Grid-Connected Energy Storage Systems: State-of-the-Art and Emerging Technologies

G id-Connec ed Ene gy
S o age Sys ems:
S a e-o - he-A and
Eme ging Technologies
This a icle discusses p os and cons o a ailable ene gy s o age, desc ibes applica ions
whe e ene gy s o age sys ems a e needed and he g id se ices hey can p o ide, and
demons a es di e en powe elec onic solu ions.
By GLEN G. FARIVAR ,Senio Membe IEEE,WILLIAM MANALASTAS,JR.,
HOSSEIN DEHGHANI TAFTI ,Senio Membe IEEE,SALVADOR CEBALLOS ,
ALAIN SANCHEZ-RUIZ ,Senio Membe IEEE,EMMA C. LOVELL,
GEORGIOS KONSTANTINOU ,Senio Membe IEEE,
CHRISTOPHER D. TOWNSEND ,Membe IEEE,MADHAVI SRINIVASAN,
AND JOSEP POU ,Fellow IEEE
ABSTRACT |High pene a ion o enewable ene gy esou ces
in he powe sys em esul s in a ious new challenges o
powe sys em ope a o s. One o he p omising solu ions o
sus ain he quali y and eliabili y o he powe sys em is
he in eg a ion o ene gy s o age sys ems (ESSs). This a icle
in es iga es he cu en and eme ging ends and echnologies
Manusc ip ecei ed 1 No embe 2021; e ised 5 Ma ch 2022; accep ed
3 June 2022. Da e o publica ion 28 June 2022; da e o cu en e sion 5 Ap il
2023. This wo k was suppo ed in pa by he O ice o Na al Resea ch Global
unde G an N62909-19-1-2081, in pa by he Na ional Resea ch Founda ion o
Singapo e In es iga o ship unde Awa d NRFI2017-08, and in pa by he
I2001E0069 Indus ial Alignmen Funding. (Co esponding au ho : Josep Pou.)
Glen G. Fa i a is wi h he Ene gy Resea ch Ins i u e, Nanyang Technological
Uni e si y, Singapo e 639798 (e-mail: [email p o ec ed].sg).
William Manalas as,J ., and Madha i S ini asan a e wi h he School o
Ma e ials Science and Enginee ing, Nanyang Technological Uni e si y, Singapo e
639798 (e-mail: wmanalas [email p o ec ed].sg; madha i@n u.edu.sg).
Hossein Dehghani Ta i and Ch is ophe D. Townsend a e wi h he
Depa men o Elec ical, Elec onic, and Compu e Enginee ing, The Uni e si y
o Wes e n Aus alia, C awley, WA 6009, Aus alia (e-mail:
[email protected] u.edu.sg; [email protected] g).
Sal ado Ceballos is wi h Tecnalia, Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance
(BRTA), 48160 De io, Spain (e-mail: sal ado .ceballos@ ecnalia.com).
Alain Sanchez-Ruiz is wi h Inge eam R&D Eu ope, 48170 Zamudio, Spain, and
also wi h he Depa men o Elec onic Technology, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y (UPV/EHU), 01006 Vi o ia-Gas eiz, Spain (e-mail: alain.sanchez@
ehu.eus).
Emma C. Lo ell is wi h he School o Chemical Enginee ing, Uni e si y o
New Sou h Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Aus alia (e-mail: e.lo [email protected]).
Geo gios Kons an inou is wi h he School o Elec ical Enginee ing and
Telecommunica ions, Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052,
Aus alia (e-mail: g.kons an [email protected]).
Josep Pou is wi h he School o Elec ical and Elec onic Enginee ing, Nanyang
Technological Uni e si y, Singapo e 639798 (e-mail: [email protected] g).
Digi al Objec Iden i ie 10.1109/JPROC.2022.3183289
o g id-connec ed ESSs. Di e en echnologies o ESSs ca e-
go ized as mechanical, elec ical, elec ochemical, chemical,
and he mal a e b ie ly explained. Especially, a de ailed e iew
o ba e y ESSs (BESSs) is p o ided as hey a e a ac ing
much a en ion owing, in pa , o he ongoing elec i ica-
ion o anspo a ion. Then, he se ices ha g id-connec ed
ESSs p o ide o he g id a e discussed. G id connec ion o
he BESSs equi es powe elec onic con e e s. The e o e,
a su ey o popula powe con e e opologies, including
ans o me -based, ans o me less wi h dis ibu ed o com-
mon dc-link, and hyb id sys ems, along wi h some discussions
o implemen ing ad anced g id suppo unc ionali ies in he
BESS con ol, is p esen ed. Fu he mo e, he equi emen s
o new s anda ds and g id codes o g id-connec ed BESSs
a e e iewed o se e al coun ies a ound he globe. Finally,
eme ging echnologies, including lexible powe con ol o pho-
o ol aic sys ems, hyd ogen, and second-li e ba e ies om
elec ic ehicles, a e discussed in his a icle.
KEYWORDS |Ba e y ene gy s o age sys em (BESS); ene gy
s o age sys em (ESS); g id codes; hyd ogen; powe elec onic
con e e ; enewable ene gy.
I. INTRODUCTION
E e y ene gy s o age sys em (ESS) uns h ough a cycle
o cha ge and discha ge wi h a long- e m ene gy balance
equi ed be ween cha ge and discha ge o he s able and
sus ainable ope a ion o he sys em. Ene gy s o ed in he
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Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023 |PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 397
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
ea h as ossil uels o e he cou se o millions o yea s
is no excep ion o his. The issue wi h he cu en a e
o u iliza ion is no jus he ine i able deple ion o his
aluable esou ce (wi h cu en p oduc ion a es based
on 2020 known esou ces, oil and gas a e es ima ed o
las 50 and 49 yea s, espec i ely, while coal will un ou
a e 139 yea s [1]) bu also i s side e ec o emi ing
g eenhouse gases. In ac , conside ing he la e , i is
es ima ed ha , by 2050, nea ly 60% o oil and me hane
gas and 90% o coal mus emain unex ac ed o ha e a
50% p obabili y o limi ing global wa ming o 1.5 ◦C[2].
Acco dingly, he e is a need o u gen ly modi y he way
socie y uses his na u al ESS by d as ically educing he
discha ge a e (bu n ewe ossil uels) and inc easing he
cha ging a e (plan mo e ees) o es o e he na u al
balance. Achie ing his o cou se elies on u ilizing o he
ene gy sou ces.
Ine i ably, in he nea u u e, almos all o ou ene gy
consump ion will be gene a ed om sus ainable sou ces.
Cu en ly, wind, sola , and hyd o a e he p edominan
enewable sou ces ha ha e eached echnological ma u-
i y and wi h he cu en p ojec ion o deploymen a es;
p esumably, hey will be he backbone o ou elec ic
powe gene a ion o he o eseeable u u e [3]. O
cou se, any b eak h ough in p omising dis up i e ech-
nologies, such as nuclea usion eac o s, can al e his
p esump ion [4]–[6].
Elec ic powe g ids ope a e on a delica ely main ained
balance be ween gene a ion and consump ion. Con en-
ionally, gene a ion was lexible o ollow he load demand.
Howe e , gi en he in e mi en and uncon olled na u e
o enewable powe gene a ion, powe g ids will ha e o
inc easingly ely on ESSs o p ese e balanced ope a ion.
This is why, as seen in Fig. 1, in line wi h an inc easing
amoun o in e mi en wind and sola gene a ion capac-
i y [1], ins alled ESS capaci y has o inc ease as well [7].
ESSs’ ole as an enable o ha ing a sus ainable g id
based on enewables is demons a ed based on Aus alia’s
expe ience in [8].
Ha ing o in es in o en-expensi e ESSs is indeed an
undesi able consequence o eplacing dispa chable con-
en ional powe plan s wi h in e mi en wind and sola
plan s. Howe e , he e a e p omising eme ging echnolo-
gies ha add lexibili y o bo h gene a o s and loads o
e ec i ely educe eliance on ESSs [9], [10]. Such lexible
asse s essen ially y o educe he misma ch be ween
gene a ion and consump ion and, as a esul , educe ESS
cha ge and discha ge.
