Ci a ion: E xega ai, G.; Camblong, H.;
Ezeiza, A.; Lie, T.T. Design o Th ee
Elec ic Vehicle Cha ging Ta i
Sys ems o Imp o e Pho o ol aic
Sel -Consump ion. Ene gies 2024,17,
1806. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/en17081806
Academic Edi o s: Ma ianna Jacyna,
Emilian Szczepa´nski and
Ma iusz Izdebski
Recei ed: 27 Feb ua y 2024
Re ised: 3 Ap il 2024
Accep ed: 4 Ap il 2024
Published: 9 Ap il 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ene gies
A icle
Design o Th ee Elec ic Vehicle Cha ging Ta i Sys ems o
Imp o e Pho o ol aic Sel -Consump ion
Ga azi E xega ai 1,2,* , Ha i za Camblong 1,3 , Ai zol Ezeiza 1and Tek Tjing Lie 3
1
Depa men o Sys ems Enginee ing & Con ol, Facul y o Enginee ing o Gipuzkoa, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y (UPV/EHU), Eu opa Plaza 1, E-20018 Donos ia, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (H.C.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.E.)
2ESTIA Ins i u e o Technology, Uni e si y o Bo deaux, 64210 Bida , F ance
3Depa men o Elec ical and Elec onic Enginee ing, Auckland Uni e si y o Technology,
Auckland 1010, New Zealand; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Elec ic ehicles (EVs) a e eme ging as one o he pilla s o achie ing clima e neu ali y.
They ep esen bo h a h ea and an oppo uni y o he ope a ion o he ne wo k. Used as lexible
loads, hey can a o he sel -consump ion o pho o ol aic (PV) ene gy. This pape p esen s h ee EV
cha ging a i sys ems (TSs) based on he sel -consump ion o excess PV ene gy. The TS objec i es
a e o inc ease he sel -consump ion a e (SCR) and hus indi ec ly dec ease he cha ging cos o he
EV use s. Two o he p oposed TSs co espond o an indi ec con ol o EV cha ging. The hi d TS is
a hyb id sys em whe e he cha ging powe is con olled. The TS is designed using a se ies o ules
ha conside he momen a y PV su plus and he cha ging powe o each EV. The in luence o he TS
is simula ed by conside ing eal da a om a PV collec i e sel -consump ion p ojec in he Basque
Coun y (Spain). The TS simula ions pe o med wi h 6 mon hs o da a show a 13.1% inc ease in he
SCR when applying he hi d TS, eaching an a e age o 93.09% o he SCR. In addi ion, he cos o
EV cha ging is educed by 25%.
Keywo ds: elec ic ehicles; cha ging sys em con ol; p icing schemes; PV ene gy; collec i e sel -consump ion;
sel -consump ion a e
1. In oduc ion
The anspo sec o accoun s o a la ge con ibu ion o g eenhouse gas emissions. In
his con ex , elec ic ehicles (EVs) a e eme ging as one o he solu ions ha will help he
Eu opean Union (EU) achie e i s clima e neu ali y a ge s [
1
]. Thus, he EU has aken he
measu e o banning he sale o new pe ol and diesel ca s om 2035 [
2
,
3
]. In he i s qua e
o 2023, o e 2.3 million EVs we e sold wo ldwide, 25% mo e han in he same pe iod he
p eceden yea [
4
]. To cope wi h his g ow h, EV cha ge s will ha e o be ins alled e e y
60 km by 2026 [5].
Acco ding o [
6
], uncon olled deploymen o EVs would inc ease peak elec ici y
demand by 35% o 51%. Wi hou p ope con ol, he high pene a ion o EVs will widen he
gap be ween peak and o -peak loads on he g id [
7
]. This ac could o e load dis ibu ion
lines and ans o me s, leading o highe g id losses and educed equipmen li e ime [8].
Howe e , coo dina ing he cha ging o EVs could also o e signi ican lexibili y [
9
].
One solu ion in ol es using enewable ene gy sou ces (RES) o EV cha ging. By scheduling
cha ging du ing imes when RES is a ailable, mo e RES is in eg a ed in o he g id and
he gap be ween peak and o -peak powe is educed [
9
]. This way, local sola ene gy
sel -consump ion holds he po en ial o eme ge as a mul i ace ed solu ion.
When using EVs as lexible loads o help educe g id ope a ion issues, i is essen ial
o manage he cha ging pa e n in a con olled manne . EV con ol sys ems ha in end
o ensu e an accep able cha ging p o ile can be classi ied in o wo main ypes: di ec
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/en17081806 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ene gies
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 2 o 23
and indi ec con ol [
10
]. Di ec con ol in ol es ac ing on he load pa e ns di ec ly by
con olling he cha ging powe . One o he d awbacks o di ec con ol sys ems is he high
communica ion and compu a ional in as uc u e equi ed. On he o he hand, indi ec
con ol is based on encou aging EV use s o adap hei cha ging pa e ns. The mos
common me hod o in luence is h ough cha ging a i s. The e a e se e al cha ging a i
sys ems, such as eal- ime p icing (RTP), c i ical peak p icing (CPP), and ime-o -use (ToU)
cha ging. In he RTP solu ion, p ices o each ime slo a e announced sho ly be o e he
in e al s a s. Al hough his scheme is e y e icien due o i s dynamic na u e, i equi es
a la ge in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) in as uc u e. Fu he mo e, i
equi es subs an ial use pa icipa ion [
11
]. In he case o CPP, ex emely high p ices a e
cha ged o occasions whe e peak demand is e y high [
12
]. This ype o p icing can be
associa ed wi h o he s, whe eas in ToU s a egies, di e en ixed windows in he day a e
ela ed o di e en ixed a es [
13
]. ToU cha ging sys em is he mos widely used because
o he simplici y o implemen a ion [10,14].
Se e al pape s ha e s udied how EVs can bene i he elec ici y g id [
15
]. In [
16
],
p icing mechanisms o incen i ize EV use s o shi hei cha ging o ill he o -peak
zones a e p oposed. The au ho s highligh ha by using ToU-based cha ging, EV use s
would choose o cha ge he ehicle a he beginning o he cheapes zone, causing a new
consump ion peak. Fo his eason, he au ho s p opose wo cha ging mechanisms: one
non-coope a i e and he o he coope a i e, which conside he cha ging schedules o he
ehicles ha ha e al eady a i ed. In he non-coope a i e scena io, each EV schedules i s
own cha ging wi hou coope a ing wi h he o he EVs, while in he coope a i e scena io,
all EVs a e con olled by an agg ega o . In [
17
], a day-ahead dispa ch s a egy is p oposed
o EVs conside ing he ca bon quo a. In addi ion, his s a egy can p o ide peak sha ing
and alley- illing se ices.
O he wo ks ha e s udied he syne gy be ween pho o ol aic (PV) ene gy and EV
cha ging. In [
18
,
19
], an indi ec con ol app oach p esen s a dynamic p icing sys em
based on he S ackelbe g game o an EV cha ging s a ion associa ed wi h a PV sys em.
The S ackelbe g equilib ium seeks a win–win si ua ion, educing he cos o use s and
inc easing he p o i o he cha ging s a ion. In [
19
], he cha ging s a ion se s an app op ia e
selling p ice o maximise i s p o i . Then, he S ackelbe g equilib ium is sol ed conside ing
he use ’s c i e ia, and he p ices a e de e mined by he cha ging s a ion.
