i ing he demand o he Sma Con ac s Ma ke .
As echnology ma u es, mo e o ganiza ions a e expec ed o ake ad an age o i o
educe cos s and enable as and secu e ansac ions. To maximize he applica ions o
sma con ac s, howe e , we s ill need o so ou some p oblema ic legal issues ha need
u he hough and analysis. One o hem is legal cla i y in ela ion o ju isdic ion.
Anonymi y, immu abili y, and he delocalized na u e o blockchain, injec complex issues
in o judicial p oceedings.
Sma con ac s a e immu able and sel -execu ing, ye no in allible. The e migh be
coding e o s o issues ela ing o he unc ionali y o he sma con ac pla o m i sel .
The e migh be also a ying unde s andings and in e p e a ions by he pa ies.
Acco dingly, decision-making mechanisms a e needed o sol e si ua ions whe e
subjec i i y is in ol ed while espec ing he unc ionali y o he whole sys em. And new
mechanisms o en o cemen need o be explo ed o gua an ee he e icien execu ion o
decisions on he blockchain.
Adjudica ion is wi nessing he eme gence o new ac o s and ways o p ac icing law
and con lic esolu ion, which may dis o exis ing legal ins i u ions and he adi ional
monopoly o he S a e on legisla ion and legal en o cemen . P i a e ini ia i es ha mo e
in o blockchain dispu e esolu ion ha e been welcomed by use s,
81
al hough he espec
o gene al in e es s, p inciples, and alues i ye o be examined and imp o ed.
Some na ional cou s a e also en e ing his space. The Hangzhou, Abu Dhabi and
Dubai blockchain cou s ha e been al eady men ioned as examples om coun ies whe e
he legisla o is ying o ind esponses o he no el issues posed by dis ibu ed ledge
echnology. As his is an economically g owing sec o , he Eu opean legisla o should
also conside speci ic solu ions in u u e ecas s o he B ussels I Regula ion. Explo ing
heads o ju isdic ion wi hou e i o ial connec ing ac o s and ecogni ion o au oma ed
execu ion me hods on he blockchain could be on he agenda o e o ms. Pa ies wi h
cou judgmen s o c yp ocu ency o ega ding eco ds kep on he blockchain could
al eady bene i om ha ing speci ic ules o blockchain ela ed dispu es. O e ime, as
80
Valua es Repo s, 5 Ap il 2021, h ps://www.p newswi e.com/in/news- eleases/sma -con ac s-ma ke -
size- o- each-usd-345-4-million-by-2026-a -cag -18-1- alua es- epo s-832536081.h ml.
81
Kle os has al eady en e ained o e 1000 cases, h ps://kle osboa d.com/.
Ana Me cedez López Rod íguez
171
mo e ele an asse s ci cula e on echnological pla o ms, he de elopmen o ull-on
blockchain dispu e esolu ion sponso ed by he Eu opean Union may be necessa y o
s eng hen legal ce ain y, execu ion, and he p o ec ion o gene al alues and p inciples.
ABSTRACT: The eme gence o Dis ibu ed Ledge Technology (DLT)/blockchain and
i s applica ion h ough he so-called sma con ac s poses signi ican challenges
om he poin o iew o classical con ac law and p i a e in e na ional law. I s
decen aliza ion, anonymi y/opaci y, immu abili y, in e connec i i y, and au oma ion
ce ainly gene a e complex legal p oblems, including ele an ques ions pe aining o
ju isdic ion. This a icle deals wi h ju isdic ion, ecogni ion and en o cemen o
judgmen s a ising ou o sma con ac s unde he B ussels I Regula ion (Recas ),
including exis ing caselaw on he opic. The a icle also add esses he issue o
blockchain dispu e esolu ion.
KEYWORDS: Sma con ac s – ju isdic ion – en o cemen – B ussels I Regula ion
(Recas ) – blockchain.