This a icle aims o p o ide an o e iew o g id-
connec ed ESS echnologies and he ole hey play in
enabling elec ici y powe g ids o he u u e when dom-
ina ed by in e mi en enewable sou ces. Special a en-
ion is gi en o elec ochemical ESS echnologies ha
a e also used in elec ic ehicles (EVs), and as a esul ,
hey a e expe iencing apid g ow h and de elopmen
ac i i ies, which is e iden om an e e -inc easing yea ly
ins alled capaci y, as shown in Fig. 2 [11]. Powe elec-
Fig. 1. (a) Wind and sola gene a ion capaci y (da a sou ced
om [1]). (b) Cumula i e ESS powe capaci y (da a sou ced
om [7]). (c) Wo ldwide dis ibu ion o he agg ega e ope a ional
ESS powe capaci y (da a sou ced om [7]).
onics con e e s a e he enable s o g id in eg a ion
o such ESS echnologies. A comp ehensi e e iew o
powe con e e s o g id and EV applica ions is p o ided
in [12] and [13]. Compa ed o hese e e ences, his a icle
expands he e iew by including he ollowing echnology
ad ancemen s:
1) con ol and eme ging egula ions o g id suppo
unc ionali ies;
2) ad ancemen s in solid-s a e- ans o me (SST)
echnology;
398 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
Fig. 2. Yea ly ins alled ba e y ene gy s o age capaci y (da a
sou ced om [11]).
3) powe dispa i y limi s and s able ope a ing ange o
modula powe con e e s.
The o ganiza ion o his a icle is gi en as ollows.
Fo he sake o comple eness, in Sec ion II, p ominen
ESS echnologies a e e iewed. Sec ion III is de o ed o
u he expanding he e iew on selec ed ESS echnolo-
gies ha a e empowe ing he elec i ica ion o anspo a-
ion. In Sec ion IV, he signi icance and ole o ESS in
mode n elec ic powe g ids a e es ablished. Powe elec-
onic in e ace opologies o g id connec ion o ba e y
ESSs (BESSs) and g id codes and s anda ds ela ed o
g id connec ion o in e e s a e e iewed in Sec ion V.
Sec ion VI looks a ad ancemen s in con olling BESSs o
enable addi ional g id suppo unc ionali ies. Sec ion VII
discusses some upwa d ending ela ed echnologies and
p ospec s. Finally, some concluding ema ks a e p o ided
in Sec ion VIII.
II. ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
A comp ehensi e e iew o a ailable ene gy s o age ech-
nologies is epo ed in [14]–[17]. Fig. 3 shows an o e iew
o he ene gy s o age echnologies [18] and hei sha e
o cu en ope a ional ESS capaci y based on he da a
om he U.S. Depa men o Ene gy, Global Ene gy S o age
Da abase [7]. Some ea u es o each ca ego y a e discussed
in he ollowing.
Mechanical: In his ca ego y, pumped hyd o s o age
(PHS) is one o he oldes , mos popula , and mos ma u e
o ms o s o ing ene gy da ing back o he 1920s and
cu en ly accoun s o o e 90% o g id ene gy s o age
capaci y [19]. Pumped s o age is no mally associa ed wi h
es ablished hyd oelec ic dams on i e s, whe e wa e is
pumped back o an ele a ed s o age dam. Howe e , i is
also possible o use la ge unde g ound ca e ns o PHS
pu poses [20]. Such geological ca e ns o old mines a e
sui able o use in comp essed ai ene gy s o age (CAES)
as well [21]. CAES ope a es on a simila p inciple o PHS,
i.e., d i ing a u bine h ough s o ed po en ial ene gy.
The mal: A no able example o he mal s o age o
p oducing elec ici y is he concen a ed sola powe plan
(CSP). CSP ope a es in a simila way o a con en ional
s eam u bine powe plan ; howe e , he hea sou ce is
o en mol en sal p oduced by concen a ing sola adia-
ion [22].
Elec ical: Supe capaci o s and supe conduc ing mag-
ne ic ene gy s o age a e he wo p ominen elec ical
ene gy s o age echnologies. Bo h ea u e low ene gy den-
si y and high powe densi y. While he o me has ound
many applica ions equi ing as and equen cha ge and
discha ge [23], he cos -e ec i eness o he la e in p ac-
ice is s ill deba able as i equi es main aining ex emely
low empe a u es [24].
Elec ochemical: Ba e ies a e one o he mos di e se
and apidly g owing o ms o ene gy s o age echnology.
Thei signi icance is no jus ele an o g id-connec ed
sys ems bu also o he au omo i e indus y [25]. Mo e dis-
cussion abou his echnology is p o ided in Sec ions III, V,
and VI.
Chemical: Chemical s o age compa ed o he p e iously
discussed echnologies is unique in he sense ha i can
be anspo ed and, owing o i s high-ene gy capaci y, can
p o ide a seasonal ene gy s o age op ion o he powe
Fig. 3. (a) Ca ego y o ESS echnologies (de ails a ailable in [18]).
(b) S o age capaci y dis ibu ion among he ESS echnologies (da a
sou ced om [7]).
Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023 |PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 399
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
Table 1 Key Pe o mance Indica o s o ESS Technologies (Da a Sou ced F om [18])
g id [26]. In pa icula , hyd ogen is eme ging as a a ge
in chemical ene gy s o age echnology. The e e se p ocess
o gene a ing elec ici y occu s ei he indi ec ly h ough
con en ional gas u bine powe plan s o di ec ly h ough
uel cells [27]. Gi en he signi icance o his echnology o
eaching 100% ene gy sus ainabili y, i is comp ehensi ely
e iewed in Sec ion VII-C.
In o de o compa e he main ea u es o some selec ed
ESS echnologies, Table 1 summa izes hei key pe o -
mance indica o s. F om he p o ided da a, i is no ha d
o see why PHS is he dominan and p e e ed ESS op ion.
Howe e , i can only be applied whe e a sui able geo-
g aphical se ing is a ailable nea by. Some examples o
he ecen ESS deploymen p ojec s a e p o ided in he
Appendix.
Among he ESS echnologies, capaci o s, ba e ies, and
uel cells a e closely ela ed as hey di ec ly p oduce a
dc ol age (wi hou he need o any elec omechanical
gene a o ), and in addi ion, o powe g id applica ions,
hey a e applied o powe EVs. A mo e comp ehensi e
e iew o hese echnologies is p o ided in Sec ion III.
III. ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
STORAGE
Elec ochemical powe packs ha e os e ed human com-
o s o po able connec i i y, mechanical au oma ion, and
an elec i ied li ing en i onmen . Such de ices a e capable
o ul ahigh e iciencies. They do no su e om he 51%
Ca no e iciency h esholds o combus ion engines. They
can be used in a e sa ile ange o o m ac o s, anging
om hin ilms o ca idges o block modules. They sim-
pli y echa ging logis ics by aking ad an age o a la ge
p eexis ing powe g id a chi ec u e. In addi ion, hey can
be eadily in eg a ed as pe elec ic a ing equi emen s ia
cell s acking.
The echnological p inciple is ul ima ely based on he
Ne ns equa ion: ΔG=nF E. He e, he eleased chemical
ene gy (ΔG)is he p oduc o he di ec ed mig a ion o
elec ical cha ge (n), Fa aday’s cons an (F),and heelec-
ochemical po en ial (E)be ween wo subs ance masses.
The genius o he ea ly elec ochemis s was he ealiza ion
ha elec on anspo and ion anspo occu ing in
mundane combus ion, o ins ance, could heo e ically
be decoupled, hus e ec i ely d i ing elec omagne ic
mo o s. No only ha , by limi ing he anspo o ei he
elec ons o ions, one could e ec i ely swi ch OFF he
elease o s o ed ene gy. This has, hus, c ea ed a b idge
be ween space and ime o supplying elec ic ene gy when
and whe e i is needed a e y low penal ies o en opic
ene gy loss. This is in s a k con as o mechanical engines
based on p essu e– empe a u e di e en ials, whe ein gas
exhaus s s ill ca y subs an ial unha nessed ene gy.
The e minological ca ego y o elec ochemical powe
packs is elec ochemical-ene gy s o age (EES) de ices.
They exploi he chemical po en ial di e ences exis ing
be ween seg ega ed ac i e ma e ials, which ep esen s
s o ed ene gy. Ac i e ma e ials when b ough oge he in
di ec in ima e con ac may esul in an explosi e bu s
o hea ene gy om elec on-ion di usion in e mixing.