The e a e also s udies examining he ole o EVs in inc easing he PV sel -consump ion
a e (SCR). S udies in [
20
,
21
] p esen imp o emen s in PV sel -consump ion and sel -
su iciency using ba e ies and EVs wi hou applying any con ol. Fo ins ance, in [
20
],
households wi h PV gene a ion exhibi ed a SCR o 26% wi hou s o age, 59% wi h an EV,
and 31% wi h ba e ies sized o ha case s udy. Con e sely, wo ks [
22
,
23
] implemen a
di ec con ol wi h he objec i e o maximising he SCR. In [
22
], di ec con ol is used o
de ine he cha ging pa e n o EVs conside ing hem as a lexible cha ging sou ce, and in
he case o ehicle o g id (V2G) as a s o age de ice. In his wo k, h ee cha ging algo i hms
a e p oposed. The i s algo i hm uses eal- ime in o ma ion, he second inco po a es V2G
echnology, and he hi d is an op imisa ion algo i hm using p edic ions o bo h demand
and p oduc ion, aking in o accoun V2G echnology. The esul s p esen a SCR o 49%
o he uncon olled case, 62% wi h he i s algo i hm, 79% wi h he second, and 87%
wi h he hi d. The s udy conduc ed in [
23
] p esen s a combina ion o sma me e ing and
sma cha ging ha helps local ene gy communi ies inc ease sel -consump ion. A case
wi h ou consume s and a p osume is s udied. In he scena io wi hou EVs, one- i h o
he PV ene gy is consumed, while wi h sma me e ing and EVs, he SCR is inc eased by
45%. In [
24
], a dis ibu ed and cen alised sma cha ging scheme o EVs in esiden ial
buildings wi h PV sys ems is p esen ed. The aim o sma cha ging is o minimise ne load
a iabili y, he eby inc easing sel -consump ion and educing consump ion peaks. In he
cen alised cha ging scheme, a cen al uni de e mines he cha ging ime and powe o a
lee o EVs, whe eas, in he dis ibu ed cha ging app oach, cha ging decisions a e made a
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 3 o 23
he use le el. The p oposed sma cha ging schemes conside EV ene gy demand, a i al
and depa u e imes, and p edic ions o building consump ion and PV p oduc ion.
Conside ing he s a e-o - he-a s udy conduc ed, he e a e no s udies ha assess he
imp o emen o PV SCR h ough he use o indi ec con ol sys ems in EV cha ging.
The wo k p esen ed in his pape p oposes h ee cha ging a i schemes based on
empo a y PV su pluses in a eal PV collec i e sel -consump ion (CSC) p ojec in Aduna
(Basque Au onomous Communi y, Spain). All h ee a i sys ems (TS) sha e he same
objec i e: o in luence use beha iou in shi ing he iming o EV cha ging o inc ease
he consump ion o local PV ene gy, and hus indi ec ly dec ease he cha ging cos o he
EV use s.
The ollowing hypo heses we e conside ed:
I.
EV use s p e e o cha ge hei ehicles when p ices a e lowe . The e o e, i educed
p ices a e o e ed du ing PV su plus hou s, use s will adjus hei cha ging imes.
II. The esolu ion in he con ol o EV cha ging powe conside ed in his a icle is ideal.
The wo main con ibu ions o he esea ch s udy a e as ollows:
•
The design o indi ec con ol EV cha ging is based on empo a y PV su plus, wi h he
main objec i e o inc easing he SCR o a eal PV CSC p ojec .
•
A de ailed desc ip ion o he design o h ee TSs o EV cha ging, which can be easily
eplica ed and adjus ed o any case.
I is also wo h highligh ing ha hese TSs would p omo e he de elopmen o EVs,
which is he aim o he Aduna own council, he owne o he PV panels and EV cha ge s.
The es o his documen is o ganised as ollows. Sec ion 2p esen s he case s udy
and he da a used. In Sec ion 3, he p oposed h ee TSs a e explained. Nume ical esul s
and discussion a e p o ided in Sec ion 4. Finally, he las sec ion concludes his a icle.
2. Case S udy
The h ee TSs p oposed in his wo k we e simula ed wi h eal his o ical da a collec ed
om he PV CSC p ojec . This p ojec akes place in he municipali y o Aduna, loca ed in
he Basque Coun y, Spain. The e a e eigh consump ion poin s associa ed wi h he CSC
p ojec . One o hem is a public EV cha ging poin . Fo adminis a i e easons, he PV
panels wi h a capaci y o 62.4 kWp we e no ye ins alled du ing his s udy.
The men ioned da a can be di ided in o h ee g oups: he da a ela ed o he eigh
consump ion poin s, he da a on he public EV cha ging s a ion ob ained om he Cha ge
and Pa king applica ion, and he da a ela ed o PV powe gene a ion.
The consump ion o he se en poin s (all excep he EV cha ge ) is conside ed o be he
basic consump ion o his case s udy. This consump ion is used o ob ain he PV su plus by
calcula ing he di e ence be ween PV p oduc ion and basic consump ion. All p oposed TSs
a e based on he PV su pluses. In his documen , hese su pluses a e di ec ly calcula ed by
sub ac ing he basic consump ion om he PV gene a ion. Howe e , when implemen ing
he TSs in eal ime, he ene gy managemen sys em (EMS) will use he day-ahead o ecas s
o bo h PV p oduc ion and consump ion (as ca ied ou in [25,26]).
The consump ion his o ical da a we e eco ded hou ly and we e a ailable o he las
3 yea s. Howe e , since he public cha ging poin was no ins alled un il No embe 2021,
he simula ions conside ed da a ob ained be ween No embe 2021 and Ap il 2022, he
same pe iod as o he EV cha ging da a.
On he o he hand, he sampling ime was educed om 1 h o 10 min ( he sample ime
co esponding o PV gene a ion), wi h he objec i e o p oducing mo e accu a e simula ions.
In his way, he EV cha ging ime was mo e closely adjus ed o he eal cha ging ime. To
pe o m he change in he sampling ime, he alue o he powe consumed o e one hou
was used in he six in e als ha cons i u e one hou .
The public EV cha ging s a ion is a 22 kW h ee-phase cha ge wi h wo connec o s.
Rega ding he EV cha ging da a, he ollowing in o ma ion was ob ained using he Cha ge
and Pa king applica ion: he ime a which an EV was connec ed and disconnec ed, he
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 4 o 23
EV b and and model, and he o al ene gy consumed o each cha ge. By knowing he
EV b and and model, i was possible o check and eco d he maximum cha ging powe
o each EV. I should be no ed ha no all EV models cha ge a he same powe . Among
he 23 EV models egis e ed in he Cha ge and Pa king applica ion, he mos common
maximum cha ging powe alues we e 3.7 kW, 7.2 kW, and 11 kW. These maximum powe
alues we e used in he design o TS1 and 2.
Rega ding PV da a, hey we e ob ained using local his o ical sola i adiance da a
o he simula ion pe iod, om he Basque Me eo ological Agency, Euskalme [
27
], wi h a
sampling in e al o 10 min. PV p oduc ion was es ima ed by mul iplying he i adia ion by
he peak powe o he PV panels and applying a co ec ion ac o o accoun o e iciency.
3. P oposed P icing Me hods
The ollowing sec ion desc ibes he h ee p oposed TSs o in luence he EV use ’s
cha ging pa e n.
Al hough he h ee TS algo i hms sha e he same objec i e, hei ules a e di e en .
TS1 and 2 a e indi ec con ols. TS1 is he leas complex: when he PV su plus exceeds
7 kW, a lowe p ice is o e ed o EV use s o encou age cha ging a ha ime. On he o he
hand, TS2 is mo e pe sonalised and is o e ed when he PV su plus exceeds di e en le els
co esponding o he di e en cha ging powe o EVs. Finally, TS3 is based on a hyb id
con ol. In his TS, a cheape cha ging p ice is always o e ed when he e is a PV su plus,
ega dless o he amoun , and he EV on-boa d ba e y managemen sys em (BMS) and he
cha ge modi y he cha ging powe depending on he su plus a any gi en ime, wi hou
consuming ene gy om he g id.
The h ee p oposed TSs o e a cheape p ice han he ma ke p ice o encou age
cha ging a he mos oppo une imes. Howe e , when he e is no su plus, he ma ke p ice
is o e ed.
