e-ISSN 2724-3923
magazén
Vol. 2 – Num. 1 – June 2021
13
Ci a ion Cau in, T. (2020). “New Field, Old P ac ices: P omises and Chal-
lenges o Public His o y”. magazén, 2(1), 13-44.
DOI 10.30687/mag/2724-3923/2021/03/001
Submi ed 2021-02-02
Published 2021-06-30
Open access
©2021 | cb C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional Public License
Edizioni
Ca’Fosca i
Edizioni
Ca’Fosca i
New Field, Old P ac ices:
P omises and Challenges
o Public His o y
Thomas Cau in
C2DH, Uni e si é du Luxembou g
Abs ac Al hough public his o y is becoming inc easingly in e na ional, he ield
emains di icul o de ine and subjec o some c i icism. Based on some imes long-
es ablished public p ac ices, public his o y displays new app oaches o audiences, col-
labo a ion and au ho i y in his o y p oduc ion. This a icle p o ides an o e iew o public
his o y, i s a ious de ini ions and his o iog aphy, and discusses some o he main c i i-
cisms o he ield. Public his o y is compa ed o a ee o knowledge whose pa s ( oo s,
unk, b anches and lea es) ep esen he many collabo a i e and in e connec ed s ages
in he ield. De ining public his o y as a sys emic p ocess ( ee) demons a es he need o
collabo a ion be ween he di e en ac o s – may hey be ained his o ians o no – and
aim o ocus on he ole hey play in he o e all p ocess. The u u e o in e na ional public
his o y will in ol e balancing p ac ice-based app oaches wi h mo e heo e ical discus-
sions on he ole o ained his o ians, audiences and di e en uses o he pas .
Keywo ds Public his o y. His o iog aphy. Collabo a ion. Memo y. E hics. T aining.
Summa y 1 Public His o y: A Field Full o P omise. – 2 Do We Need – o Wan – a
(Single) De ini ion o Public His o y? – 2.1 Because Public His o y is no Like Po nog aphy,
“I Do no Know I When I See I ”: Reasons o De ining Public His o y. – 2.2 P oblems
in De ining Public His o y. – 3 Public His( ee): An In e connec ed and Collabo a i e
Sys em. – 3.1 F om a T unk o a T ee: Enla ging he His o ical P ocess. – 3.2 Collabo a ion,
Sha ed Au ho i y and Public His o y. – 3.3 “No E e yone can Become a G ea A is , Bu
a G ea A is can Come om Anywhe e” (An on Ego, Ra a ouille, 2007). – 4 The Rise o
Public His o y: A Sho His o iog aphy. – 5 Public His o y Unde C i icism. – 5.1 “The e
is No Need o Public His o y”. – 5.2 “Public His o y is no His o y”. – 5.3 Public His o y,
Consul an s and Clien s. – 5.4 “Public His o y is a Se o Blind P ac ices”.
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Le us be hones ; despi e ecen de elopmen s in he ield, public his-
o y emains la gely unknown ou side he ci cles o i s p ac i ione s.
I we explain ha we p ac ise, s udy o wo k wi h public his o y, ou
in e locu o s a e likely o aise hei eyeb ows, con ess hei igno-
ance and ask o mo e de ails. Once we explain wha we do and why
we p ac ise public his o y, ou in e locu o s may easily ind examples
o hei own, o e en acknowledge – i hey wo k in he ield – ha
hey ha e been wo king wi h public his o y wi hou knowing i . The
ise in public his o y comes pa ly om i s long-es ablished p ac ic-
es. Public his o y is buil on an appa en pa adox: i is a new ield
based on old p ac ices. And he ac ha public his o y includes old
p ac ices is also a sign o he imes; i e lec s a changing con ex in
he ways we p ese e, esea ch, in e p e , s udy, communica e, use
and consume he pas . One o he mos isible changes, he ise and
use o he In e ne , has e olu ionised how people access and com-
munica e knowledge. His o y is no immune o hese p o ound chang-
es, no should i be. Ques ions such as who owns he pas , wha ole
his o ians play and who can call hemsel es his o ians a e an in e-
g al pa o he deba es on public his o y. As he ield o public his o-
y is becoming inc easingly in e na ional – see o ins ance he 2020
Wo ld Con e ence o Public His o y in Be lin, Ge many – i seems
imely o ques ion how, and i , one should de ine public his o y. This
a icle p oposes an o e iew o he ield, p esen ing i s his o iog a-
phy, he easons o i s success and some c i icism.
1 Public His o y: A Field Full o P omise
The e m public his o y has o en been associa ed wi h he Uni ed
S a es, whe e i was i s coined in he 1970s. The Na ional Council
on Public His o y (NCPH) – he main o ganisa ion o public his o-
y in he US – lis s mo e han 200 p og ammes in he coun y.1 The
numbe o p og ammes is such ha some s a ed o wonde i he
compe i ion be ween hem would become an issue (Weyene h 2013).
Ye public his o y is no limi ed o he US o No h Ame ica. Pub-
lic his o y p ojec s, p og ammes and con e ences exis in many Eu-
opean coun ies and also in B azil, Aus alia, New Zealand, Russia
and China. The In e na ional Fede a ion o Public His o y (IFPH),
se up in 2011, aims o connec p ojec s, p o essionals, s uden s and
This a icle is he English ansla ion o : “Campo nue o, p ác icas iejas: p omesas y
desa íos de la his o ia pública”, published in Hispania No a. P ime a Re is a de His o-
ia Con empo ánea, núm. 1 ex a, 2020, 7-51.
1 See he NCPH websi e, h p://ncph.o g/p og am-guide/. Unless o he wise no ed,
all he webpages ci ed in he a icle ha e been accessed on 20 Janua y 2021.