Wha EES de ices do is decouple he ion anspo using
an in e nal elec oly e, om he elec on anspo , which
is edi ec ed h ough an ex e nal load o pe o m use ul
wo k. EES de ices can be classi ied in o uel cells, ba e ies,
and capaci o s, as shown in Fig. 4.
Rema k: In his sec ion and he ea e in his a icle, o
ease o e e ence and o unde sco e he close associa ion
o hese echnologies, he de ini ion o EES is expanded
o include capaci o s (elec ical) and uel cells (chemical)
ESS echnologies.
A. Fuel Cells
Fuel cells oxidize “ uels” (e.g., H2, ace ylene, me hanol,
e hanol, NH3,H
2O2, and na u al gas) using p ecious-me al
ca alys s, and hei o al ene gy ou pu is only limi ed by
how much uel can be supplied [28]–[30]. This uel de i es
mos ly om he pe ochemical indus y, pho ochemical
ca alys s (∼17% gene a ion e iciency), o dual-elec ode
elec olysis/ he mal ca alysis (65%–85% gene a ion e i-
ciency). Gene a ed uels pose logis ical challenges, and in
pa icula , H2, al hough ligh weigh , pe mea es h ough
s ainless s eel and mos plas ic piping, and is explosi e
(mo e discussions a e p o ided in Sec ion VIII). Fuel cells
ypically ope a e be ween 20 ◦C and 1100 ◦C depending
400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
Fig. 4. Gene al diag am o EES wo king p inciples: ba e ies,
capaci o s, and uel cells. Ba e ies depend on shu le-like chemical
edox eac ions. Capaci o s a e based on ield-induced cha ge
sepa a ion. Fuel cells p o ide powe by oxidizing ex e nal uels
h ough hei ca alys elec odes.
on he memb ane echnology, whe e ele a ed empe a-
u es a e usually equi ed o achie e accep able cu en
a es h ough he elec oly e despi e lowe powe e i-
ciencies (due o he need o hea ing) [31], [32]. The
li e ime o a uel-cell s ack can u he be se iously lim-
i ed by poisoning/coking/phase seg ega ion issues o he
ca alys co e in an uncon olled se ing. P ope ly se up,
howe e , uel cells a e ex emely aluable o ene gy-
o acious ins alla ions equi ing unin e up ed powe sup-
ply o p olonged pe iods wi h i ually ze o in e mi en
down ime. The la ges comme cial supplie s o hea y-
du y s acks as o he yea 2020 include Bloom Ene gy,
Kyoce a, SOLIDpowe , and FuelCell Ene gy wi h uni
demons a ions exhibi ing 45%–75% elec ical e icien-
cies and cell s ack deg ada ion a es o 0.4%–0.9% pe
1000 h (3.5%–7.9% pe yea ) [33]. Ce es Powe s ands
ou o compac , modula uni s (5 kW) equi ing minimal
high- empe a u e insula ion, exhibi ing <0.2% deg ada-
ion/1000 h (∼1.7% pe yea ), gua an eeing a sa is ac-
o y se ice li e ime o a leas en yea s, ope a ing a
∼0.9 V/cell and >250 mA/cm2nea 600 ◦C [34]–[37],
which is a ea echoed by as - ising p oduce s in China as
well [38]. On he lab scale, nanoenginee ed ca hodes ha e
been able o sus ainably achie e 20x he ma ke cu en
a es (4.7 A/cm2a 0.7 V, 650 ◦C), a mos p omising
ea o mo e e ec i e u iliza ion o p ecious me al ca a-
lys s [39].
B. Ba e ies
Whe eas uel cells ely on an ex e nal ma e ial
exchange, ba e ies ope a e on a ixed-dimension he me ic
o ma , which s o es in e nally all he ac i e ma e ials. The
de ice allows o bo h consump ion and egene a ion o
he “ uel” in an encapsula ed de ice, simply by using ex e -
nal connec o s wi h applied ol age/cu en limi s. He ein,
he ac i e ma e ials a e o en in a solid o liquid phase,
which acili a es ma e ial compa men aliza ion, bu his
is no pe ec . A key poin is ha he oxida ion s a es
in he elec odes a y h ough cycling, and compensa o y
mass ans e mus occu o p e en a esis i e pola iza ion
buildup. Hys e esis in he mass ans e is o en he cul-
p i o ba e y deg ada ion. Fu he mo e, ba e ies mus
ine i ably go h ough a cha ging s ep when all he s o ed
ene gy is spen , unlike uel cells.
Ba e y chemis ies a e widely di e se and can make
use o mos elemen s ac oss he pe iodic able [40], [41].
O hese, ad anced li hium-ion ba e ies lead wi h
304-Wh/kg (700-Wh/L) speci ic ene gies based on
s a e-o - he-a NMC/Si-C cells, which a e qui e close
o he pe o mance guidelines se by he U.S. Ad anced
Ba e y Conso ium (350 Wh/kg and 750 Wh/L)
and also he physicochemical limi s (400 Wh/kg and
800 Wh/L) o Li-ion ba e y echnology [42]–[44].
Ba e y- ela ed behemo hs oday include he Ame ican
Tesla, he Chinese CATL/BYD/SVOLT/Guoxuan High-
Tech, he Ko ean Samsung SDI/LG Chem/SK Inno a ion,
he Japanese Panasonic, he Swedish No h ol , and a
conso ium o o he eme ging Eu opean playe s, who ha e
commi ed in es men s on NCA (o NMC o LFP)/liquid
elec oly e/g aphi e (o Si) cell echnologies mos ly.
O he han hese, he now-de unc Aquion is specialized
in a o dable g id-deployed aqueous-elec oly e sodium
ba e ies bu was e en ually o e aken by Li-ion ba e y
ad ances h ough economies-o -scale p icing and shee
policy suppo . Mo ing away om Na-S, Ni-Cd, lead-acid,
and edox- low ba e ies [45], he de eloping ends ocus
on de eloping Co- ee elec odes h ough luo ina ion,
o ganically de i ed elec odes, Li- ich composi ions,
liquid-elec oly e Li-me al ba e ies, solid-elec oly e
Li-me al ba e ies, anionic shu le ba e ies, and
mul i alen -ion aqueous ba e ies, he bes o which
p omises g ea e han 500-Wh/kg and 1000-Wh/L
s o age me ics [42]. Doping and g ain mo phology
con ols a e common hema ic s a egies o imp o ing
ma e ial pe o mances, o ins ance, in he case o LiCoO2
ma e ials, which, al hough possessing a heo e ical
capaci y o 274 mAh/g, adi ionally, a ained only
165 mAh/g in comme cial samples due o signi ican
s uc u al ins abili y when cha ging abo e 4.35 V ( e sus
Li+) bu o which 190-mAh/g le els ha e, inally, been
unlocked ia Al/La doping s abiliza ion o enable cha ging
un il 4.50 V ( e sus Li+) [46].
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Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
C. Capaci o s
Capaci o s ope a e simila o ba e ies, excep o he
absence o edox eac ions. He e, ene gy is s o ed as
concen a ed elec on/ion cha ge on opposi e elec odes
o a dielec ic medium. Because capaci o s ely on su ace
s o age, hei elaxa ion ime is e y as , and hei powe
densi yisconsequen ly e yhigh.Howe e , heyloseou
on ene gy densi y o ba e ies, which can u ilize bo h he
su ace ma e ial and he subsu ace bulk. Recen ends
in 2-D-ma e ial ac i e ma e ials (one-a om- hick shee s o
ew-laye shee s) blu he ba ie be ween ba e ies and
capaci o s (supe capaci o s, ul acapaci o s, and hyb id
capaci o s), achie ing a a o able balance o speci ic
ene gy and speci ic powe pe o mances [47], [48]. How-
e e , one mus be lucid in in e p e ing claims in epo ed
s o ed ene gies, as e y ligh , lu y, and poo ly packing
ma e ials may ac ually necessi a e a highe amoun o
hea y casing ma e ial [49]. None heless, capaci o s a e
c i ical o bu e ing ene gy s o age/ elease e en s on
ul a as imescales (<1 min) and possess excep ionally
e y high ope a ion li e imes (>10 yea s), as ac i ely
exempli ied in Eu opean ams and Chinese sho -dis ance
buses.