3.1. Ma ke Ta i Used as Base Ta i
The ma ke a i used as he base a i o he h ee TSs is one o he GoiEne coop-
e a i es [
28
], speci ically he 3.0 TDVE a i , which is ailo ed o public cha ging poin s.
The 3.0 TDVE a i has di e en p ices pe hou ly slo , wi h modi ica ions each mon h,
as desc ibed in Figu e 1. The e a e six pe iods wi h di e en ene gy and powe a es
used in he a ious hou ly slo s. Rega ding he GoiEne ’s sel -consump ion compensa ion
p ice, i is 0.0839 EUR/kWh. The compensa ion p ice is he p ice a which he PV panel
owne is compensa ed o injec ing locally gene a ed PV ene gy in o he g id ha has
no been ins an aneously consumed. Cha ging and compensa ion p ices a e e iewed
e e y imes e .
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 27
Figu e 1. Diffe en powe and ene gy p ices pe hou ly slo o he GoiEne ’s 3.0 TDVE a iff.
3.2. Ta iff Sys em 1
The fi s TS is he simples one. Whene e he PV su plus exceeds 7 kW, he educed
p ice is offe ed. The e a e wo main easons why he h eshold is se a 7 kW. On he one
hand, i he h eshold is e y low, by offe ing he educed p ice, EVs would consume mo e
om he g id and less om he su plus, as he use s would cha ge hei EVs when he
su plus is lowe . On he o he hand, he a e age maximum cha ging powe o all egis-
e ed EVs is a ound 7 kW.
The main disad an age o his TS is ha he e a e occasions when he su plus is less
han 7 kW and is no used.
To calcula e SCRs ha would be ob ained wi h he implemen a ion o TS1, a simula-
ion was ca ied ou based on he his o ical da a p esen ed in Sec ion 2. The simula o was
coded in MATLAB
®
so wa e 9.13.0.2166757 (R2022b) Upda e 4. The simula ion was pe -
o med o each day whe e EVs we e cha ged du ing he abo e-men ioned six mon hs.
The EVs conside ed in he simula ion on a gi en day we e p ocessed in he o de o o ig-
inal a i al a he cha ging poin . Addi ionally, since cha ging sys em 1 is an indi ec con-
ol, once he EV had s a ed o cha ge in he simula ion (when he educed p ice was
offe ed), he EV was cha ged a i s maximum powe un il i was ully cha ged, e en
hough a e a while he educed p ice was no longe offe ed. This p ocess was conside ed
o be he mos ealis ic.
The flow cha in Figu e 2 desc ibes he simula ion p ocess o one day unde he
influence o TS1. The diag am can be di ided in o h ee phases. The fi s phase is com-
posed o he wo main loops, which ensu e ha all EVs and all sampling pe iods o he
day a e analysed. I s a s by de ec ing how many EVs we e cha ged ha day ( a iable
Num_EV_Cha ge). The simula ion s a s by analysing he fi s EV o he day, so he index
y akes he alue 1 (y = 1). When he cha ge o he fi s EV is simula ed, index y is inc e-
men ed o 2 o conside he nex EV o he day. When y is g ea e han Num_EV_Cha ge, i
means ha all EVs ha e been simula ed and he e o e he simula ion o he EV cha ging
pae n ends, leading o Figu e 7′s flow cha (linked o connec o A) whe e he cha ging
cos is calcula ed.
Figu e 1. Di e en powe and ene gy p ices pe hou ly slo o he GoiEne ’s 3.0 TDVE a i .
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 5 o 23
To conclude, he h ee p oposed TSs o e he compensa ion p ice (0.0839 EUR/kWh)
when he speci ic condi ions o each TS a e ul illed. When he condi ions a e no me , he
cha ging p ice is he ma ke p ice o he co esponding ime slo and mon h.
3.2. Ta i Sys em 1
The i s TS is he simples one. Whene e he PV su plus exceeds 7 kW, he educed
p ice is o e ed. The e a e wo main easons why he h eshold is se a 7 kW. On he one
hand, i he h eshold is e y low, by o e ing he educed p ice, EVs would consume mo e
om he g id and less om he su plus, as he use s would cha ge hei EVs when he
su plus is lowe . On he o he hand, he a e age maximum cha ging powe o all egis e ed
EVs is a ound 7 kW.
The main disad an age o his TS is ha he e a e occasions when he su plus is less
han 7 kW and is no used.
To calcula e SCRs ha would be ob ained wi h he implemen a ion o TS1, a simula ion
was ca ied ou based on he his o ical da a p esen ed in Sec ion 2. The simula o was coded
in MATLAB
®
so wa e 9.13.0.2166757 (R2022b) Upda e 4. The simula ion was pe o med
o each day whe e EVs we e cha ged du ing he abo e-men ioned six mon hs. The EVs
conside ed in he simula ion on a gi en day we e p ocessed in he o de o o iginal a i al
a he cha ging poin . Addi ionally, since cha ging sys em 1 is an indi ec con ol, once he
EV had s a ed o cha ge in he simula ion (when he educed p ice was o e ed), he EV
was cha ged a i s maximum powe un il i was ully cha ged, e en hough a e a while he
educed p ice was no longe o e ed. This p ocess was conside ed o be he mos ealis ic.
The low cha in Figu e 2desc ibes he simula ion p ocess o one day unde he
in luence o TS1. The diag am can be di ided in o h ee phases. The i s phase is com-
posed o he wo main loops, which ensu e ha all EVs and all sampling pe iods o he
day a e analysed. I s a s by de ec ing how many EVs we e cha ged ha day ( a iable
Num_EV_Cha ge). The simula ion s a s by analysing he i s EV o he day, so he index y
akes he alue 1 (y= 1). When he cha ge o he i s EV is simula ed, index yis inc emen ed
o 2 o conside he nex EV o he day. When yis g ea e han Num_EV_Cha ge, i means
ha all EVs ha e been simula ed and he e o e he simula ion o he EV cha ging pa e n
ends, leading o Figu e 7’s low cha (linked o connec o A) whe e he cha ging cos
is calcula ed.
Nex , he i s sampling pe iod ( = 1) is analysed. Gi en ha in he simula ion he
sample ime is 10 min, he i s sampling pe iod, = 1, s a s a 00:10. The index is
inc emen ed e e y new pe iod un il i eaches a alue o Num_samples, 144 (00:00). When
is g ea e han Num_samples, he simula ion ends, leading o Figu e 7’s low cha .
The second phase analyses whe he he condi ions a e me o o e he educed p ice
acco ding o TS1. Fo his pu pose, he di e ence be ween he consump ion and he PV
p oduc ion a ime (di ( )) is calcula ed. I di ( ) exceeds 7 kW, he educed p ice is o e ed,
and he e o e EV(y) (y
h
EV) cha ging is ca ied ou . On he con a y, i he di e ence does
no exceed 7 kW, he a iable is inc emen ed, and he di e ence is ecalcula ed and
compa ed wi h he h eshold o 7 kW. Whene e di ( ) is g ea e han 7 kW, i is checked
i he e is ee space a he cha ging poin . I he a iable EV_Connec ed is less han 2, his
means ha he e is space a ailable, and he simula ion o he EV(y) cha ging pa e n s a s.
In he hi d phase, he cha ging pa e n o he ehicles is simula ed. Fi s , index
y
is c ea ed. This index ep esen s how many ime in e als he EV(y) has been connec ed
o. I is necessa y o (i) know how long EV(y) has needed o comple e i s cha ge and (ii)
conside ha a connec o o he cha ging poin has been occupied du ing he ime in e al
y
. Index
y
inc eases each ime EV(y) spends a sample pe iod cha ging. The a iable
EV_ em_en o e sees how much ene gy he EV(y) mus consume o comple e i s cha ge.
These da a a e known om he egis e s o he Cha ge and Pa king applica ion. Whene e
EV_ em_en is g ea e han 0, i means ha he EV(y) has no ye comple ed i s cha ge.