Thomas Cau in
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o he p ac i ione s wo ldwide.2 The IFPH’s Call o P esen a ion o
i s 2018 annual con e ence in Sao Paulo, B azil, a ac ed 54 indi id-
ual pape s and 15 panel submissions, wi h 92 au ho s om 26 coun-
ies a ound he wo ld [ ig. 1]. Na ional public his o y associa ions
ha e also been se up in B azil (Rede B asilei a de His ó ia Públi-
ca), in I aly (Associazone I aliana di Public His o y, AIPH) and mo e
ecen ly in Japan (パ ブリックヒストリー 研 究 会 ), a es ing o he de el-
opmen o he ield.3 Publishe s p opose ex books, collec ions o es-
says, handbooks and companions in English, Po uguese, I alian, Ge -
man, Polish, Chinese and Spanish (Cau in 2016; Ga dne , Hamil on
2017; Dean 2017; Mauad, De Almeida, and San hiago 2016; Lucke,
Zundo 2018). Pee - e iewed jou nals – s ill a anking c i e ion o
esea ch and publica ion – now specialise in public his o y oo. The
Public His o ian, Public His o y Re iew, In e na ional Public His o y,
and o some ex en Public His o y Weekly, demons a e ha public
his o y has eached a le el o academic ecogni ion.4
While i is clea ha public his o y is becoming inc easingly in-
e na ional, de ining he ield emains challenging and open o dis-
cussion. Fo ins ance, he websi e o he 2020 Wo ld Con e ence o
Public His o y does no p o ide a de ini ion o public his o y. The IF-
PH i sel only poin s ou ha in e na ional public his o y is “a ield
in he his o ical sciences made up o p o essionals who unde ake
his o ical wo k in a a ie y o public and p i a e se ings o di e -
en kinds o audiences wo ldwide”.5 The leas we can say is ha he
meaning is (pu pose ully) unclea .
2 See he IFPH websi e, h ps://i ph.hypo heses.o g.
3 See he Rede B asilei a de His ó ia Pública (“Rede” – RBHP) websi e, h p:// h is -
o iapublica.com.b , he AIPH websi e, h ps://aiph.hypo heses.o g, and he web-
si e o he Japanese associa ion, h ps://public-his o y9.webnode.jp.
4 The Public His o ian, h ps:// ph.ucp ess.edu; Public His o y Re iew, h p s://
www.u s.edu.au/public-his o y- e iew; In e na ional Public His o y, h ps://www.
deg uy e .com/ iew/j/iph; Public His o y Weekly, h ps://public-his o y-week-
ly.deg uy e .com.
5 See he IFPH websi e, h ps://i ph.hypo heses.o g.
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2 Do We Need – o Wan – a (Single) De ini ion
o Public His o y?
In his 2008 a icle “De ining Public His o y: Is I Possible? Is i Nec-
essa y?”, Robe Weible poin ed ou ha “Fo all he alk o public
his o y ha we ha e been hea ing o mo e han 25 yea s, i is a li -
le awkwa d ha his o ians a e s ill unce ain abou wha ‘public
his o y’ migh ac ually mean. So pe haps i is ui less o seek con-
sensus on a single de ini ion” (Weible 2008). I would a gue ha much
mo e han a ca ego ical, ul ima e, single de ini ion o public his o y,
wha we need is in e na ional discussions, exchanges and collabo a-
ion on wha public his o y can become. Ve y much like he collabo-
a i e aspec o public his o y, de ining he ield should include a -
ious unde s andings, p ac ices and heo ies.
Figu e 1 Pa icipan s a he 2018 IFPH Con e ence in Sao Paulo, B azil (Lucchesi 2018)
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2.1 Because Public His o y is no Like Po nog aphy, “I Do no
Know I When I See I ”: Reasons o De ining Public His o y
I we ecognise ha public his o y is a sub ield o his o ical s ud-
ies, hen we can look a o he his o ical ields o inspi a ion. Fo in-
s ance, he O al His o y Associa ion p oposes a de ini ion o o al his-
o y as “a ield o s udy and a me hod o ga he ing, p ese ing and
in e p e ing he oices and memo ies o people, communi ies, and
pa icipan s in pas e en s”.
6
E en hough o al his o y is mo e es ab-
lished and mo e widesp ead han public his o y, his suppo s he
idea ha we need a de ini ion o he ield.
The ac ha public his o y is ela i ely un ecognised could also
p o ide momen um o a clea e de ini ion. Based on he 2009 NCPH
su ey unde aken among public his o y p o essionals, John Dich l
and Robe Townsend w o e ha “Public his o y is one o he leas un-
de s ood a eas o p o essional p ac ice in his o y because he majo -
i y o public his o y jobs a e ou side o academia” (Dich l, Townsend
2009). In he in oduc ion o he 2018 keyno e lec u e a he NCPH
annual con e ence in Ha o d, Connec icu , he mayo o he ci y
con essed ha he had ne e hea d o public his o y be o e. To p e-
pa e his speech, he googled ‘public his o y’ and ound he NCPH page
ha compa es public his o y o po nog aphy, which was de ined in
1964 by a Uni ed S a es Sup eme Cou Jus ice as “I know i when I
see i ”.7 The mayo con essed o a smiling audience ha his de ini-
ion did no eally help him unde s and he ield. I we ollow his ex-
ample, people looking o public his o y could end up wi h his Goog-
le sea ch esul [ ig. 2].8 The NCPH’s de ini ion and websi e, ollowed
by Wikipedia and Weible’s a icle, we e he ou i s esul s o my
sea ch. Al hough my loca ion a ec ed he esul s, hey end o show
speci ic No h Ame ican iews and de ini ions. Wha is a s ake he e
is no he alidi y o he NCPH’s de ini ion, bu a he he ac ha
p ac i ione s, schola s and s uden s (especially ou side he US) may
ha e di e en app oaches ha should be conside ed when p opos-
ing in e na ional de ini ions o public his o y. The success and ins i-
u ionalisa ion o public his o y in he Uni ed S a es can be seen as
an inspi a ion bu he e is a need o al e na i e in e na ional unde -
s andings o he ield. The NCPH canno be he unila e al au ho i y
in de ining in e na ional public his o y. I would s ongly a gue ha
de ining public his o y should be an in e na ional and collabo a i e
6 O al His o y Associa ion websi e, h ps://www.o alhis o y.o g/abou /do-o al-
his o y/.
7 NCPH websi e, h ps://ncph.o g/wha -is-public-his o y/abou - he- ield/.
8 As geoloca ion ma e s o Google sea ches, I should cla i y ha I googled ‘public
his o y’ in Mozilla Fi e ox on 10 Augus 2019 in Colo ado, USA.
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p ocess in which he a ie y o oices and in e p e a ions con ib-
u es o en iching he ield. Howe e , he ask o de ining public his o-
y collabo a i ely and in e na ionally is bese wi h many challenges.