D. Gene al Pe spec i e
The chie conside a ion in choosing uel cells, ba e -
ies, o capaci o s o g id s o age elies p ima ily on one
conside a ion: cos pe kWh. Ma e ial mining, p ocessing,
p oduc ion, shipping, handling, and assembly all ep e-
sen hea y economic o e heads, whe ein >60% o he
de ice cos de i es om he physical ma e ial compo-
nen s [50], [51]. Needing only a ew g ams (li e s) ins ead
o a ew kilog ams (gallons) o ma e ial ep esen s sig-
ni ican supply-chain sa ings. The e o e, he e is always
an ad an age o e icien ma e ial usage e en hough he
o al weigh and space oo p in s a e nonissues wi h g id
EES as hey a e immobile modula ins alla ions and can
be buil e ically in limi ed pa ches o land. Fu he mo e,
echnology-choice pa ame e s o highe ene gy densi y,
highe powe densi y, be e ound ip e iciencies, longe
calenda li e imes, ope a ional sa e y, en i onmen al ben-
e i s, and ecyclabili y in a closed-loop economy ha e hid-
den cos sa ings no mally unaccoun ed o in appa en cos
calcula ions. These echnical pa ame e s a e summa ized
in Fig. 5 and Table 2 [52], [53].
On an addi ional no e, wi h bu geoning popula ion
g ow h and ene gy needs h oughou he globe, he e is no
sho age o a pe ennial economic d i e o imp o ed EES
echnologies. Coupled wi h economies-o -scale, he c i ical
p ice poin o massi e adop ion o EES echnologies is
expec ed o be a he 100 $/kWh poin o ba e ies (op i-
mis ically se ing wi hin his decade, 2020–2030), which is
s ill much mo e expensi e han he 16 $/kWh p omised by
uel cells (assuming a en-yea s ack li e ime). This added
p ice p emium o ba e ies o e uel cells is s ill ole able
Fig. 5. (a) Typical ol age p o iles o EES de ices wi h espec o
ime (gal anos a ic condi ions: when holding elec ic cu en
cons an ). (b) Ragone plo o a ious EES echnologies (adap ed
om [32] and [42]–[44]).
gi en he logis ical ad an ages and educed eliance on
p ecious me als [54]–[56].
IV. POWER GRID ENERGY STORAGE
REQUIREMENTS
ESSs add lexibili y o he en i e powe g id by being
able o unc ion as he gene a ion, consump ion, and/o
eac i e powe compensa ion asse s. They deli e a wide
ange o se ices ha co e all he segmen s o he ene gy
alue s eam anging om con en ional and enewable
gene a ion, ansmission, and dis ibu ion up o he inal
cus ome [16], [57]–[59].
Fig. 6 shows a classi ica ion o he main ene gy s o -
age applica ions and how hey a e dis ibu ed pe seg-
men [57], [58]. Each applica ion is b ie ly discussed in
he ollowing, and some p ac ical examples a e gi en in
he Appendix.
A. Con en ional/Bulk Gene a ion Se ices
ESSs p o ide se ices ha con ibu e o op imize he
ope a ion o con en ional synch onous gene a ion in e ms
o lexibili y, e iciency, and economic e u n. The main ESS
se ices associa ed wi h con en ional gene a ion a e gi en
as ollows.
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Table 2 Key Ad an ages/Disad an ages o Va ious ESS Technologies
Ene gy A bi age: The p ac ice o using ESSs o s o e
he ene gy when he p ice is low and o sell i a peak
imes when he p ice is high. I con ibu es o op imize
economically he use o gene a ion asse s [60]–[62].
Peak Sha ing: The p ac ice o using ESSs o s o e ene gy
when he demand is low and discha ge i o emo e he
peaks o he load. The p inciple o peak sha ing is simila
o ha o ene gy a bi age, bu peak sha ing does no
ollow any economic a ge [63], [64].
Load Le eling: Load le eling makes use o ESSs o s o e
ene gy when he demand is low and o injec i back
in o he g id when he elec ical load is high. The main
di e ence be ween load le eling and peak sha ing elies
on ha he o me ocuses on la ening he load a he
han jus emo ing he peaks [65], [66].
Gene a o B idging: I is he p ac ice o using ESSs
o supply he load while ansi ioning be ween gene a-
o s [57], [58], [67].
Gene a o Ramping and Load Following: Usually, ESSs
o e mo e apid esponse imes o load changes com-
pa ed o gene a o uni s. This se ice makes use o ESSs
o p o ide suppo in ollowing load changes and ake
o e as load a ia ions allowing he gene a o s o amp
up/down hei powe acco ding o hei echnical ecom-
menda ions. I con ibu es o enhance he li e cycle o he
gene a o s and he powe quali y [68], [69].
Black-S a : I is he p ac ice o using ESSs o es o e a
pa o he powe g id a e a black ou . When e e ing
o isola ed g ids, i is he p ac ice o ene gizing he g id
p o iding he equi ed powe and ol age be o e he gen-
e a ing uni s come in o ope a ion [70]–[72].
B. Renewable Gene a ion Se ices
ESSs a e equi ed o p o ide he powe g id wi h he
equi ed lexibili y o cope wi h he inhe en a iabili y o
enewable ene gy sys ems. They con ibu e o balancing
a iable gene a ion wi h he load, hus dec easing he need
o dispa chable synch onous gene a ion capaci y and he
a es o powe cu ailmen . The main ESS se ices associ-
a ed wi h enewable ene gy sys ems a e gi en as ollows.
Cu ailmen Minimiza ion: The p ac ice o using ESSs o
abso b he ene gy ha canno be injec ed in o he g id
Fig. 6. ESS applica ions.
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du ing pe iods o ime wi h excess enewable gene a ion,
due o he a ailabili y o p ima y esou ces, and low
demand. S o age ene gy is deli e ed o he g id when
needed [73], [74].
Capaci y Fi ming: The p ac ice o using ESSs o smoo h
he powe injec ed in o he elec ical g id by enewable
ene gy sys ems du ing a gi en pe iod. This se ice makes
use o ESSs o s o e ene gy du ing hou s o peak p oduc-
ion ega dless o he load. The s o ed ene gy is injec ed
back in o he g id o supplemen he a iable ene gy gen-
e a ion when he gene a ion dec eases. Capaci y i ming is
also used o smoo h sho - ime ene gy luc ua ions due o
as changes in he p ima y esou ce [75], [76].
Ancilla y Se ices Suppo : The use o ESSs o help
a iable enewable gene a ion sys ems o con ibu e o
he p o ision o ancilla y se ices by keeping an ex a
ene gy ese e. In his way, enewable gene a ion sys ems
combined wi h ESSs can con ibu e o he p o ision o new
ancilla y se ices, such as ine ia emula ion, as equency
esponse, p ima y equency con ol, o dynamic eac i e
con ol, among o he s [77]–[79].
C. T ansmission Se ices
ESSs a e capable o pe o ming as ansmission asse s as
well. The main se ices ha ESSs p o ide o he ansmis-
sion sys em a e gi en as ollows.
P ima y/Seconda y/Te ia y F equency Con ol: ESSs can
con ibu e o co ec equency de ia ions by means o
[80]–[82] he ollowing:
1) main aining a balance be ween gene a ion and
demand wi hin a synch onous a ea a e a dis u -
bance (p ima y equency con ol);
2) adjus ing he ac i e powe gene a ion o es o e
he nominal equency ollowing a dis u bance (sec-
onda y con ol);
3) es o ing he p ima y and seconda y equency con-
ol ese es ( e ia y con ol).
Angula S abili y: I e e s o he p ac ice o using ESSs
o con ibu e o he educ ion o load-angle a ia ions
ollowing a dis u bance by means o p ocessing high powe
le els in sho pe iods. This con ibu es o imp o e he
angula s abili y o he g id [82], [83].
Vol age Suppo : ESSs can also be used as dis ibu ed
eac i e powe sou ces o sinks, hus con ibu ing o eg-
ula e ol age le els h ough he nodes o he ansmission
and dis ibu ion ne wo ks [82], [83].