The a iable EV_cha _pa eco ds he EV(y) cha ge pa e n, i.e., he ene gy consumed in
each in e al. Du ing an in e al, an EV cha ges he maximum amoun o ene gy. This
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 6 o 23
alue is ob ained by mul iplying he maximum cha ging powe o he EV by he sampling
ime. In he low cha , his maximum ene gy is de ined as EV_max_en_SP. Whene e he
a iable EV_ em_en is g ea e han EV_max_en_SP, he cha ge pa e n o ha in e al is
he maximum ene gy ha can be cha ged. A e eco ding in he a iable EV_cha _pa how
much ene gy has been consumed o ha in e al, EV_ em_en is upda ed, as shown in
Equa ion (1). In addi ion, he ac ha a connec o has been occupied by ha in e al is
also eco ded (Equa ion (2)).
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 27
Figu e 2. Flow cha ela ed o TS1.
Nex , he fi s sampling pe iod ( = 1) is analysed. Gi en ha in he simula ion he
sample ime is 10 min, he fi s sampling pe iod, = 1, s a s a 00:10. The index is inc e-
men ed e e y new pe iod un il i eaches a alue o Num_samples, 144 (00:00). When is
g ea e han Num_samples, he simula ion ends, leading o Figu e 7′s flow cha .
Figu e 2. Flow cha ela ed o TS1.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 7 o 23
EV_ em_en =EV_ em_en + y−1−EV_cha _pa + y, (1)
EV_Connec ed + y=EV_Connec ed + y+1. (2)
A e wa ds, EV_ em_en is checked again o ensu e ha i is s ill g ea e han 0.
y
is
inc eased by one, and EV(y) con inues o be cha ged. In he las in e al be o e he end
o he cha ge, EV_ em_en is lowe han he maximum powe i can cha ge in one in e al.
Then, he cha ge pa e n o ha in e al is he amoun o emaining ene gy (EV_ em_en).
Nex , he a iable EV_ em_en becomes 0, and he a iable EV_Connec ed egis e s one las
ime ha he connec o is occupied.
Finally, as he cha ging o EV(y) is comple ed, i s cha ging pa e n is sa ed, and he
a iable yis inc emen ed. The simula ion s a s again om he i s phase analysing he
cha ge o he nex EV o he day. Al hough he cha ging o a single EV is simula ed a each
ound o he low cha , when s a ing again om he beginning o he low cha wi h he
index y= 2, he index is upda ed o 1. Con inuing wi h he a o emen ioned s eps, i is
checked whe he he condi ions o cha ging he ehicle a e me and whe he he e is ee
space. This means ha , al hough only one EV is cha ged in each ound o he low cha ,
wo EVs can be cha ged in he same ime in e al . The simula ion con inues o analyse all
EVs o he day un il yis g ea e han Num_EV_Cha ge.
3.3. Ta i Sys em 2
The second TS is simila o he i s one. Howe e , a mo e cus omised app oach is
conside ed. As desc ibed in Sec ion 2, each EV has a maximum cha ging powe . Th ee
powe le els a e mainly ound: one a 3.4 kW, ano he one a a ound 7 kW, and he las one
a 11 kW. In TS2, he educed p ice is o e ed when he PV su plus exceeds one o hese
3 alues. Th ee di e en a i s a e published, cus omised o he maximum cha ging powe
o each EV. The aim is o make he mos o all he ime slo s whe e he e is su icien PV
su plus o cha ge each EV. Thus, EVs ha consume less a e cha ged when he e is less
su plus, and EVs ha consume mo e a e cha ged when he e is mo e su plus, he eby
allowing hem o consume less ene gy om he g id.
This cha ging scheme is also indi ec . As wi h TS1, he simula ion o he cha ging
pa e ns was p ocessed in he eco ded his o ical o de o EV cha ging. In addi ion, once
he EV connec ed, i s cha ging con inued a i s maximum powe un il i was ully cha ged.
Figu e 3shows he low cha ha desc ibes he simula ion p ocess o he cha ging
o one day unde he in luence o TS2. Phases 1 and 3 o he low cha s a e he same as
hose o Figu e 2. The di e ence be ween TS1 and 2 lies in he condi ions unde which he
educed p ice is o e ed in he second phase.
In his phase, i s , he maximum cha ging powe (EV_max_po ) o he y
h
EV is
de ec ed. Depending on he alue o he maximum cha ging powe o he EV, a di e en
a i is o e ed. Hence, once he maximum cha ging powe o he EV is known, i is
classi ied in o one o hese h ee g oups: cha ging powe (a) lowe han 7 kW, (b) be ween
7 and 11 kW, and (c) g ea e han o equal o 11 kW. A e classi ying he y
h
EV wi hin he
co esponding g oup, he di e ence be ween he consump ion and he PV p oduc ion a
ime (di ( )) is calcula ed. I he a iable di ( ) exceeds he h eshold o he co esponding
g oup, y
h
EV cha ging is ca ied ou . Fo g oup a), o EVs wi h maximum cha ging powe
unde 7 kW, di ( ) mus exceed 3 kW. In g oup b), o EVs wi h cha ging powe be ween
7 kW and 11 kW, di ( ) mus exceed 7 kW. And inally, in g oup c), o EV maximum
cha ging powe g ea e o equal o 11 kW, di ( ) mus exceed 11 kW. On he con a y, i he
di e ence does no exceed he co esponding h eshold, is inc emen ed, and he di e ence
is ecalcula ed and compa ed wi h he co esponding h eshold o each g oup. Whene e
di ( ) is g ea e han he h eshold, he a ailabili y o ee space a he cha ging poin is
checked. I he a iable EV_Connec ed is less han 2, his means ha he e is space a ailable,
and he simula ion o he EV(y) cha ging pa e n s a s.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 8 o 23
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 27
Figu e 3. Flow cha ela ed o TS2.
3.4. Ta iff Sys em 3
TS3 ope a es as a hyb id configu a ion. In addi ion o offe ing educed p ices o mo-
i a e he use o swi ch he cha ging o a mo e con enien ime, i also ac s on he cha ging
powe o EVs. The e o e, i a oids consuming ene gy om he g id and maximises he use
o PV su plus. Howe e , in cases whe e he e is no mo e PV su plus o he es o he
Figu e 3. Flow cha ela ed o TS2.
3.4. Ta i Sys em 3
TS3 ope a es as a hyb id con igu a ion. In addi ion o o e ing educed p ices o
mo i a e he use o swi ch he cha ging o a mo e con enien ime, i also ac s on he
cha ging powe o EVs. The e o e, i a oids consuming ene gy om he g id and maximises
he use o PV su plus. Howe e , in cases whe e he e is no mo e PV su plus o he es o
he day, only hose EVs ha a e s ill connec ed inish hei cha ge by consuming ene gy
om he g id. This p ocess was conside ed o be mo e ealis ic.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 9 o 23
The con ol o he EV cha ging powe is ca ied ou by he public cha ge ha commu-
nica es wi h he EV ba e ies’ BMS.
Figu e 4shows he low cha ela ed o TS3. The h ee phases a e di e en om he
diag ams in Figu es 2and 3. This is due o he hyb id na u e o he sys em, in which he
cha ging powe is con olled.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 o 27
Figu e 4. Flow cha ela ed o TS3. The lee s A-C a e connec o s linking he exis ing flowcha o
he flowcha in Figu es 7, 5 and 6 espec i ely.
Figu e 4. Flow cha ela ed o TS3. The le e s A-C a e connec o s linking he exis ing lowcha o
he lowcha in Figu es 5–7 espec i ely.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 16 o 23
al hough Figu e 11 shows ha he e a e mo e PV su pluses, a pa is consumed om he
g id. This is due o he ac ha TS1 is an indi ec con ol whe e he cha ging powe is
no con olled.