2.2 P oblems in De ining Public His o y
One challenge in de ining public his o y comes om he b ead h and
a ie y o p ac ices in ol ed
[ ig. 3]
. This wo d cloud p oduced by Ani-
a Lucchesi p esen s some o he many concep s, p ac ices, ools and
issues in public his o y ha a ose du ing he 2018 con e ence o he
In e na ional Fede a ion o Public His o y. This di e si y challenges
any s ic de ini ion o he ield. De ining public his o y c ea es en-
sions. In 2007, he NCPH p oposed ha public his o y should be de-
ined as “a mo emen , me hodology, and app oach ha p omo es he
collabo a i e s udy and p ac ice o his o y; i s p ac i ione s emb ace
a mission o make hei special insigh s accessible and use ul o he
public” (Co be , Mille 2007). This p omp ed s ong c i icism, wi h
Ka hy Co be and Dick Mille claiming ha he s a emen assigned
Figu e 2 Google Sea ch esul o ‘public his o y’, 10 Augus 2019
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public his o ians he ole o “missiona ies” and denied “lay people a
c ea i e ole” (Co be , Mille 2007). The c i icisms can pa ly be a -
ibu ed o he ole o he NCPH in he Uni ed S a es. The o ganisa-
ion was es ablished in he 1970s in esponse o he a ie y and he -
e odoxy o his o ical p ac ices ou side academia. Al hough i ini ially
con es ed he idea ha academic his o ians we e missiona ies b ing-
ing knowledge o he public, when i a emp ed o p opose a ixed de -
ini ion o he ield in 2007, he NCPH somehow epea ed he same
mis ake in assigning a ‘mission’ o public his o y p ac i ione s. The
challenge in de ining public his o y is o balance he need o iden i-
y and ame he ield while o e ing space o discussion, collabo a-
ion and disag eemen .
Mo eo e , na ional ends and his o iog aphy can make he ask o
ag eeing on an in e na ional de ini ion o public his o y e en mo e
p oblema ic. The e a e deba es abou he ansla ion o he e m i -
sel . Fo ins ance, while he English e m ‘public his o y’ is o en
ansla ed in F ench (His oi e Publique), Po uguese (B azil) (His ó ia
Pública) o Du ch (Publieksgeschiedenis), he I alian Associa ion o
Public His o y (AIPH, Associazione I aliana di Public His o y) and
some p og ammes in Ge many keep he English exp ession.9 In I a-
ly, one a gumen o no ansla ing public his o y was so ha I alian
9
See he websi e o he Ge man p og amme a F eie Uni e si ä Be lin, h p://www.
u-be lin.de/en/s udium/s udienangebo /mas e /public_his o y/index.h ml,
and he p og amme a he Uni e si y o Ams e dam, h p://www.u a.nl/en/disci-
plines/his o y/specialisa ions/public-his o y.h ml. Fo he p og amme in Pa -
is, see h p://www.u-pec. /p a iques/uni e si e/ o ma ion/mas e -his oi e-
pa cou s-his oi e-publique-644604.kjsp.
Figu e 3 Wo d Cloud o Keywo ds o 2018 IFPH p oposals, 2018 (Lucchesi 2018)
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p ac ices could be connec ed o b oade in e na ional ne wo ks.10 As
Se ge Noi e (p esiden o he AIPH) explains, “indi iduals a e open
o he ield in I aly and ha e no p oblem a all in impo ing solu ions
om o he coun ies and eadap ing hem locally”, whe eas he e m
s o ia pubblica would ins ead be unde s ood as e e ing o he con-
o e sial uses o he pas .11 Al hough public his o y is o en ans-
la ed in F ench, i aises some speci ic issues, as in F ench and some
o he languages he e m ‘public’ can indica e close links wi h he
s a e and i s adminis a ion, pa ly because o he long his o y o he
wel a e s a e in Eu ope. Public his o y may he e o e be unde s ood
as ei he s a e-sponso ed his o y o e en he his o y o he s a e ad-
minis a ion. Likewise, in pos -colonial con ex s, using a e m ha
is oo ed in B i ish and No h Ame ican p ac ice can aise ensions.
The e is he e o e a de ini e ambigui y abou whe he o no we
should de ine public his o y. I pe sonally do no hink i is neces-
sa y – o e en possible – o p o ide a s ic one-size- i s-all de ini ion
o he ield ha encompasses he mul iple in e na ional app oaches.
Howe e , I do hink i is necessa y o c ea e spaces o discuss wha
public his o y can be and how i ela es o local, na ional and he-
ma ic p ac ices and heo ies o his o y.
3 Public His( ee): An In e connec ed
and Collabo a i e Sys em
Se e al de ini ions o public his o y ha e used me apho s. B i ish his-
o ian Ludmilla Jo dano a poin ed ou ha “public his o y mus be
an umb ella e m, one which, u he mo e, b ings oge he wo con-
cep s ‘public’ and ‘his o y’ which a e pa icula ly slippe y and di i-
cul o de ine” (Jo dano a 2000, 149). She p esen ed he ield as a way
o ga he p ac ices unde a common name. Mo e ecen ly I alian his-
o ian Ma cello Ra edu o p oposed a elling om land (academia)
o he a chipelago o public his o y (Ra edu o 2017, 136). Using his
me apho , Ra edu o posi s ha public his o y, much like an a chipel-
ago, is made up o small islands (p ac ices) ha a e dis inc bu close
o one ano he , connec ed by he sea. In a simila ein, Jenni e Dick-
ey has ecen ly compa ed public his o y o a “big en ”, bo owing he
me apho used o digi al humani ies (Dickey 2018; Pannapacke 2011).
Using me apho s o de ine public his o y has gi en ise o c i i-
cism. Recen ly, Ma ko Deman owsky a gued o ins ance ha Jo -
dano a’s use o he umb ella me apho can be pe suasi e bu lacks
10 In e iew wi h Chia a O a iano (boa d membe o he AIPH), Ra enna (I aly), 4
June 2017.
11 In e iew wi h Se ge Noi e (P esiden o he AIPH), Flo ence (I aly), 28 July 2017.
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heo e ical g ounding and is he e o e limi ed in de ining public his-
o y. Bu me apho s can o en p o ide use ul insigh s in o he de el-
opmen o he ield. They e lec a willingness o see public his o y
as a agmen ed ield uni ed by a common unde s anding o he his-
o ical p ocess. These de ini ions depic public his o y as b oaden-
ing he adi ional his o ical p ocess, “ om land o a chipelago”,
h ough speci ic p ac ices. The ocus on p ac ices is also p esen in
he English Wikipedia de ini ion: “Public his o y is a b oad ange o
ac i i ies unde aken by people wi h some aining in he discipline
o his o y who a e gene ally wo king ou side o specialized academ-
ic se ings […] Because i inco po a es a wide ange o p ac ices and
akes place in many di e en se ings, public his o y p o es esis -
an o being p ecisely de ined”.12 In all hese de ini ions, he ques-
ion emains o how p ac ices a e connec ed – o o adop Ra edu-
o’s me apho , which sea connec s he a chipelago.