T ansmission In es men De e al: I e e s o he use o
ESSs o sol e conges ion issues wi hin he ansmission
g id, he eby de e ing he need o implemen ansmission
sys em upg ades [84], [85].
T ansmission Suppo : I e e s o he abili y o ESSs o
imp o e he ope a ion o he ansmission sys em du ing
dis u bances, such as ol age sags, local and in e a ea sub-
synch onous oscilla ions, o ol age ins abili ies, among
o he s [86], [87].
D. Dis ibu ion Se ices
The dis ibu ion g id also bene i s om he use o ESSs
mainly due o he ollowing se ices.
Capaci y Suppo and In es men De e al: Capaci y sup-
po e e s o he p ac ice o using ESSs o shi load
om peak o base pe iod, hus con ibu ing o inc ease
he u iliza ion ac o o in as uc u e and educe he con-
ges ion h ough he dis ibu ion ne wo k. Consequen ly,
he need o implemen dis ibu ion g id upg ades is
de e ed [84], [85].
Con ingency G id Suppo : I e e s o he p ac ice o
using ESSs o ake o e pa o he elec ici y gene a ion,
hus edis ibu ing he ene gy luxes, ollowing he loss o
a majo componen o he g id. I con ibu es o educe he
impac o he loss o a componen in he dis ibu ion g id
[88], [89].
Vol age Con ol: The p ac ice o using ESSs o egula e
he ol age p o ile wi hin admissible limi s h ough he
dis ibu ion ne wo k, hus imp o ing he quali y o supply.
Due o he na u e o dis ibu ion g ids, he ol age p o ile
can be egula ed by con olling bo h he eac i e and ac i e
powe injec ions [90], [91].
Reac i e Powe Compensa ion: I e e s o he use o
ESSs o con ibu e o he eac i e powe balance o he
g id [92].
E. Cus ome Se ices
ESSs a e also used in ene gy managemen applica ions
mainly in ended o imp o e he quali y and eliabili y o
he powe supplied o he cus ome and educe cus ome
cos s. The main cus ome se ices ha ESSs p o ide a e
gi en as ollows.
End-Use Peak Sha ing: I e e s o he p ac ice o using
ESSs by cus ome s o smoo h hei own peak demand, hus
con ibu ing o educe he pa o he cos ha is ixed
acco ding o he highes powe demand [93].
Time-o -Use Ene gy Cos Managemen :Thep ac iceo
using ESSs o educe he elec ici y bill by s o ing ene gy
when elec ici y a es a e low and discha ging i a peak
imes [94].
Powe Quali y: Fluc ua ions o he gene a ed powe ,
mainly a ibu ed o he a iabili y o enewable p i-
ma y esou ces, cause powe quali y issues mainly lead-
ing o ol age a ia ions and ha monics. ESSs can be used
o a enua e hese powe luc ua ions, hus con ibu ing
o imp o e powe quali y and mi iga e dis u bances o
cus ome loads [95].
Con inui y o Ene gy Supply (Ene gy Backup): I e e s o
he use o ESSs o eplace he unc ion o he elec ici y
ne wo k a e an in e up ion, he e o e p e en ing c i ical
loads om being a ec ed by blackou s [96], [97].
Reac i e Powe Compensa ion: I e e s o he capaci y o
ESSs connec ed o he g id by means o powe elec onics
o p o ide eac i e powe o compensa e o cus ome
loads, hus con ibu ing o imp o e e iciency and egula e
ol age le els [98].
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Table 3 ESS Cha ac e is ics o P o ide Di e en Se ices o he G id
Table 3 shows he main cha ac e is ics o he ESSs o
supply hese se ices [16], [59]. The alues indica ed in
he able should be unde s ood as app oxima e since hey
depend on he speci ic cha ac e is ics o he applica ions.
Since he ocus o his a icle is on elec ochemical ESSs,
he sui abili y o ba e ies o p o ide hese se ices is
indica ed. Fo long- e m se ices o which ba e ies a e
no o en u ilized, i is equi ed o use o he ene gy s o age
echnologies, such as mechanical, elec ical, he mal, o
chemical.
V. POWER ELECTRONICS FOR BESS
GRID INTEGRATION
As discussed in Sec ion III, he EES echnologies di ec ly
p oduce dc ol age. Powe elec onic con e e s a e hen
used o in e acing his low dc ol age wi h he high ac
ol age o he powe g id. In his sec ion, some o he
popula con e e echnologies, as shown in Fig. 7, a e
discussed.
A. Low-F equency T ans o me -Based In e ace
The con en ional app oach o g id in eg a ion o BESS
is shown in Fig. 8 [12], [13], [99]. He e, he ba e y
uni is composed o ba e y cells, modules, and packs.
A se ies and pa allel combina ion o cells makes up a
module, and a se ies and pa allel combina ion o modules
makes up a pack. In his app oach, he ba e y is ea ed
as one agg ega ed uni . Howe e , such se ies and pa allel
connec ion o many ba e y subuni s is he oo cause
o many p oblems in BESS applica ions. This is p edomi-
nan ly due o he powe o each se ies s ing being limi ed
by he weakes subuni in he s ing [100]. The e o e,
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Fig. 20. P inciple o FPPT in PV sys ems and i s equali y o ene gy
s o age sys ems.
3) he equi ed le el o echnical s udies and modeling
equi ed o each new ins alla ion; and 4) upda ed o new
g id connec ion s anda ds a e wai ing o be add essed.
VII. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
AND PROSPECTS
A. Powe Rese e and Flexible Powe Con ol
o PV Sys ems
Ins alla ion o PV sys ems is g owing apidly wo ldwide
because o go e nmen suppo , high elec ici y cos s,
imp o ing echnology, and a dec ease in he PV panel
cos . To sus ain powe g id eliabili y and powe quali y in
powe g ids wi h high pene a ion o PV sys ems, lexible
powe poin acking (FPPT) algo i hms a e implemen ed
in hese sys ems [9], [149]. P inciples o FPPT ope a ion
in PV a e illus a ed in Fig. 20. Unde his ope a ion
mode, he PV powe is egula ed in such a way ha a
p ede ined amoun o powe ese e p es is kep in he PV
sys em du ing he s eady-s a e ope a ion. This amoun o
powe ese e can be u ilized o suppo he g id unde
equency o ol age dis u bances. Fo example, i he g id
equency dec eases, he PV ou pu powe can inc ease
om p pp o pmpp. Following he discussions in Sec ion VII,
his ope a ion mode is simila o he beha io o BESSs.
Acco dingly, his powe ese e in PV sys ems ope a es
simila o a ba e y. The dec eased cos o PV panels
and low main enance equi emen s o PV sys ems make
hem p omising al e na i es o BESSs in suppo ing he
g id. Such unc ionali ies o PV sys ems a e demons a ed
in [150]–[153].
Powe ese e con ol wi h FPPT ope a ion has also
been implemen ed in mic og id applica ions [154], [155].
In s and-alone dc mic og ids wi h a PV sys em, a BESS
is con en ionally used o egula ing he dc-link ol -
age and dealing wi h he powe misma ch be ween he
supply and he demand, causing a con inuous ba e y
ope a ion. Con en ionally, he load and he PV maximum
powe dic a e he ba e y cu en . Though ope a ing he
PV sys em a i s maximum powe poin yields minimum
ba e y discha ge cu en , he opposi e is ue o ba e y
cha ging cu en . The e o e, educing he ba e y cha ging
cu en based on i s SoC and he amoun o a ailable
PV su plus powe (which can be ea ed as i ual s o ed
ene gy) is an oppo uni y ha is pu sued in [155] o
imp o ing he ba e y li e. The simula ion case s udy shows
how he FPPT-based con ol elimina es pa ial cycles,
educes he ba e y empe a u e luc ua ions, and, hus,
ex ends he Li-ion ba e y li e ime by 29.93% and he lead-
acid ba e y li e ime by 42.93% compa ed o a con en-
ional MPPT-based con ol [155].
B. Elec ic Vehicles: Oppo uni ies and Challenges
Elec i ica ion o anspo a ion has some p o ound
implica ions on elec ici y powe g id ene gy s o age.