Figu es 12 and 13 a e ela ed o TS2. TS2 o e s a educed p ice depending on he
maximum cha ging powe o each EV. In his case, he i s EV wi h a cha ging powe o
less han 7 kW bene i s om he educed a i when he PV su plus exceeds 3.7 kW. The
second EV, wi h a cha ging powe o 11 kW, bene i s om he educed a i when he
su plus exceeds 11 kW. Wi h TS2, Figu e 12 illus a es how he blue a ea has expanded
u he in o he yellow cu e (PV su plus). None heless, a small pa is s ill consumed om
he g id.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 27
Figu e 13 shows ha by o e ing a i s cus omised o each EV’s cha ging powe , he
cha ging ime o each EV is be e dis ibu ed depending on i s powe and su plus.
Figu e 12. Basic consump ion, PV p oduc ion, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
Figu e 13. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
Finally, Figu es 14 and 15 p esen he consump ion unde he in luence o TS3, whe e,
whene e su pluses occu , he educed cha ging p ice is o e ed. In addi ion, his sys em
ope a es wi h di ec con ol, modi ying he cha ging powe o he EVs. As illus a ed in
Figu e 14, he EV cha ging consump ion (blue a ea) is pe ec ly aligned wi h he yellow
Figu e 12. Basic consump ion, PV p oduc ion, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o
19 Ma ch 2022.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 27
Figu e 13 shows ha by o e ing a i s cus omised o each EV’s cha ging powe , he
cha ging ime o each EV is be e dis ibu ed depending on i s powe and su plus.
Figu e 12. Basic consump ion, PV p oduc ion, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
Figu e 13. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
Finally, Figu es 14 and 15 p esen he consump ion unde he in luence o TS3, whe e,
whene e su pluses occu , he educed cha ging p ice is o e ed. In addi ion, his sys em
ope a es wi h di ec con ol, modi ying he cha ging powe o he EVs. As illus a ed in
Figu e 14, he EV cha ging consump ion (blue a ea) is pe ec ly aligned wi h he yellow
Figu e 13. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS2 in luence o
19 Ma ch 2022.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 17 o 23
Figu e 13 shows ha by o e ing a i s cus omised o each EV’s cha ging powe , he
cha ging ime o each EV is be e dis ibu ed depending on i s powe and su plus.
Finally, Figu es 14 and 15 p esen he consump ion unde he in luence o TS3, whe e,
whene e su pluses occu , he educed cha ging p ice is o e ed. In addi ion, his sys em
ope a es wi h di ec con ol, modi ying he cha ging powe o he EVs. As illus a ed in
Figu e 14, he EV cha ging consump ion (blue a ea) is pe ec ly aligned wi h he yellow
cu e (PV su plus), wi hou consuming om he g id. The same esul can be seen in
Figu e 15, whe e he EVs s a cha ging om he i s ins an whe e PV su pluses occu ,
and by modi ying EV cha ging powe , no elec ici y is consumed om he g id.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 o 27
cu e (PV su plus), wi hou consuming om he g id. The same esul can be seen in Fig-
u e 15, whe e he EVs s a cha ging om he i s ins an whe e PV su pluses occu , and
by modi ying EV cha ging powe , no elec ici y is consumed om he g id.
Figu e 14. Basic consump ion. PV p oduc ion and EV cha ging consump ion unde TS3 in luence
o 19 Ma ch 2022.
Figu e 15. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS3 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
I is app op ia e o men ion ha he simula ions pe o med a e made unde he as-
sump ion ha human beha iou is ideal. Tha is, all EV use s would be willing o modi y
hei ehicle cha ging schedule. Howe e , a e conduc ing a su ey among he membe s
Figu e 14. Basic consump ion. PV p oduc ion and EV cha ging consump ion unde TS3 in luence o
19 Ma ch 2022.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 o 27
cu e (PV su plus), wi hou consuming om he g id. The same esul can be seen in Fig-
u e 15, whe e he EVs s a cha ging om he i s ins an whe e PV su pluses occu , and
by modi ying EV cha ging powe , no elec ici y is consumed om he g id.
Figu e 14. Basic consump ion. PV p oduc ion and EV cha ging consump ion unde TS3 in luence
o 19 Ma ch 2022.
Figu e 15. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS3 in luence o 19
Ma ch 2022.
I is app op ia e o men ion ha he simula ions pe o med a e made unde he as-
sump ion ha human beha iou is ideal. Tha is, all EV use s would be willing o modi y
hei ehicle cha ging schedule. Howe e , a e conduc ing a su ey among he membe s
Figu e 15. G id consump ion, PV ene gy su plus, and EV consump ion unde TS3 in luence o
19 Ma ch 2022.
I is app op ia e o men ion ha he simula ions pe o med a e made unde he
assump ion ha human beha iou is ideal. Tha is, all EV use s would be willing o modi y
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 18 o 23
hei ehicle cha ging schedule. Howe e , a e conduc ing a su ey among he membe s
o he CSC p ojec , he opinion o he use s and hei likelihood o modi y hei cha ging
schedule will be conside ed.
Finally, Table 1compiles he SCR alues o all he cases and he cos o he EV cha ges.
Rega ding he SCR alues, i s ly, i should be no ed ha on 19 Ma ch 2022, a conside able
PV su plus was eco ded, eaching 30 kW. Fu he mo e, only wo EVs we e egis e ed a he
cha ging poin ha day. Conside ing his ac , i was clea ly impossible o achie e a 100%
SCR. The emaining PV su plus, i.e., ha no consumed by he EV, could be consumed, a
leas pa ially, by he emaining lexible loads o he o he se en consump ion poin s o he
CSC. Fu u e wo k will analyse how he SCR could be u he inc eased.
Table 1. SCR and cha ge cos alues o 19 Ma ch 2022.
SCR Cha ging P ice
EV1 EV2
Basic consump ion 51.13% - -
O iginal EV cha ge 56.54% EUR 3.19 EUR 20.34
EV cha ge wi h TS1 76.32% EUR 2.18 EUR 11.38
EV cha ge wi h TS2 77.96% EUR 1.99 EUR 10.99
EV cha ge wi h TS3 78.90% EUR 1.77 EUR 10.72
4.1.2. Di e en Cha ac e is ic Days Analysis
Two o he days wi h di e en cha ac e is ics a e analysed. Figu e 16 compiles he
cha ging pa e ns unde he in luence o he h ee a i s on 9 Feb ua y 2022, whe e a single
EV wi h a powe o 11 kW was cha ged. The EV is cha ged wi h TS1 as he su plus exceeds
he 7 kW h eshold a some imes. Rega ding TS2, i is no applied o his EV since he
su plus does no each 11 kW. Finally, wi h TS3, he EV is cha ged as soon as PV su plus
ene gy is a ailable, wi hou he need o consume om he g id. As a as SCR is conce ned,
wi h TS1, he SCR inc eases om 90.49% o 93.27%, while wi h TS3, i inc eases o 94.18%.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 o 27
Figu e 16. Cha ging pae n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he influence o he h ee p oposed
a iffs o 9 Feb ua y 2022.
Figu e 17. Cha ging pae n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he influence o he h ee p oposed
a iffs o 6 Ap il 2022.
4.2. Analysis o he Effec o he Th ee TSs on he SCR o e One and Six Mon hs
Figu e 18 p esen s he SCR o all days whe e cha ging occu s du ing he mon h o
Ma ch 2022, as long as he basic SCR is below 100% (i.e., he e a e PV su pluses). SCR
alues a e depic ed o he basic consump ion, he o iginal cha ging eco ded by he
Cha ge and Pa king manage , and he h ee designed TSs. TS3 always ob ains he highes
SCR alues. On he o he hand, mos o he ime, TS2 ob ains highe SCRs han TS1. In
Figu e 16. Cha ging pa e n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he in luence o he h ee p oposed
a i s o 9 Feb ua y 2022.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 19 o 23
Figu e 17 examines he si ua ion o 6 Ap il 2022, whe e he e a e almos no PV
su pluses, and he basic SCR is 98.66%. Tha day, as he su pluses do no each he 7
kW h eshold equi ed o TS1, his TS emains unapplied. Unde TS2, a educed p ice
is o e ed o he i s wo EVs ha ha e a cha ging powe o 6.6 kW. The hi d EV wi h a
powe o 7.4 kW is no cha ged. Indeed, as in TS1, he su plus does no each 7 kW. Wi h
TS2, he SCR inc eases o 99.25%. Las ly, wi h TS3, all su pluses a e consumed, eaching a
SCR o 100%.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 o 27
Figu e 16. Cha ging pae n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he influence o he h ee p oposed
a iffs o 9 Feb ua y 2022.