3.1 F om a T unk o a T ee: Enla ging he His o ical P ocess
A emp ing o isualise public his o y has p os and cons; isualisa-
ions a e limi ed in showing he complexi y o he his o ical p ocess.
The objec i e in p esen ing public his o y as a ee has no claim o be
exhaus i e o o p esen a heo y- oo ed de ini ion o he ield bu a h-
e o p o oke discussion. T ees ha e o en been used as symbols and
me apho s. Many genealogical associa ions and his o y depa men s
ha e used ees o show he connec ion be ween pas ( oo s) and p e-
sen [ ig. 4]. Such me apho s ha e elici ed some c i icism as well. P o-
posing a na u al elemen – a ee – as a me apho o a human-based ac-
i i y can ini ially seem su p ising. Howe e , he poin is o show public
his o y as a sys em o in e connec ed pa s. The ee ep esen s mo e
han jus ac o s; i shows s ages o a p ocess. O he s ha e c i icised
he me apho o he ee because i o e s a linea and (o e ly) logi-
cal iew, om oo s o lea es, ha does no lea e space o up u es,
con lic s o exchanges (Deleuze, Gua a i 1987). While he ee image
may indeed be p oblema ic o ep esen a ions o kinship, ansmission
and e hnic iden i y, i wo ks well as a me apho o complex in e con-
nec ed sys ems. Fo ins ance, Allan Johnson p oposes explaining pa-
ia chy and gende sys ems h ough he me apho o a ee (Johnson
2014). He uses he di e en pa s o he ee ( oo s, unk, b anches
and lea es) o explain he a icula ion o he pa ia chal sys em. Com-
pa ing public his o y o a ee a gues ha he ield is based on in e -
connec ed ac o s – o housands o hands as Raphael Samuel once de-
sc ibed i (Samuel 1994, 15).
12 Wikipedia, “Public his o y”: h ps://en.wikipedia.o g/wiki/Public_his o y.
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ing public his o y helps o connec a chi is s, esea che s, his o y
communica o s, audio isual p oduce s and hei audiences. The e
can be no communica ion o his o y o la ge audiences wi hou p e-
ious esea ch and in e p e a ion, bu con e sely, esea ch wi hou
audience-cen ed communica ion can lack public engagemen . This
is why he de elopmen o public his o y is helping o os e awa e-
ness and collabo a ion be ween a ious p ac i ione s, e en hough
some p ac ices ha e exis ed o a long ime. Public his o y is he e-
sul o a collabo a ion be ween many di e en p ac i ione s, no nec-
essa ily p o essional o academic his o ians, who a e iden i ied by
hei ole, which migh be cu a ing objec s, w i ing his o ical ic ion
o p ese ing a his o ical house, o ins ance.
The ques ion o whe he o no public his o y can be done wi hou
p o essional his o ians is he e o e less ele an han he ques ion
o how he di e en laye s ela e. Ins ead o asking whe he o no
a p ac i ione is a his o ian, we should ask which s age o he public
his o y p ocess hey a e engaging wi h and how i ela es wi h o h-
e s. This is why I now end o e ain om using he e m ‘public his-
o ian’ – b oadly used wi hin he NCPH – and p e e o use he e m
‘p ac i ione ’, as no all indi iduals in ol ed in public his o y de ine
hemsel es as his o ians. I admi ha his s uc u e o public his o-
y as an in e connec ed sys em may sound op imis ic – igno ing con-
lic ing p ac ices, in e p e a ions and uses o he pas – bu i aims o
connec he many long-di ided p ac ices o his o y.
P o essionally ained his o ians should no eel disempowe ed by
his app oach o public his o y. On he con a y, he collabo a i e
app oach easse s he need o academic and p o essional his o i-
ans, bu wi h di e en oles. Ins ead o ac ing as missiona ies b ing-
ing knowledge o passi e audiences, p o essional his o ians could be
esponsible o sha ing me hodological skills o s udy sou ces. Help-
ing o con ex ualise and in e p e sou ces is one o he mos use ul
asks ha his o ians can b ing o he ield. His o ians can pa ici-
pa e in he cons uc ion o collabo a i e spaces o in e p e a ion.
In 2006, Ba ba a F anco – P esiden o he Ame ican Associa ion o
S a e and Local His o y – poin ed ou ha he “ ole o he his o ian
o schola in ci ic dialogue mus be ocused on c ea ing sa e places
o disag eemen a he han on documen ing ac s o achie ing a
cohe en hesis” (F anco 2006, 3). I ag ee, bu I hink ha his is no
limi ed o ci ic dialogue and a he e e s o public his o y a la ge.
His o ians can connec he di e en s ages and ac o s o public his-
o y, in o he wo ds hey can become he sap ha connec s he oo s,
he unk, he b anches and he lea es.
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4 The Rise o Public His o y: A Sho His o iog aphy
As his o ian Ian Ty ell con esses, “schola s end o see public his-
o y as some hing new” bu “his o ians ha e long add essed public
issues” (Ty ell 2005, 154). Ty ell e eals an impo an misunde -
s anding. Al hough he e m ‘public his o y’ was i s coined in he
US in he 1970s, he p ac ices o ‘doing his o y in public’ go much
u he back. His o ian Paul Kne el asse s ha “e e since he ac-
i i ies o he I alian humanis his o ians o he i een h cen u y,
Wes e n his o iog aphy had had a public unc ion” and he consid-
e s humanis s like B uni and Guiccia dini as he i s ‘mode n’ Eu-
opean public his o ians, using his o y o show hei ellow bu gh-
e s impo an ci ic du ies and he me i s o he ci y-s a e hey we e
li ing in (Kne el 2009, 7). The ques ion is no whe he o no hese
humanis s we e (public) his o ians; he poin is ha he e has clea -
ly been no lack o publicly-engaged schola s in e ac ing wi h b oad
audiences in he pas .
Despi e hese much olde examples, he p o essionalisa ion o his-
o y in he la e 19 h and ea ly 20 h cen u ies a ec ed he ela ion-
ship be ween p o essional his o ians and hei audiences. His o y
became a scien i ic and p o essional discipline o which academic
jou nals became he p e e ed ehicle o dissemina ion. Inspi ed by
Ge man his o ian Leopold on Ranke, p o essional his o ians aimed
o p oduce ac ual his o ical na a i es disconnec ed om p esen
conside a ions (No ick 1988, 43). P o essional his o ians add essed
mo e and mo e speci ic audiences – hei academic pee s – and
mo ed away om popula w i ing s yles. This specialisa ion lay he
g oundwo k o he ‘i o y owe ’ ha he ounde s o he public his-
o y mo emen we e so keen o disman le.