Undoub edly, EVs a e helping o as - ack de elopmen
and imp o emen s in sha ed ene gy s o age echnologies,
such as supe capaci o s, uel cells, and, mos impo an ly,
ba e ies. Nowadays, la ge ca manu ac u e s a e unning
an in ense campaign o esea ch and de elopmen ac i -
i ies o p oduce sa e, longe las ing, cheape , and highe
powe and ene gy densi y ba e ies. These echnologies
a e o en di ec ly applicable in g id-connec ed BESSs. On
he o he hand, EVs a e also compe ing wi h he g id
o ba e y supply. Due o he la ge demand o EVs, he
downwa d end o he li hium-ion ba e y cos , as shown
in Fig. 21, has almos la ened and is now a he isk o
e e sing cou se unless he supply o key me als can keep
up wi h demand [156].
A la ge, om he pe spec i e o ene gy s o age equi e-
men s, EVs p esen oppo uni ies o he powe g id. Fi s ,
being a con olled load, hey can pa icipa e in demand-
side managemen and educe he need o ESSs. E en
mo e in e es ingly, wi h e e se powe low mechanisms,
EVs can play he ole o ESSs in he powe g id [ ehicle-
o-g id echnology (V2G)] [157], [158]. Second, he e is
he oppo uni y o build mass g id-connec ed BESSs by
eusing cheap second-li e ba e ies om EVs [159], [160].
None heless, in a nea u u e, ecycling echnologies o
exhaus ed Li-ion ba e ies should be implemen ed o limi
he en i onmen al impac . The es o his subsec ion is
de o ed o u he discuss V2G and Li-ion ba e y ecycling
echnologies.
V2G Technology:Thisisoneo hehea ilydeba ed
opics ha a e expec ed o ha e a majo posi i e impac
on he ope a ion and s abili y o he u u e g id. Recen
Fig. 21. Pe sis en decline o li hium-ion ba e y p ices o e he
pas decade (da a sou ced om [156]).
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ad ancemen s and upda ed s a us o his echnology a e
p o ided in [161]. Conside ing ha , on a e age, ehicles
in he Uni ed S a es, as an example, a e only used 5%
o he day, he easibili y and po en ial o implemen ing
he V2G sys em a e undeniable [162]. Howe e , so a , i s
po en ial emains un apped mainly due o he ollowing
hu dles.
1) EV ba e y deg ada ion is a guably he main d aw-
back o V2G echnology. EVs’ ba e y pe o mance is
a key ac o o conside when hey a e compa ed o
con en ional ehicles. In addi ion o he high cos o
eplacing wo n-ou ba e ies, educed use sa is ac-
ion due o he educ ion in ange and pe o mance
o EVs is ano he downside o implemen ing he V2G
sys em. This can change in he nea u u e wi h
imp o emen s in ba e y quali y.
2) In as uc u e o implemen ing V2G and he associ-
a ed cos o i , o now, emain ano he hu dle. V2G
equi es bidi ec ional cha ging s a ions and secu e
communica ion channels. Due o he associa ed cos s,
as o 2021, only a hand ul o EV b ands suppo V2G
(Nissan e-NV200, Nissan LEAF, Mi subishi Ou lande
PHEV, and Mi subishi Eclipse C oss PHEV [163]).
Li-Ion Ba e y Recycling: Roughly, 85% o cu en ba -
e y manu ac u ing elies on i gin ma e ials [164]. Wi h
he ise o giga ac o ies and elec i ica ion o na ional
economies, his p esen s daun ing ma e ial managemen
challenges. This is a signi ican p oblem wi h a an alizing
economic ewa d and one ha necessi a es di ec pa -
ne ships be ween manu ac u e s and ecycling companies.
Fo ins ance, a 400-kg ca ba e y wi h a capaci y o
50 kWh con ains oughly 100-kg g aphi e, 32-kg nickel,
11-kg cobal , 10-kg manganese, and 6-kg li hium, apa
om aluminum, s eel, and plas ic componen s [165].
The p e alen iew o ba e y e-was e managemen
is a ladde -u iliza ion sys em, whe ein expi ed high-
pe o mance ba e ies a e e u bished o no -so-
demanding second- and hi d-li e applica ions, be o e
inally going o he ecycling pipeline o ex ac he
key elemen s o making new ba e ies [166], [167]. In
his ega d, TES/G een Li-ion (Singapo e), B unp/GEM
(China), SMCC Recycling (Sou h Ko ea), Ame ican Ba e y
Technology/ReCell Cen e /Re ie /Redwood Ma e ials
(USA), Li-cycle (Canada), P imobius (Aus alia), and Recu-
pyl/Akkuse /Duesen eld/Sol ay/No h ol /BASF/Veolia/
Enel G oup/S ena Recycling/ReLIB/Reneos/Elemen al
Holding/Powe aul /Umico e (Eu ope) a e leade s
in he ield [168], [169]. Singapo e, in pa icula , is
eyeing i sel as an e-was e ecycling hub using benign
hyd ome allu gical p ocesses o achie e his pu pose
(SCARCE) [170], [171].
C. Hyd ogen–Me hane–NH3:Beyond
he 100% Renewables
As ou lined in Fig. 3, chemical ESSs a e a s ong can-
dida e o long- e m, and anspo able, ene gy s o age.
Fig. 22. Diag am ou lining a g id-connec ed
PV-elec olyze - uel-cell sys em [174].
Fo chemical ESS, elec ici y is used o d i e chemical
eac ions in o de o p oduce a ange o chemicals, o en
e e ed o as Powe - o-X (P2X). “X” can be conside ed as
inclusi e o a ange o chemicals, such as hyd ogen, ammo-
nia, and syn he ic na u al gas (me hane). The syn hesized
chemicals can hen be s o ed and/o anspo ed and hen
ei he combus ed o eac ed o elease he ene gy s o ed
wi hin he chemical bonds. Depending on he chemical
being p oduced (X), he app oaches o elec ici y con-
e sion, s o age, dis ibu ion, and ene gy gene a ion a y
conside ably.
Hyd ogen is apidly eme ging as one o he key ec o s
in chemical ESSs. A hyd ogen-based ESS ypically consis s
o elec olyze s, hyd ogen s o age, and uel cells (see
Fig. 22). The hyd ogen s o ed, hen, can be u ilized as an
indus ial eeds ock, con e ed in o o he “X”s, dis ibu ed
as an ene gy ec o , o di ec ly con e ed back o elec ici y
using uel cells ( e e o Sec ion III-A).
The p oduc ion o hyd ogen ia elec olysis equi es a
pu i ied wa e sou ce wi h e e se-osmosis (RO)- ea ed
seawa e being also conside ed as a pa hway o mi iga e
he equi emen s o use o esh wa e , which can be
a sca ce esou ce [172]. To da e, he e a e h ee key
elec olyze echnologies being conside ed, polyme elec-
oly e memb anes (PEMs), alkaline elec olyze s (AEs)m,
and solid oxide elec olyze s (SOEs). SOEs ope a e a
high empe a u es (500 ◦C–850 ◦C), which esul s in high
e iciencies, and no need o expensi e ca alys s; howe e ,
his high empe a u e hinde s long- e m du abili y [173].
Hence, o da e, PEM and AE app oaches a e he mos com-
mon comme cially. Elec olyze -d i en hyd ogen p oduc-
ion can be g id-connec ed, connec ed di ec ly o dedica ed
enewables (behind he me e /o -g id), o powe ed by
cu ailed enewables [174].
The use o hyd ogen as an ESS echnology has
he key bene i o being bo h a long- e m and ans-
po able/expo able s o age ec o o enewable powe .
Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023 |PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 413
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
Table 4 Examples o Deployed ESS Technologies
Typically, hyd ogen can be s o ed h ough ou app oaches:
1) comp ession; 2) lique ac ion; 3) ans o ma ion; and
4) solid-s a e s o age [175]. Hyd ogen can also be ed
o gas g id up o 15%–20% wi hou any sa e y conce ns
(al hough his numbe is subjec o con en ion) [176].
The s o age o hyd ogen ia comp ession o lique ac ion
(1, 2) is no wi hou i s di icul ies. Sa e y conce ns, along
wi h hyd ogen’s low densi y and di usibili y, esul in
signi ican challenges. Emb i lemen , caused by hyd ogen
di usion, limi s he use o high-s eng h s eels o hyd o-
gen s o age and anspo a ion ia pipeline [177]. The
ans o ma ion o hyd ogen (3) co e s i s con e sion o
o he ene gy ec o s, such as me hane (syn he ic na u al
gas) and ammonia.