Figu e 17. Cha ging pae n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he influence o he h ee p oposed
a iffs o 6 Ap il 2022.
4.2. Analysis o he Effec o he Th ee TSs on he SCR o e One and Six Mon hs
Figu e 18 p esen s he SCR o all days whe e cha ging occu s du ing he mon h o
Ma ch 2022, as long as he basic SCR is below 100% (i.e., he e a e PV su pluses). SCR
alues a e depic ed o he basic consump ion, he o iginal cha ging eco ded by he
Cha ge and Pa king manage , and he h ee designed TSs. TS3 always ob ains he highes
SCR alues. On he o he hand, mos o he ime, TS2 ob ains highe SCRs han TS1. In
Figu e 17. Cha ging pa e n and cha ging in o ma ion unde he in luence o he h ee p oposed
a i s o 6 Ap il 2022.
4.2. Analysis o he E ec o he Th ee TSs on he SCR o e One and Six Mon hs
Figu e 18 p esen s he SCR o all days whe e cha ging occu s du ing he mon h o
Ma ch 2022, as long as he basic SCR is below 100% (i.e., he e a e PV su pluses). SCR
alues a e depic ed o he basic consump ion, he o iginal cha ging eco ded by he Cha ge
and Pa king manage , and he h ee designed TSs. TS3 always ob ains he highes SCR
alues. On he o he hand, mos o he ime, TS2 ob ains highe SCRs han TS1. In addi ion,
i is no iceable ha on days wi h a high basic SCR, he inc ease in SCR is no as signi ican
as on he o he days.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 o 27
addi ion, i is no iceable ha on days wi h a high basic SCR, he inc ease in SCR is no as
significan as on he o he days.
Figu e 18. SCR o basic consump ion, o iginal cha ge, and h ee TS.
Table 2 p esen s he a e age SCR alues o each mon h and he o e all a e age o
all simula ed days o e he 6 mon hs. The o e all a e age basic SCR is 83.82%. The SCR
ob ained wi h he o iginal cha ge o he EVs is 86.54%. The a e age SCR s ands a 90.86%
wi h TS1, 91.04% wi h TS2, and 93.09% wi h TS3. I can be concluded ha hese TSs clea ly
show an imp o emen in sel -consump ion, achie ing an inc ease in SCR o 8.8% when
applying TS3, o ins ance.
Table 2. A e age SCR alues and SCR inc ease o each mon h.
Mon h
SCR
Values
(%)
SCR
Inc ease
/
Basic Consump ion
Basic
O iginal
Cha ge
TS1
TS2
TS3
O iginal
Cha ge
TS1
TS2
TS3
No embe
92.09
94.20
95.07
95.54
98.01
1.2%
1.8%
4.3%
1.2%
Decembe 89.90 92.04 94.10 94.10 96.71 2.4% 2.4% 5.3% 2.4%
Janua y 84.42 87.58 95.27 96.51 97.73 10.4% 11.8% 13.3% 10.4%
Feb ua y 84.41 87.51 91.16 90.96 92.98 5.6% 5.3% 7.6% 5.6%
Ma ch
79.87
82.43
87.90
88.07
89.32
8.4%
8.5%
10.3%
8.4%
Ap il 72.25 75.47 81.66 81.08 83.77 9.0% 8.3% 11.9% 9.0%
Mean 83.82 86.54 90.86 91.04 93.09 6.2% 6.4% 8.8% 6.2%
4.3. Compa ison o he SCR Inc ease in he Th ee TSs wi h he O iginal Cha ge
Figu e 19 p esen s ou pie cha s di ided in o anges based on he SCR alues. Fo
ins ance, he yellow ange shows all days when he SCR is be ween 90% and 100%. Figu e
19a displays SCR alues ela ed o he o iginal cha ge egis e ed by he Cha ge and Pa k-
ing manage . Resul s ob ained wi h TS1, 2, and 3 a e shown in Figu e 19b–d, espec i ely.
I is no iceable ha in 21.7% o he days, SCR alues below 70% a e ob ained wi h uncon-
olled cha ging. Con e sely, wi h TS1, hese alues a e educed o 10.8%, 12% wi h TS2,
and 10.8% wi h TS3. On he o he hand, when examining highe SCR, wi hou TS, a SCR
highe han 90% is ob ained only 48.6% o he ime, while hese da a inc ease o 60.8%
wi h TS1, 62.2% wi h TS2, and 68.9% wi h TS3.
Figu e 18. SCR o basic consump ion, o iginal cha ge, and h ee TS.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 20 o 23
Table 2p esen s he a e age SCR alues o each mon h and he o e all a e age o
all simula ed days o e he 6 mon hs. The o e all a e age basic SCR is 83.82%. The SCR
ob ained wi h he o iginal cha ge o he EVs is 86.54%. The a e age SCR s ands a 90.86%
wi h TS1, 91.04% wi h TS2, and 93.09% wi h TS3. I can be concluded ha hese TSs clea ly
show an imp o emen in sel -consump ion, achie ing an inc ease in SCR o 8.8% when
applying TS3, o ins ance.
Table 2. A e age SCR alues and SCR inc ease o each mon h.
Mon h
SCR Values (%) SCR Inc ease/Basic Consump ion
Basic O iginal
Cha ge TS1 TS2 TS3 O iginal
Cha ge TS1 TS2 TS3
No embe
92.09 94.20 95.07 95.54 98.01 1.2% 1.8% 4.3% 1.2%
Decembe 89.90 92.04 94.10 94.10 96.71 2.4% 2.4% 5.3% 2.4%
Janua y 84.42 87.58 95.27 96.51 97.73 10.4% 11.8% 13.3% 10.4%
Feb ua y 84.41 87.51 91.16 90.96 92.98 5.6% 5.3% 7.6% 5.6%
Ma ch 79.87 82.43 87.90 88.07 89.32 8.4% 8.5% 10.3% 8.4%
Ap il 72.25 75.47 81.66 81.08 83.77 9.0% 8.3% 11.9% 9.0%
Mean 83.82 86.54 90.86 91.04 93.09 6.2% 6.4% 8.8% 6.2%
4.3. Compa ison o he SCR Inc ease in he Th ee TSs wi h he O iginal Cha ge
Figu e 19 p esen s ou pie cha s di ided in o anges based on he SCR alues.
Fo ins ance, he yellow ange shows all days when he SCR is be ween 90% and 100%.
Figu e 19a displays SCR alues ela ed o he o iginal cha ge egis e ed by he Cha ge
and Pa king manage . Resul s ob ained wi h TS1, 2, and 3 a e shown in Figu e 19b–d,
espec i ely. I is no iceable ha in 21.7% o he days, SCR alues below 70% a e ob ained
wi h uncon olled cha ging. Con e sely, wi h TS1, hese alues a e educed o 10.8%, 12%
wi h TS2, and 10.8% wi h TS3. On he o he hand, when examining highe SCR, wi hou
TS, a SCR highe han 90% is ob ained only 48.6% o he ime, while hese da a inc ease o
60.8% wi h TS1, 62.2% wi h TS2, and 68.9% wi h TS3.
Ene gies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 o 27
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figu e 19. (a) Pe cen age o SCRs by anges o he o iginal cha ge; (b) pe cen age o SCRs by anges
wi h he TS1; (c) pe cen age o SCRs by anges wi h he TS2; (d) pe cen age o SCRs by anges wi h
he TS3.