The ise o public his o y as a ield in he 1970s was he esul o
an in e na ional e-examina ion o his o y-making. As James Ga d-
ne and Paula Hamil on igh ly explain, “The his o y o public his o y
as a e m and concep is old in he Uni ed S a es as an in e nal s o-
y in which emissa ies om he Uni ed S a es in oduce i as a p ac-
ice o he es o he wo ld. In ac , om he 1970s and 1980s many
wes e n coun ies expe ienced simila expansion in p o essionali-
za ion o he i age, expansion o his o y in e p e a ion, and also he
o al his o y mo emen , he me hod ha p o ided he mos impe us
o b oade communi y p ojec s” (Ga dne , Hamil on 2017, 4). I is in-
deed necessa y o se he c ea ion o he public his o y mo emen in
a b oade , mo e in e na ional and compa a i e con ex .
Some his o ians de eloped new publicly-engaged p ac ices in he
1960s and 1970s. In B i ain, al hough he e m public his o y was
no used un il e y ecen ly, new app oaches o public pa icipa ion
eme ged (Hoock 2010). His o ian Raphael Samuel c ea ed he His-
o y Wo kshop a Ruskin College (an adul -educa ion ins i u ion in
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Ox o d, B i ain, s ongly oo ed in ade unions). His app oach came
om a “desi e o lessen he au ho i y o academic his o y and he e-
by u he a democ a isa ion o he s udy and uses o his o y” (Jens-
en 2012, 46). In gi ing oice o unde - ep esen ed social g oups,
Samuel was, in e ms o pa icipa o y p ocess, mo e adical han
he public his o y mo emen ha eme ged in he Uni ed S a es in
he 1970s (Schwa z 1993). Compa ing his o ical p ac ices in he US
and in B i ain, Ty ell explains ha “ he B i ish adi ion acili a ed
popula and wo king class eco ding o hei own his o ical expe i-
ences and in ol ed impo an con ibu ions o his p ocess by ade
unions, wo ke s’ educa ion, and local his o y g oups” (Ty ell 2005,
157). Less based on adical his o y and ac i ism, he mo emen in
he US is cha ac e ised by i s capaci y o ins i u ionalise he ield
h ough academic aining.
Robe Kelley i s coined he e m public his o y a he Uni e si-
y o Cali o nia in San a Ba ba a in he 1970s. A uni e si y p o esso ,
en i onmen al his o ian, consul an and expe wi ness on ma e s
ela ed o wa e igh s, Kelley wan ed o ede ine he his o y p o es-
sion o include p ac ical applica ions – and jobs – ou side educa ion.
He w o e ha “public his o y e e s o he employmen o his o ians
and his o ical me hod ou side o academia” (Kelley 1978, 16). Acco d
-
ing o Wesley G. Johnson, ano he ounding membe o he mo emen ,
aining up public his o ians was an answe o he isola ion o aca-
demic his o ians. Johnson explained ha “inc easingly he academy,
a he han his o ical socie y o public a ena, became he habi a o
he his o ian, who li e ally e ea ed in o he p o e bial i o y ow-
e ” (Johnson 1978, 6). The public his o y mo emen in he US se ou
o c ea e new his o ians who would b eak ee om he ‘i o y ow-
e ’ in which academic his o ians had been wo king.
The oo s o he mo emen we e also e y p agma ic. In a con ex
o global economic dep ession du ing he 1970s, uni e si ies expe i-
enced a majo employmen c isis. Jobs in highe educa ion ell d a-
ma ically. The e we e oo many his o ians o oo ew jobs in academ-
ia. Public his o y appea ed o be one possible solu ion o he c isis.
The oca ional opism o public his o y – p oposing jobs ou side ed-
uca ion – ma ched his con ex o di e si ica ion in highe educa ion.
The uni y o he public his o y mo emen in he US can pa ly be
explained by he de elopmen o uni e si y aining in he ield. The
i s pos g adua e p og amme in public his o y opened a he Uni e -
si y o Cali o nia in San a Ba ba a in 1976. Two yea s la e , Wesley
Johnson launched he i s issue o The Public His o ian and o gan-
ised se e al con e ences abou public his o y (Johnson 1999). Held
be ween 1978 and 1980, he con e ences con ibu ed o he c ea ion
o he Na ional Council on Public His o y (NCPH) in 1979. The new
associa ion, he jou nal and he c ea ion o uni e si y p og ammes
ins i u ionalised public his o y as a speci ic ield o s udy.
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While he ins i u ionalisa ion o he ield p og essed in he US, he
concep o public his o y also esona ed in o he pa s o he wo ld,
al hough public his o y was o en conside ed as an Ame ican model.
In 1984, F ench his o ian Hen y Rousso specula ed: “c ea ed in he
Uni ed S a es, public his o y is c ossing he A lan ic. Is his he u-
u e o his o y?” (Rousso 1984, 105). In Aus alia, G aeme Da ison
la e a gued ha public his o y was mos ly in o med by he Ame i-
can public his o y mo emen (Da ison 1998).
Wesley G. Johnson, one o he ounding membe s o he mo emen
in he Uni ed S a es, pa icipa ed in se e al in e na ional e en s in
which he a emp ed o b idge a ious unde s andings and p ac ices
o public his o y. F om 1981 o 1983, he wen on se e al in e na ion-
al ou s in Eu ope and A ica du ing which he lis ed di e en p o-
g ammes ha had public his o y componen s (Johnson 1984, 91, 95).
He me wi h some his o ians who we e al eady accus omed o apply-
ing his o y o p esen -day issues. B i ish his o ian An hony Su cli e
me him in 1980 and immedia ely saw “ he mu ual, and unde s and-
able, sympa hy be ween public his o y and u ban his o y in No h
Ame ica” (Su cli e 1984, 9; S a e 1983). Su cli e explained ha he
“sensed a po en ially cons uc i e common in e es be ween public
his o y and he discipline o economic and social his o y which, in
i s dis inc i e B i ish mani es a ions, al eady acknowledged some o
public his o y’s pe spec i es” (Su cli e 1984, 9). Bu despi e his in-
i ial con e gence, public his o y p ac ices in Eu ope did no eally
ma e ialise un il he 2000s.