The p oduc ion o ammonia ( h ough g een hyd ogen
ed Habe Bosch, N2+3H2→2NH3), is gaining inc easing
in e es as ammonia has a highe olume ic s o age den-
si y compa ed o liquid hyd ogen (108 g/L e sus 71 g/L,
espec i ely) [178]. Ammonia can hen be s o ed, used
as a e ilize , in uel cells o exploi ed as a hyd ogen
ec o o anspo . The ene gy inpu s associa ed wi h he
con e sion o ammonia and he egene a ion o hyd ogen
om ammonia along wi h i s ela i e oxici y p esen some
hind ances. The p oduc ion o me hane ( ia he Saba ie
Reac ion, CO2+4H2→CH4+2H2O), o en e e ed o
as powe - o-gas (P2G), allows excess ene gy o be s o ed
and dis ibu ed in he o m o me hane. This allows in e-
g a ion wi h he gas g id, u ilizing exis ing in as uc u e,
414 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
howe e , esul s in he dis ibu ed emission o CO2upon
use [179].
In Fig. 22, i is impo an o no e he ole o powe
elec onic con e e s in enabling his enewable hyd ogen-
based ESS. As can be seen, he e a e wo ypes o powe
con e e s in his con igu a ion, he dc–ac g id-connec ing
one, and he dc–dc s age o op imizing PV powe . Mos
o he powe con e e s o g id in eg a ion (discussed in
Sec ion V) a e conside ed ma u e and es ablished indus-
ial solu ions, whe eas he dc–dc pa o such appli-
ca ions is s ill e ol ing [180]. A comp ehensi e e iew
o p ominen dc–dc powe con e e opologies is p o-
ided in [180]. In sho , a high-powe equi emen o
he g een hyd ogen elec olyze applica ions will demand
echnology imp o emen o powe elec onic compo-
nen s [181], [182].
VIII. CONCLUSION
As long as ou bes -laid plan o achie e ene gy sus ain-
abili y es s wi h in e mi en enewable gene a ion, ESS
echnologies emain an ine i able componen o enable he
ansi ion. Though he con en ional well-es ablished PHS
echnology is likely o main ain he lion’s sha e o ins alled
ESS capaci y o he o eseeable u u e, he use o g id-
connec ed BESSs is accele a ing and is expec ed o play
a bolde ole in u u e g ids. The p e alen iew in he
ba e y ma e ials communi y is ha an a senal o ESS ech-
nologies, and no jus one echnology bu a mul ip onged
app oach, is iewed as he mos p ac ical app oach o
he global sus ainabili y d i e. Each coun y will ha e
endemic special condi ions, which may a o one echnol-
ogy o e ano he (geog aphy, na u al esou ces, clima e,
and so on). Economies o scale will push p ices down,
acili a ing wide adop ion. Fu u e ene gy s o age ech-
nologies based on ad anced Li-ion, Na-ion, mul i alen -
ion (Zn, Al), hyb id supe capaci o s, hyd ogen, uel cells,
and edox- low chemis ies a e gaining o e whelming ac-
ion as g id ene gy s o age solu ions. BESS echnology, in
pa owing o i s applica ion in EVs, is g owing apidly
as e idenced by declining p ices, while quali y imp o es,
and he o eseeable ubiqui y o dumped EV ba e ies is
seeing a massi e d i e in he ise o second-li e ba e y
u ili ies o eco e ini ial ba e y ma e ial cos s. Along
wi h imp o emen s in ba e y chemis y, powe elec onic
con e e s ha a e used o in e acing BESSs o he g id
a e expe iencing a majo u n in hei e olu ion hanks
o ad ancemen s in bo h high-powe wide bandgap semi-
conduc o s and modula powe elec onic a chi ec u es,
u he imp o ing he compe i i eness o BESSs. Reaching
100% sus ainabili y will equi e s o ing a massi e amoun
o ene gy o ca e o seasonal enewable gene a ion and
demand, o which hyd ogen will play a majo ole. Finally,
using echnologies ha add lexibili y o a y gene a ion
and consump ion o some ex en can be a cos -e ec i e
way o educing eliance on ESSs.
APPENDIX
Table 4 shows some examples o deployed ESSs a ound
he globe ca ego ized based on he echnology and se ices
ha hey p o ide [183].
The p ojec s a e selec ed o include examples om all
ESS echnology ca ego ies and di e se geog aphic loca-
ions. Fu he mo e, he in ended pu poses o each ins alla-
ion and hei echnology p o ide s a e included in Table 4.
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418 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Glen G. Fa i a (Senio Membe , IEEE)
ecei ed he B.Sc. deg ee in elec ical engi-
nee ing om he Noshi ani Ins i u e o
Technology, Babol, I an, in 2008, he M.Sc.
deg ee in powe elec onics om he Uni e -
si y o Teh an, Teh an, I an, in 2011, and he
Ph.D. deg ee in elec ical enginee ing om
he Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales, Sydney,
NSW, Aus alia, in 2016.
He is cu en ly a Senio Resea ch Fellow wi h he Ene gy Resea ch
Ins i u e, Nanyang Technological Uni e si y (ERI@N), Singapo e.
He is also a Co-Di ec o o he Powe Elec onics and Applica ions
Resea ch Labo a o y, ERI@N, and a Co-Founde o SciLeap, Pe h,
WA, Aus alia, which aims o p omo e esea ch in eg i y, acces-
sibili y, and openness. His esea ch in e es s include enewable
ene gy sys ems, high-powe con e e s, ene gy s o age, lexible ac
ansmission sys ems (FACTS), and elec ic ehicles.
William Manalas as, J ., was men o ed
by he ALISTORE Eu opean Elec ochemis y
Ne wo k, D . F ede ic Aguesse a CIC ene gi-
GUNE,Ála a,Spain,andP o .JohnKilne a
Impe ial College London, London, U.K. He
is a ba e y scien is /enginee ac i e in he
a eas o ad anced li hium-ion/li hium-me al
ba e ies and aqueous mul i alen -ion ba -
e ies. He is cu en ly a Resea ch Fellow wi h
he Ene gy S o age Labo a o y, Nanyang Technological Uni e si y,
Singapo e, in he g oup o P o . Madha i S ini asan.
D . Manalas as, J ., was a ecipien o a JASSO G an , an E asmus
Mundus Schola ship, and a CIC Ene gigune PhD Fellowship.
Hossein Dehghani Ta i (Senio Membe ,
IEEE) ecei ed he B.Sc. and M.Sc. deg ees
in elec ical enginee ing and powe sys em
enginee ing om he Ami kabi Uni e si y o
Technology, Teh an, I an, in 2009 and 2011,
espec i ely, and he Ph.D. deg ee in elec i-
cal enginee ing om Nanyang Technological
Uni e si y, Singapo e, in 2018.
F om Janua y 2018 o Ap il 2020, he was a
Resea ch Fellow wi h Nanyang Technological Uni e si y, whe e he
was wo king on he con ol o pho o ol aic sys ems o g id suppo .
F om May 2020 o May 2021, he was a Senio Resea ch Associa e
wi h he Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales, Sydney, NSW, Aus alia,
whe e he wo ked on modeling and es ing comme cial pho o ol aic
in e e s. He is cu en ly a Resea ch Fellow wi h he Depa men
o Elec ical, Elec onic and Compu e Enginee ing, The Uni e si y
o Wes e n Aus alia, Pe h, WA, Aus alia. His esea ch in e es
includes he g id in eg a ion o enewable ene gy sou ces, in pa -
icula , pho o ol aics, ene gy s o age, and he design and con ol
o mul ile el powe con e e s.
Sal ado Ceballos ecei ed he M.S.
deg ee in physics om he Uni e si y o
Can ab ia, San ande , Spain, in 2001, and
he M.S. and Ph.D. deg ees in elec onic
enginee ing om he Uni e si y o he
Basque Coun y, Bilbao, Spain, in 2002 and
2008, espec i ely.