4.4. Analysis o he Economic Sa ings o he Th ee TS
Table 3 compiles he a e age pe cen age sa ings o each mon h om he EV use ’s
poin o iew. Wi h TS3, mo e ene gy is consumed om PV su plus and less om he
g id. The e o e, i is also he TS ha p o ides he mos economic sa ings, achie ing sa -
ings o 32%. Finally, he alues o he global a e age o e he six mon hs indica e ha bo h
TS1 and TS2 achie e he same sa ings o 22%. As o TS3, an a e age o 25% sa ings is
ob ained o each EV cha ge.
Table 3. Mon hly a e age sa ings o he h ee p oposed a iffs.
Mon h
Mean
Sa ings
w/TS1
Mean
Sa ings
w/TS2
Mean
Sa ings
w/TS3
No embe 2021
10%
13%
11%
Decembe 2021 14% 24% 26%
Janua y 2022 31% 26% 27%
Feb ua y 2022 29% 23% 25%
Ma ch 2022
30%
26%
32%
Ap il 2022 21% 21% 30%
Mean 22% 22% 25%
5. Conclusions and Fu u e Wo ks
The esea ch s udy p esen ed in his pape analyses h ee TSs o EV cha ging based
on PV su plus wi hin a CSC p ojec . Con a y o mos a icles ound in he scien ific li e -
a u e, he main objec i e o his wo k is o inc ease he SCR a he han o inc ease he
Figu e 19. (a) Pe cen age o SCRs by anges o he o iginal cha ge; (b) pe cen age o SCRs by anges
wi h he TS1; (c) pe cen age o SCRs by anges wi h he TS2; (d) pe cen age o SCRs by anges wi h
he TS3.
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 21 o 23
4.4. Analysis o he Economic Sa ings o he Th ee TS
Table 3compiles he a e age pe cen age sa ings o each mon h om he EV use ’s
poin o iew. Wi h TS3, mo e ene gy is consumed om PV su plus and less om he g id.
The e o e, i is also he TS ha p o ides he mos economic sa ings, achie ing sa ings o
32%. Finally, he alues o he global a e age o e he six mon hs indica e ha bo h TS1
and TS2 achie e he same sa ings o 22%. As o TS3, an a e age o 25% sa ings is ob ained
o each EV cha ge.
Table 3. Mon hly a e age sa ings o he h ee p oposed a i s.
Mon h
Mean Sa ings w/TS1 Mean Sa ings w/TS2 Mean Sa ings w/TS3
No embe 2021 10% 13% 11%
Decembe 2021 14% 24% 26%
Janua y 2022 31% 26% 27%
Feb ua y 2022 29% 23% 25%
Ma ch 2022 30% 26% 32%
Ap il 2022 21% 21% 30%
Mean 22% 22% 25%
5. Conclusions and Fu u e Wo ks
The esea ch s udy p esen ed in his pape analyses h ee TSs o EV cha ging based
on PV su plus wi hin a CSC p ojec . Con a y o mos a icles ound in he scien i ic
li e a u e, he main objec i e o his wo k is o inc ease he SCR a he han o inc ease
he economic bene i s o a cha ging s a ion owne . In addi ion o he inc ease in he SCR,
EV use s also bene i om a educ ion in he cha ging cos . As h ee di e en a i s a e
designed and analysed, s akeholde s can assess which case sui s hem bes , besides ha ing
easy eplicabili y.
O e all, he beha iou o he TSs can be di ided in o wo cases: when PV su pluses
a e low and when hey a e high. When hey a e low, he e a e o en scena ios whe e TS1
and TS2 a e no applied, as he su pluses do no each he se h eshold. TS3 is always
o e ed. Howe e , i is usually necessa y o consume om he g id o comple e he cha ging
o he EVs. In hese cases, he SCR is usually e y high, eaching 100%. Rega ding days
whe e he e is a signi ican amoun o su plus, gene ally, all h ee TSs a e o e ed. Wi h a
la ge su plus o PV, he SCR ends o be lowe , bu he inc ease in he SCR hanks o he TS
is highligh ed.
As o which TS is he bes , all o hem ha e hei ad an ages and disad an ages. TS1 is
he simples o implemen . Addi ionally, i he su plus exceeds he 7 kW h eshold, all EVs
a e cha ged. As a d awback, TS1 may lead o unde u ilisa ion o PV su plus. Conside ing
he 6-mon h simula ions, TS1 esul s in a 6.2% inc ease in SCR compa ed o he o iginal
cha ge, while he cos o EV cha ge is educed by 22%.
Conce ning TS2, i s main ad an age lies in i s signi ican po en ial on days wi h
subs an ial PV su plus. Howe e , i he e a e no high su plus le els, i could esul in
no o e ing he a i o all EVs. O e all, wi h TS2, he SCR inc ease is 6.4%, and he EV
cha ging cos is 22% lowe .
Finally, TS3 p o es o be he mos bene icial sys em ega ding he SCR and he eco-
nomic sa ings o he use s, wi h a SCR inc ease o 8.8% and a educ ion o he cos o 25%.
I s ad an ages lie in o e ing a educed p ice ega dless o su plus le els and con olling
he cha ging powe , he eby aking ad an age o all he po en ial o sel -consump ion. On
he o he hand, i s implemen a ion complexi y and ela ed cos s s and as a disad an age.
I is impo an o no e ha di ec con ol o EV cha ging is no always possible,
especially when cha ging poin s a e public. The e o e, al hough i has been shown ha
di ec con ol leads o highe SCR inc eases, i is also essen ial o analyse ways in which
highe SCR can be achie ed h ough indi ec con ol o EV cha ging. In addi ion, indi ec
con ols a e less cos ly o implemen .
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 22 o 23
This s udy is ca ied ou as pa o a CSC p ojec , in ol ing eigh consump ion poin s
and PV p oduc ion. To conduc he calcula ions p esen ed in his a icle, his o ical eco ded
da a we e used. Howe e , in he u u e, he eal- ime EMS will use p edic ions o bo h PV
consump ion and p oduc ion o calcula e he PV su plus.
Rega ding o he u u e s udies, di e en ac ions a e planned. On he one hand, i
is impo an o be e ep esen he unce ain y o human beha iou . Fo his pu pose, a
su ey o CSC membe s conduc ed by he e aile will be conside ed. These membe s will
be asked abou hei willingness o change he EV cha ging ime. Addi ionally, an analysis
o he scien i ic li e a u e will be ca ied ou o de e mine how EV use s eac o cha ging
a i s. Acco ding o he esul s o hese s udies, p obabili y ac o s ha depend on he le el
o change in he cha ging ime will be conside ed in he simula ion. Finally, he con idence
in e al o he PV p oduc ion and he consump ion p edic ions will be conside ed.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualisa ion, G.E. and H.C.; me hodology, G.E. and H.C.; so wa e,
G.E.; alida ion, H.C., A.E. and T.T.L.; o mal analysis, G.E.; in es iga ion, G.E.; da a cu a ion, G.E.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, G.E.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, G.E., H.C., A.E., and T.T.L.;
isualisa ion, G.E.; supe ision, H.C.; p ojec adminis a ion, H.C. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a ela ed o his s udy will be a ailable upon eques .
Acknowledgmen s: We would like o hank he enewable ene gy gene a ion and consump ion
coope a i e GoiEne o hei assis ance in p o iding us wi h in o ma ion abou he CSC p ojec o
Aduna and o he his o ical da a collec ed.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
1.
CORDIS EU Resea ch Resul s. Enabling a Success ul T ansi ion owa ds Elec ic-Powe ed Road T anspo . A ailable online: h ps:
//co dis.eu opa.eu/a icle/id/443730-enabling-a-success ul- ansi ion- owa ds-elec ic-powe ed- oad- anspo (accessed on
17 No embe 2023).
2.