In 2009, some his o ians wi hin he NCPH c ea ed a wo king g oup
o in e na ionalise public his o y (Adamek 2010, 8). While he g oup
was o med wi hin he NCPH, he goal was o go beyond No h Ame -
ica. The g oup e ol ed in o a commi ee and was o mally named he
In e na ional Fede a ion o Public His o y (IFPH) in 2010. Al hough
he IFPH ini ially in ol ed some long- ime ad oca es o public his o-
y in he US like A ni a Jones and Jim Ga dne , i slowly e ol ed in o
a mo e in e na ional ne wo k o p ac i ione s. Unlike he p ocess o
in e na ionalisa ion in he 1980s, which mos ly a emp ed o sp ead
a speci ic app oach om he US, he IFPH aims o connec di e -
en local and na ional unde s andings o he ield. The IFPH does no
p opose a single de ini ion o wha public his o y is o should be. In-
s ead, a ecen p ojec c ea ed a space o discussion in which p ac-
i ione s om all o e he wo ld can p esen hei some imes e y
di e en iews o he ield. Since public his o y is based on collab-
o a ion, i makes a g ea deal o sense o apply his app oach o de-
ining he ield i sel .
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5 Public His o y Unde C i icism
This o e iew o public his o y should no hide he many deba es
wi hin – and some imes ha sh c i icisms o – he ield. Public his o y
has always been a highly con en ious ield, and hese c i icisms can
help imp o e ou unde s anding o he issues a s ake. While some
o he c i icisms a e based on alid a gumen s, o he s demons a e a
eluc ance o econside he way his o y is done, pe o med, augh
o communica ed. Some o hese c i icisms and possible esponses
can be ound below. Needless o say, I do no claim ha his lis is
exhaus i e. Likewise, each c i icism calls o a esponse de eloped
a leng h, which would be ill sui ed o he o ma o his a icle. In-
s ead o p o iding clea -cu , de ini i e answe s, I explo e some op-
ions o u he in o m discussions.
5.1 “The e is No Need o Public His o y”
Some schola s ha e claimed ha he e is no need o public his o y.
In a now- amous a icle published in 1981, Ronald G ele, albei ac-
knowledging he need o engage and communica e wi h la ge audi-
ences, explained ha “[i] is p obably ob ious o poin ou ha his o-
ians ha e always had a public. F om i s ea lies imes, he s udy o
his o y has been a public ac ” (G ele 1981, 41). He c i icised he p o-
ponen s o public his o y, claiming ha hey had o go en ha many
his o ians had long been wo king in cul u al ins i u ions, a chi es,
museums and his o ical socie ies. In his iew, he c ea ion o a public
his o y mo emen was pa ly he esul o uni e si y-based his o ians
ying o easse hei con ol o e exis ing local his o ical p ac ices.
G ele’s asse ion indeed aises impo an issues abou how we de-
ine public his o y. Al hough he e m public his o y was coined in
he 1970s, p ac ices o ‘doing his o y in public’ had been a ound o
much longe , as seen abo e. In addi ion o ea ly 20 h-cen u y exam-
ples o applied his o y, many o he his o ians had been wo king in
cul u al ins i u ions o had been employed by go e nmen s and mil-
i a y se ices. In he Uni ed Kingdom, he Wa O ice, he Admi al-
y and he Commi ee o Impe ial De ence had “ hei own his o ical
sec ions be o e he Fi s Wo ld Wa ” (O e 1984, 28). His o ical sec-
ions we e ex ended o o he depa men s a e WWII (Beck 2006).
O he his o ians wo ked in companies. In Ge many, he K upp Com-
pany de eloped in e nal a chi es as ea ly as 1905 wi h he help o
his o ians. Likewise, his o ian William D. O e man became a pe -
manen employee o he US-based Fi es one Ti e and Rubbe Com-
pany in 1943 o “es ablish he i s p o essionally s a ed co po a e
a chi e in he Uni ed S a es” (Cona d 2013, 161). So he public his o-
y mo emen did no in en he wheel; some o i s p ac ices al eady
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exis ed and should be included in he his o iog aphy o he ield. Bu
despi e he ac ha public his o y is o some ex en based on long-
held p ac ices, he mo emen has se ed o connec hese p ac ices
and o enla ge he o e all p ocess o his o y.
G ele’s a gumen was ecen ly used by I ish his o ian John Regan
o c i icise he need o a speci ic ield o public his o y. Acco ding o
Regan, “an assump ion o public his o y’s ad oca es is ha he pub-
lic does no engage wi h schola ship” and “in he Republic o I eland,
he e exis s a heal hy p ac ice o dissemina ing his o ical knowledge
om he uni e si ies o gene al audiences”. He ci es his o ians ap-
pea ing on adio and ele ision o w i ing o newspape s (Regan
2010, 268). The a gumen ha we do no need a speci ic ield because
his o y is al eady public esembles he a gumen o ano he I ish his-
o ian, Gea óid Ó Tua haigh, who claims ha “ his no ion o an incom-
pa ibili y be ween p o essional and public his o y (is) undamen ally
misconcei ed” (Ó Tua haigh 2014). I ag ee ha he s ic opposi ion
be ween he supposedly well-dema ca ed public his o y and academ-
ic/p o essional his o y is p oblema ic. Indeed, wha would be he dis
-
inc ion be ween a public his o ian and a non-public his o ian? Going
back o he me apho o a ee, academic schola ship is an in eg al
pa o he p ocess i connec ed o he o he s ages o public his o-
y. John Regan’s ision o public his o y is, howe e , limi ed o com-
munica ing his o y o la ge audiences. I s ill ep esen s a op-down
app oach in which ‘expe s’ b ing knowledge o passi e audiences,
wi h e y li le public collabo a ion o pa icipa ion. Wha is mo e,
some skills a e necessa y o p ac ise public his o y. Designing exhi-
bi ions, making audio isual p oduc ions and compiling and manag-
ing a chi es and collec ions a e, o ins ance, some o he skills ha
need o be lea ned o p ac ise public his o y. We need public his o y
because i helps aise awa eness o wha i akes o esea ch, in e -
p e , communica e and sha e his o ical knowledge.
5.2 “Public His o y is no His o y”
“Public his o y is no his o y, i is communica ion”. Ano he c i icism
le elled a public his o y has add essed i s alleged lack o his o ical
me hodology. I was ecen ly in i ed o discuss public his o y aining
a a public his o y summe school in Belg ade, Se bia, wi h s uden s
and his o ians om di e en pa s o Eu ope.16 I p esen ed he a -
ious skills ha I wan my public his o y s uden s o acqui e du ing
hei aining. Du ing he discussion wi h pa icipan s, a clea line
16 Applied Eu opean Con empo a y His o y websi e, h p://aec-his o y.uni-je-
na.de/? imeline_pos =2nd-summe -school.