Since 2002, he has been wi h Tecnalia,
Basque Resea ch and Technology Alliance
(BRTA), De io, Spain, whe e he is cu en ly a P incipal Resea che
wi h he Ene gy, Clima e and U ban T ansi ion Uni . His esea ch
in e es s include mul ile el con e e s o high- and medium-
ol age applica ions, aul - ole an powe elec onic opologies,
enewable ene gy sys ems, and powe sys ems wi h high pene a-
ion o powe con e e s.
Alain Sanchez-Ruiz (Senio Membe , IEEE)
ecei ed he B.Sc. deg ee in elec onics
enginee ing, he M.Sc. deg ee in au oma -
ics and indus ial elec onics, and he Ph.D.
deg ee in elec ical enginee ing om he
Uni e si y o Mond agon, Mond agon, Spain,
in 2006, 2009, and 2014, espec i ely.
He joined Inge eam R&D Eu ope, Zamu-
dio, Spain, in May 2014, whe e he is cu -
en ly an R&D Enginee . F om Feb ua y 2012 o May 2012, he was
a Visi ing Resea che wi h The Uni e si y o Tennessee, Knox ille,
TN, USA. Since Janua y 2017, he has been a Lec u e wi h he
Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain. His cu -
en esea ch in e es s include modeling, modula ion, and con ol
o powe con e e s, mul ile el opologies, ad anced modula ion
echniques, high-powe mo o d i es, and g id- ied con e e s.
Emma C. Lo ell ecei ed he Ph.D. deg ee
om he Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales
(UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Aus alia, in 2016,
de eloped ca alys s o ca bon dioxide con-
e sion (wi h a esea ch exchange a he
Uni e si y o B emen, B emen, Ge many).
He Ph.D. wo k ocused on de eloping
nickel-based ca alys s o he ca bon dioxide
(d y) e o ming o me hane.
She is cu en ly a Lec u e a he School o Chemical Enginee ing,
UNSW. He esea ch ocuses on de eloping no el ca alys s o a
ange o applica ions; wi h a pa icula ocus on ene gy and en i-
onmen al ca alysis. He cu en esea ch ocuses on de eloping
ca aly ic ma e ials o a ange o di e en ene gy inpu s; his
includes de eloping ca alys s o he pho o-/plasmon-enhanced
he mal ca aly ic ca bon dioxide me hana ion, he plasma-ca aly ic
ca bon dioxide me hana ion, and ni ogen ixa ion, as well as de el-
oping de ec i e elec oca alysis o hyd ogen e olu ion eac ion
and ca bon dioxide educ ion eac ions.
D . Lo ell was a ecipien o he Women in Enginee ing Schola -
ship o he du a ion o he s udies.
Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023 |PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE 419
Fa i a e al.: G id-Connec ed ESSs: S a e-o - he-A and Eme ging Technologies
Geo gios Kons an inou (Senio Membe ,
IEEE) ecei ed he B.Eng. deg ee in elec-
ical and compu e enginee ing om
he A is o le Uni e si y o Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, G eece, in 2007, and he
Ph.D. deg ee in elec ical enginee ing om
he Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales (UNSW
Sydney), Sydney, NSW, Aus alia, in 2012.
F om 2013 o 2016, he was a Senio
Resea ch Associa e wi h UNSW Sydney, whe e he was pa o he
Aus alian Ene gy Resea ch Ins i u e. Since 2017, he has been
wi h he School o Elec ical Enginee ing and Telecommunica ions,
UNSW Sydney, whe e he is cu en ly a Senio Lec u e . His main
esea ch in e es s include mul ile el con e e s, powe elec onics
in high- ol age dc (HVdc), enewable ene gy, and ene gy s o age
applica ions.
D . Kons an inou is also an Associa e Edi o o IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS,andIET Powe Elec onics.
Ch is ophe D. Townsend (Membe , IEEE)
ecei ed he B.E. and Ph.D. deg ees in elec-
ical enginee ing om he Uni e si y o
Newcas le, Callaghan, NSW, Aus alia, in
2009 and 2013, espec i ely.
Subsequen ly, he spen h ee yea s wo k-
ing a ABB Co po a e Resea ch, Väs e ås,
Sweden, wo king on nex -gene a ion high-
powe con e e echnologies. Since hen,
he has held a ious pos doc o al esea ch posi ions, including a
he Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales, Sydney, NSW, Aus alia, he
Uni e si y o Newcas le, and Nanyang Technological Uni e si y,
Singapo e. In 2019, he joined he Depa men o Elec ical, Elec-
onic and Compu e Enginee ing, The Uni e si y o Wes e n Aus-
alia, Pe h, WA, Aus alia, as a Senio Lec u e . He has au ho ed
mo e han 50 published echnical pape s and has been in ol ed
in se e al indus ial p ojec s and educa ional p og ams in he
ield o powe elec onics. His esea ch in e es s include opolo-
gies and modula ion s a egies o mul ile el con e e s applied in
powe sys ems, enewable ene gy in eg a ion, and elec ic ehicle
applica ions.
D . Townsend is also a membe o he IEEE Powe Elec onics and
Indus ial Elec onics Socie ies.
Madha i S ini asan g adua ed om IIT
Mad as, Chennai, India. She did he Ph.D.
disse a ion on li hium-ion ba e ies a he
Na ional Uni e si y o Singapo e, Singapo e.
He esea ch ocuses on he syn hesis,
ab ica ion, and applica ion o nanoscale
ma e ials/a chi ec u esin imp o ing he pe -
o mance o elec ochemical ene gy s o -
age de ices, such as ad anced li hium-ion
ba e ies, supe capaci o s, sodium-ion ba e ies, and mul i alen
aqueous Zn/Al ba e ies. He esea ch is also on he ecycling
o li hium-ion ba e ies e-was e by no el hyd ome allu gical ech-
niques owa d a closed-loop app oach.
D .S ini asanhaswonse e alp es igiousawa ds,including he
2019 Asia’s Top Sus ainabili y Supe women, he L’O eal o Women
in Science Na ional Fellowships, he G ea Women o Ou Time
gi en by The Singapo e Women’s Weekly magazine, and he NRF
In es iga o ship Awa d awa ded o op scien is s in Singapo e by
he Na ional Resea ch Founda ion (NRF).
Josep Pou (Fellow, IEEE) ecei ed he
B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. deg ees in elec i-
cal enginee ing om he Technical Uni-
e si y o Ca alonia (UPC)-Ba celona Tech,
Ba celona, Spain, in 1989, 1996, and 2002,
espec i ely.
In 1990, he joined he Facul y o UPC as
an Assis an P o esso , whe e he became an
Associa e P o esso in 1993. F om Feb ua y
2013 o Augus 2016, he was a P o esso wi h he Uni e si y o
New Sou h Wales (UNSW), Sydney, NSW, Aus alia. He is cu en ly a
P o esso wi h Nanyang Technological Uni e si y (NTU), Singapo e,
whe e he is also he Clus e Di ec o o Powe Elec onics o he
Ene gy Resea ch Ins i u e a NTU (ERI@N) and a Co-Di ec o o
he Rolls-Royce, NTU Co po a e Labo a o y. F om Feb ua y 2001
o Janua y 2002 and Feb ua y 2005 o Janua y 2006, he was a
Resea che wi h he Cen e o Powe Elec onics Sys ems, Vi ginia
Tech, Blacksbu g, VA, USA. F om Janua y 2012 o Janua y 2013,
he was a Visi ing P o esso wi h he Aus alian Ene gy Resea ch
Ins i u e, UNSW. He has au ho ed mo e han 410 published ech-
nical pape s and has been in ol ed in se e al indus ial p ojec s
and educa ional p og ams in he ield o powe elec onics. His
esea ch in e es s include modula ion and con ol o powe con-
e e s, mul ile el con e e s, enewable ene gy, ene gy s o age,
powe quali y, high- ol age dc (HVdc) ansmission sys ems, and
mo e-elec ical ai c a and essels.
D . Pou ecei ed he 2018 IEEE Bimal Bose Awa d o Indus ial
Elec onics Applica ions in Ene gy Sys ems. He is also an Associa e
Edi o o he IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN
POWER ELECTRONICS.Hewas heCo-Edi o -in-Chie andanAsso-
cia e Edi o o he IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON Indus ial Elec onics.
420 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE | Vol. 111, No. 4, Ap il 2023