Eu opean Pa liamen . EU Ban on he Sale o New Pe ol and Diesel Ca s om 2035 Explained. A ailable online:
h ps://www.eu opa l.eu opa.eu/news/en/headlines/economy/20221019STO44572/eu-ban-on-sale-o -new-pe ol-and-
diesel-ca s- om-2035-explained (accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
3.
Eu opean Pa liamen . Reducing Ca Emissions: New CO
2
Ta ge s o Ca s and Vans Explained. A ailable online:
h ps://www.eu opa l.eu opa.eu/news/en/headlines/socie y/20180920STO14027/ educing-ca -emissions-new-co2- a ge s-
o -ca s-and- ans-explained (accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
4.
IEA, In e na ional Ene gy Agency. Global EV Ou look 2023. A ailable online: h ps://www.iea.o g/ epo s/global-e -ou look-
2023 (accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
5.
Eu opean Pa liamen . Ca -Recha ging S a ions Should Be A ailable E e y 60 km, Say MEPs. A ailable online: h ps:
//www.eu opa l.eu opa.eu/news/en/p ess- oom/20221014IPR43206/ca - echa ging-s a ions-should-be-a ailable-e e y-60
-km-say-meps (accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
6.
Mangipin o, A.; Lomba di, F.; San i o, F.D.; Pa iˇce i´c, M.; Quoilin, S.; Colombo, E. Impac o mass-scale deploymen o elec ic
ehicles and bene i s o sma cha ging ac oss all Eu opean coun ies. Appl. Ene gy 2022,312, 118676. [C ossRe ]
7.
Su, J.; Lie, T.T.; Zamo a, R. Modelling o la ge-scale elec ic ehicles cha ging demand: A New Zealand case s udy. Elec . Powe
Sys . Res. 2019,167, 171–182. [C ossRe ]
8.
Salah, F.; Ilg, J.P.; Fla h, C.M.; Basse, H.; an Din he , C. Impac o elec ic ehicles on dis ibu ion subs a ions: A Swiss case s udy.
Appl. Ene gy 2015,137, 88–96. [C ossRe ]
9.
Gu ho , F.; Klempp, N.; Hu endiek, K. Quan i ica ion o he Flexibili y Po en ial h ough Sma Cha ging o Ba e y Elec ic
Vehicles and he E ec s on he Fu u e Elec ici y Supply Sys em in Ge many. Ene gies 2021,14, 2383. [C ossRe ]
10.
Venka aman, A.; Hug, G.; Scha ne , C.; Vayá, M.G. Op imal Design o Time-o -Use Ta i s using Bile el Op imiza ion. In
P oceedings o he IEEE PES Inno a i e Sma G id Technologies Con e ence Eu ope (ISGT-Eu ope), No i Sad, Se bia, 10–12
Oc obe 2022; pp. 1–5. [C ossRe ]
11.
Va dakas, J.S.; Zo ba, N.; Ve ikoukis, C.V. A Su ey on Demand Response P og ams in Sma G ids: P icing Me hods and
Op imiza ion Algo i hms. IEEE Commun. Su . Tu o . 2015,17, 152–178. [C ossRe ]
12. He e , K. Residen ial implemen a ion o c i ical-peak p icing o elec ici y. Ene gy Policy 2007,35, 2121–2130. [C ossRe ]
13.
Li, R.; Wang, Z.; Gu, C.; Li, F.; Wu, H. A no el ime-o -use a i design based on Gaussian Mix u e Model. Appl. Ene gy 2016,162,
1530–1536. [C ossRe ]
Ene gies 2024,17, 1806 23 o 23
14.
Rahman, A.; Aziz, T.; Masood, N.-A.; Deeba, S.R. A ime o use a i scheme o demand side managemen o esiden ial ene gy
consume s in Bangladesh. Ene gy Rep. 2021,7, 3189–3198. [C ossRe ]
15.
Kandpal, B.; Pa eek, P.; Ve ma, A. A obus day-ahead scheduling s a egy o EV cha ging s a ions in unbalanced dis ibu ion
g id. Ene gy 2022,249, 123737. [C ossRe ]
16.
Hu, Z.; Zhan, K.; Zhang, H.; Song, Y. P icing mechanisms design o guiding elec ic ehicle cha ging o ill load alley. Appl.
Ene gy 2016,178, 155–163. [C ossRe ]
17.
Zhang, L.; Yin, Q.; Zhu, W.; Lyu, L.; Jiang, L.; Koh, L.; Cai, G. Resea ch on he o de ly cha ging and discha ging mechanism o
elec ic ehicles conside ing a el cha ac e is ics and ca bon quo a. IEEE T ans. T ansp. Elec i . 2023. [C ossRe ]
18.
Tao, J.; Huang, D.; Li, D.; Yang, X.; Ling, C. P icing s a egy and cha ging managemen o PV-assis ed elec ic ehicle cha ging
s a ion. In P oceedings o he 2018 13 h IEEE Con e ence on Indus ial Elec onics and Applica ions (ICIEA), Wuhan, China, 31
May–2 June 2018; pp. 577–581. [C ossRe ]
19.
Dai, Y.; Qi, Y.; Li, L.; Wang, B.; Gao, H. A dynamic p icing scheme o elec ic ehicle in pho o ol aic cha ging s a ion based on
S ackelbe g game conside ing use sa is ac ion. Compu . Ind. Eng. 2021,154, 107117. [C ossRe ]
20.
Gudmunds, D.; Nyholm, E.; Taljega d, M.; Odenbe ge , M. Sel -consump ion and sel -su iciency o household sola p oduce s
when in oducing an elec ic ehicle. Renew. Ene gy 2020,148, 1200–1215. [C ossRe ]
21.
Roselli, C.; Sasso, M. In eg a ion be ween elec ic ehicle cha ging and PV sys em o inc ease sel -consump ion o an o ice
applica ion. Ene gy Con e s. Manag. 2016,130, 130–140. [C ossRe ]
22.
an de Kam, M.; an Sa k, W. Sma cha ging o elec ic ehicles wi h pho o ol aic powe and ehicle- o-g id echnology in a
mic og id; a case s udy. Appl. Ene gy 2015,152, 20–30. [C ossRe ]
23.
Ba one, G.; B usco, G.; Menni i, D.; Pinna elli, A.; Polizzi, G.; So en ino, N.; Vizza, P.; Bu gio, A. How Sma Me e ing and Sma
Cha ging may Help a Local Ene gy Communi y in Collec i e Sel -Consump ion in P esence o Elec ic Vehicles. Ene gies 2020,13, 4163.
[C ossRe ]
24.
Fach izal, R.; Munkhamma , J. Imp o ed Pho o ol aic Sel -Consump ion in Residen ial Buildings wi h Dis ibu ed and Cen al-
ized Sma Cha ging o Elec ic Vehicles. Ene gies 2020,13, 1153. [C ossRe ]
25.
Zapi ain, I.; E xega ai, G.; He nández, J.; Boussaada, Z.; Aginako, N.; Camblong, H. Sho - e m elec ici y consump ion o ecas ing
wi h NARX, LSTM, and SVR o a single building: Small da a se app oach. Ene gy Sou ces Pa A Reco e y U il. En i on. E . 2022,
44, 6898–6908. [C ossRe ]
26.
E xega ai, G.; Zapi ain, I.; Camblong, H.; Uga emendia, J.; He nandez, J.O. Cu ea. Pho o ol aic Ene gy P oduc ion Fo ecas ing
in a Sho Te m Ho izon: Compa ison be ween Analy ical and Machine Lea ning Models. Appl. Sci. 2022,12, 12171. [C ossRe ]
27. Euskalme . A ailable online: h ps://www.euskalme .euskadi.eus/inicio/ (accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
28.
GoiEne . Renewable Ene gy Gene a ion and Consump ion Coope a i e. A ailable online: h ps://www.goiene .com/es/
(accessed on 17 No embe 2023).
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