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eme ged be ween public his o y p ac i ione s – a chi is s and cu a-
o s, o ins ance – and some academics. Fo he la e , wha I had
p esen ed was no his o y bu me ely communica ion. They saw he
ole o his o ians as p ima ily ca ying ou o iginal esea ch and be-
coming expe s in a clea ly de ined subjec a ea.
To be ai , in my alk I had no insis ed on he his o iog aphy and
me hodology aining ha my s uden s also ecei e. Howe e , hose
c i icisms mi o a b oade iew ha public his o y is oo ocused on
communica ion and media. I disag ee o se e al easons. Fi s , jus
as public his o y is g ounded – he oo s and he unk o he ee – in
p ima y sou ces and esea ch, public his o y s uden s ecei e ain-
ing in esea ch and his o iog aphy. Bu public his o y s uden s also
lea n skills o communica e his o y o la ge audiences and o collabo-
a e wi h a ious pa ne s and public g oups. In he same way ha a
good esea che does no necessa ily make a good eache , a his o i-
an is no necessa ily equipped o p ac ise public his o y. I his o ians
wan o wo k in and wi h he public, hey ha e o lea n skills such as
how o cu a e and design his o ical exhibi ions, w i e 150-wo d pan-
els o p oduce audio isual p ojec s. His o y is no communica ion,
bu i can lea n om communica ion. Jason S einhaue hus c ea ed
a g oup o his o y communica o s o aise awa eness and discussion
abou communica ion skills o his o ians. He explains ha “[j]us as
he sciences ha e p epa ed a gene a ion o scien is s o be Science
Communica o s, so oo is his o y p epa ing His o y Communica o s
o communica e new his o ical schola ship o non-expe s in oday’s
complex media en i onmen ”.17
Mo e challenging is he iew ha public his o y is no his o y bu
a he a so o memo y p oduc ion. Du ing a semina on museums
and public his o y held in Qui o, Ecuado , one his o ian a gued ha
public his o y had mo e o do wi h g oup memo ies han p o ession-
al his o y:18 p o essional his o ians w i e his o y while communi ies
de elop memo ies. This opposi ion be ween his o y and memo y is
no hing new. I e lec s he ise in memo y s udies o e he pas ou
decades. Some his o ians, like Da id Lowen hal, ha e dis inguished
be ween his o y and memo ies. In Lowen hal’s compa ison, he se s
his o ians who “while ealizing ha he pas can ne e be e ie ed
unal e ed […] s ill s i e o impa ial, checkable accu acy, minimiz-
ing bias as inescapable bu deplo able” agains hose – he does no
call hem his o ians – who “see bias and e o as no mal and neces-
17 Jason S einhaue ’s pe sonal websi e, h ps://www.jasons einhaue .com/his-
o y-communica o s.
18 Uni e sidad Andina Simon Boli a , “Museos, his o ia publica, y poli cas cul-
u ales”, h ps://www.uasb.edu.ec/con enido?museos-his o ia-publica-y-po-
li icas-cul u ales.
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sa y” (Lowen hal 1997, 32). He claims ha he e is a mul iplici y o
memo ies emana ing om g oups and indi iduals, and ha i is he
ask o his o ians o esea ch hose memo ies as case s udies.
In Lowen hal’s iew, public his o y would closely connec ed o
memo ies because i in ol es wo king wi h g oups and communi-
ies. Fo example, I was wo king wi h local communi ies o s udy
he his o y o he legacy o immig a ion in Colo ado. Wo king wi h
g oups and communi ies can be challenging as i in ol es es imo-
nies, indi idual ecollec ion and emo ions such as p ide and ange .
Pe e No ick is c i ical o a e sion o public his o y ha he de ines
as seeking “ o legi imize his o ical wo k designed o he pu poses
o pa icula is ic cu en cons i uencies”. This de ini ion o public
his o y con as s wi h wha No ick p esen s as he “noble d eam” o
“ he uni e salis e hos o schola ship” (No ick 1988, 471-472, 510).
I would a gue ha , going back o he me apho o he ee, public
his o y is no simply unc i ically emembe ing he pas ; as James
Ga dne s essed in his c i ique o adical us , (public) his o y is
no me e opinion (Ga dne 2010). Communica ion and uses o he
pas – b anches and lea es – a e connec ed o p ima y sou ces and
hei c i ical in e p e a ion. His o ians help public g oups and com-
muni ies de elop skills o use, in e p e , con ex ualise and compa e
e idence o he pas . The ole o ained his o ians is mo e han me e-
ly sha ing hei knowledge o he pas ; i in ol es sha ing hei skills
o in e p e and unde s and he pas .
Acco ding o he c i icism ou lined abo e, wo king wi h mul iple
pa ne s and public g oups could lead o he agmen a ion o he
na a i es o he pas , esul ing in plu al memo ies a he han a
single his o y. Howe e , simply con as ing a plu ali y o memo ies
wi h a singula his o y is a nai e p esen a ion o he ield ha igno es
he many ‘his o y wa s’ and deba es when in e p e ing he pas . Be-
sides, mul iple pe spec i es do no necessa ily mean a lack o c i -
ical igou in de eloping iews o he pas . Fo ins ance, he Thei
Pas You Fu u e exhibi ion p esen ed he Second Wo ld Wa om
he pe spec i e o UK e e ans h ough es imonies (Saye 2019, 14).
Bu he exhibi ion, as a public his o y p ojec , was no me ely a col-
lec ion o unc i ical memo ies. Tes imonies we e coupled wi h o he
p ima y sou ces, oo age and con ex ualisa ion. The p ojec had he
bene i o showing speci ic in e p e a ions o he wa while connec -
ing hem o a b oade con ex and his o ical na a i es. This balance
be ween se e al in e p e a ions o he pas and he b oade con ex
is i al o public his o y as i shows how e en s may ha e a a ie y
o alid in e p e a ions. Sa ah Lloyd and Julie Moo e ha e p oposed
he concep o “sedimen ed his o ies” which can “hold di e en ac-
coun s o he pas alongside one ano he , accommoda ing bo h he
his o ies ha people choose o li e by and he his o ies ha e e y-
one li es wi h” (Lloyd, Moo e 2015).
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Public his o y can con ibu e o econciling his o y and memo y.
I s pa icipa o y p ac ices p o ide a space o indi idual and collec i e
memo ies in he p oduc ion o his o ical na a i es. In 1996, his o i-
an Da id Glassbe g led a discussion on he links be ween public his-
o y and memo y (Glassbe g 1996). The discussion explo ed how indi-
idual and collec i e memo ies can be pa o public his o y p ojec s.
Fo ins ance, i is common in his o ical p ese a ion o membe s o lo-
cal communi ies o ake pa in discussions abou wha should be p e-
se ed, why and how. Public memo ies o si es help us disco e new lay-
e s o in e p e a ion and s eng hen he au hen ici y o na a i es. The
p oduc ion o public unde s anding o he pas is mo e complex han
a simple con on a ion be ween his o y and memo y. In his answe o
Glassbe g’s a icle, Robe A chibald poin ed ou ha “ he new memo y
esea ch is especially impo an because i is audience- ocused and ec-
ognizes ha examining how humans ecei e in o ma ion and cons uc
memo y is c i ical o ou wo k” (A chibald 1997, 64). Di e en public
uses and in e p e a ions o he pas a e c ucial o unde s anding how
audiences make ‘sense o his o y’, o as Glassbe g pu i , as e idence o
he in e sec ion o he in ima e and he his o ical (Glassbe g 2001, 6).
5.3 Public His o y, Consul an s and Clien s
Because o i s mul iple connec ions wi h pa ne s, public his o y has
also been c i icised o being p esen -cen ed. Regan a gues ha
“Public his o ies popula ize he pas , bu hey a e condi ioned by
he needs o he p esen . They may wan o win o es o he go e n-
men o loyal y o a cause, o jus pay hei way as comme cial en-
u es. Public his o ies pande o he expec a ions o mass audienc-
es, whe eas his o ical esea ch is mo e in e es ed in he pas o i s
own sake” (Regan 2012). Al hough his opposi ion be ween mul iple
public his o ies and a singula and objec i e his o ical esea ch is
highly deba able, i aises impo an ques ions abou e hical issues.
C i icising public his o y o being ma ke -o ien ed is no new no
speci ic o he ield. The e ha e been deba es on how he i age man-
agemen is in luenced by ma ke ing and comme cialisa ion. Some
schola s ha e denounced he packaging o he pas h ough he i -
age managemen (Baillie, Cha zoglou, Taha 2010). In 1996, Michael
Wallace c i icised he ‘disney ied’ his o y p oposed a some museums
and his o ical si es in he US (Wallace 1996). He claimed ha some
he i age p ojec s p oposed ‘edu ainmen ’, a mix o educa ion and en-
e ainmen , o a ac mo e audiences, o he de imen o his o ical
accu acy. The ise o en e ainmen as a policy d i e o his o ical
and he i age si es has been deplo ed by some schola s because o i s
comme cialising o his o y. As Faye Saye poin s ou , “public his o i-
ans ha e been accused o using he media and i s echniques o sen-
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sa ionalize and oman icize he pas in o de o c ea e an un ealis-
ic, ye publicly appealing, e sion o his o y” (Saye 2019, 15). The
close links be ween public his o y and his o ical si es, museums and
o he cul u al ins i u ions – some imes o -p o i companies – make
hose c i icisms impo an o e hical discussions.
E hics and e hical p ac ices a e c ucial o public his o y, espe-
cially when pa ne s and clien s ha e mul iple non-educa ional objec-
i es, some o which may be p o i -based. Discussions on e hics a e
also impo an o his o ians who wo k as indi idual consul an s iso-
la ed om la ge s uc u es such as uni e si ies, cul u al ins i u ions,
na ional pa ks o o he public agencies. F om he ou se , his o ical
consul ing – o ins ance he US-based i m His o ical Resea ch As-
socia es – has been closely associa ed wi h he NCPH.19 In he ea ly
1980s, Johnson no iced eluc ance and c i icism ega ding he appli-
ca ion o his o y du ing his ou s in Eu ope. He obse ed ha Ge man
s uden s and schola s we e scep ical abou “his o ians wo king wi h
business co po a ions” and openly hos ile “ o he idea o his o ians
wo king wi h ede al go e nmen agencies” (Johnson 1984, 90). Simi-
la ly, No ick wonde ed whe he consul an s, unde he p essu e o hei
clien s, would ocus me ely on he his o ical eco ds ha “suppo he
case hey we e making, and [would do] hei bes o sweep unde he
ug o i ialize disc epan indings” (No ick 1988, 514). C i icisms o-
cused on he ac ha his o ical na a i es would become a p oduc
and, like any p oduc , would be sold o ma ke ing o poli ical pu poses.
Howe e , p essu e and in e e ence a e no limi ed o consul an s.
Fuelled by he ecen upsu ge in populism and poli ical uses o he
pas , e e y his o ian – including hose wo king in uni e si ies – can
be a ec ed by in e e ence and p essu e (E ges, Zumdo , Machce-
wicz 2018). The ounding membe s o he public his o y mo emen
in he US did no igno e e hical ques ions. E e y a icle o he i s
issue o The Public His o ian men ioned e hical issues in public his-
o y.20 The NCPH se up an E hics Commi ee in he ea ly 1980s ha
led o he de elopmen o he i s NCPH E hical Guidelines in 1985
(Ka amanski 1986). Theodo e Ka amanski led a ound able on E h-
ics and Public His o y and la e published a collec ion o essays en-
i led E hics and Public His o y in 1990 (Ka amanski 1990). In 2007,
he NCPH upda ed i s Code o E hics and P o essional Conduc , high-
ligh ing public his o ians’ esponsibili y owa ds he public, hei
clien s and employe s, and owa ds he p o ession and colleagues.21
19 The NCPH p o ides speci ic esou ces o consul an s: h ps://ncph.o g/publi-
ca ions- esou ces/ o -p ac i ione s-and-consul an s/.
20 The Public His o ian, 1(1), 1978.
21
h ps://ncph.o g/abou /go e nance-commi ees/code-o -e hics-and-
p o essional-conduc /.
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icipa o ymuseum.o g
S a e, B.M. (1983). “A Con e sa ion wi h Joel A. Ta : U ban His o-
y and Policy”. Jou nal o U ban His o y, 9, 195-232. h p s://d o i.
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Su cli e, A. (1984). “Gleams and Echoes o Public His o y in Wes e n Eu ope:
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Thelen, D.; Rosenzweig, R. (2000). The P esence o he Pas : Popula Uses o His-
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